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Particle dynamics
Newton's laws:
Hooke's Law
Dynamics of circular motion
_________________________________________
Question. Top view of ball. What is its trajectory after it leaves the race?
d c b
then what?
Aristotle:
_v = 0 is "natural" state
_ = 0 is "natural" state
a
(not in syllabus)
Newton's Laws
First law "zero (total) force zero acceleration"
(It's actually a bit more subtle. More formally, we should say:
If F
_ = 0, there exist reference frames in which _a = 0
called
Inertial frames
2
In inertial frames:
Second law
F
_ = m _a
and
W
_ = mg _g
F
_ = m _a
_a is already defined, but this leaves us with a puzzle:
i)
ii)
iii)
Is it a physical law?
iv)
v)
How?
--------------------------------------------------------------i)
Given one mass, we could calibrate many forces by measuring the a they produced.
ii)
Similarly, for any one F, we could calibrate many m's by the accelerations produced
iii)
The 2nd Law is the observation that the m's and F's thus defined are consistent. eg
Having used standard m to calibrate F, now produce 2F (eg two identical F systems).
Is a now doubled? Every such experiment is a test of Newton's second law.
definition
observation:
3
Another way of writing Newton 2: To any body may be ascribed a (scalar) constant, mass, such that the acceleration
produced in two bodies by a given force is inversely proportional to their masses,
i.e. for same F,
m2
a1
m 1 = a2
We already have metre, second, choose a standard body for kg, then choose units of F (Newtons) such that
F = ma
(this eqn. is laws 1&2, definition of mass and units of force) So, how big are Newtons?
Newton 3: "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or the mutual actions of two bodies
upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts"
Or
Forces always occur in pairs, F and F , one acting on each of a pair of interacting bodies.
Third law
FAB = FBA
Why so?
Important conclusion: internal forces in a system add to zero. So we can now write the 1st and 2nd laws:
Fexternal = m a
4
Example Where is centre of earth-moon orbit?
| Fe |
NB sign
conventions
= m =
= 81.3
m
7.36 1022 kg
re
(i)
gives
(ii)
5
Using Newton's laws
Newton's 2nd
= ma
F external
= ma
draw diagrams ('free body diagrams') to show only the external forces on the body of interest
Newton's second law is a vector equation
write components of Newton's second law in 2 (or 3) directions
Example. As the bus takes a steady turn with radius 8 m at constant speed, you notice that a mass on a string
hangs at 30 to the vertical. How fast is the bus going?
Draw a diagram with physics
string
30
T
m
W
W
The mass (and the bus) are in circular motion, so we can apply Newton 2:
v2
F
= ma = m r
(the acceleration is centripetal)
horiz
Only the tension has a horizontal component, so
v2
T sin 30 = m r
(i)
Need one more eqn: mass is not falling down, ie
vertical acceleration = 0, so
T cos 30 = mg
Dived (i) by (ii) to eliminate T:
v2 1
tan 30 = m r mg
> v =
(ii)
Dont stop yet! First, check the dimensions. Reasonable? Suggestions? Problems?
6
Problem. Horse and cart. Wheels roll freely.
Let's go!
Fc
Fc
Fc
Fc
Fg
Fg
Fc
F =m a = m a
c
c c
Fc
Fg
F F = m a
g
Fg
In principle, the earth accelerates to the left. But m
>> m + m
h
>> m so a
h
<< a
7
"light" ropes etc.
i)
wagon:
ii)
rope: F - F = m a
iii)
truck: F + F
>
(ii)/(i)
F = m a.
r
ext
= ma
t
F1 F2 mra
F2 = mwa
if m << m , F = F .
r
important result:
Forces at opposite ends of light ropes etc are equal and opposite.
Tension. When the mass of a string, coupling etc is negligible, forces at opposite ends are equal and opposite and we
call this the tension in the string.
8
Example. (one dimensional motion only) Consider a train. Wheels roll freely. Locomotive exerts horizontal
force F on the track. What are the tensions T and T in the two couplings?
1
car 2
car 1
T2
loco
m
T1
F
m
F
T2
T = ma = F/3
2
T1
T = 2ma
1
Newton's 3rd:
9
Hookes law
No applied force
(x = 0)
Under tension
x>0
Note that F
_ spring is in the opposite direction to x.
Experimentally (see Physclips example above), |_
F s| |x| over small range of x
F = kx
Hooke's Law.
linear elastic behaviour - more in S2.
Linear approximations are v. useful!
www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/elasticity.htm
10
Why is linear elasticity so common?
Consider the intermolecular forces F and energies U and separate into attractive and repulsive components:
See homework problem on interatomic forces
11
Mass and weight
(inertial) mass m defined by F = ma
observation:
near earth's surface and without air,
all bodies fall with same a ( = g)
weight W = mg
What is your weight?
kg wt = weight of 1 kg = mg = 9.8 N
Why is W m?
Why is mg mi?
Mach's Principle
12
Example Grav. field on moon gm= 1.7 ms-2. An astronaut weighs 800 N on Earth, and, while jumping, exerts
2kN while body moves 0.3 m. What is his weight on moon? How high does he jump on earth and on moon?
mgE = WE > m =
800 N
= 82 kg
9.8 ms-2
vi = 0, vf = vj
vi = vj, vf = 0
vy
vj
y
h
y
While on ground:
F
v 2 v 2 = 2a y = 2 m y
j
o
j
Earth > v = 3.0 ms1
j
h = 0.5 m.
E
vj2
> h = 2g
h = 4m
m
13
Example
Light pulley, light inextensible string. What are the accelerations of the
masses?
A number of different conventions are possible. The important thing is to
define yours carefully and use it consistently.
Let a be acceleration (down) of m1 = acceleration (up) of m2.
Take up as positive, look at the free body diagram for m1: we are only interested in the vertical direction. By
assumption, the acceleration is down. T is up. m1g is down.
So Newton 2 for m1 gives:
T m1g = m1a
T m2g = + m2a
subtract:
14
Contact forces
The normal component of a contact force is called the normal force N. The
component in the plane of contact is called the friction force F .
F contact
F
friction
If there is no relative motion, static friction (whose direction opposes applied force)
| Ff | = k N
| Ff | s N
n.b.:
Often < .
k
15
.
Example. is gradually increased to c when sliding begins. What
is c? What is a at c?
(as before, free body diagram, N2:)
Newton 2 in normal direction:
N - mg cos = 0
(i)
No sliding: a = 0
(ii) mg sin = F s N
f
(i)
= s mg cos
mg sin s mg cos
tan s, c = tan1s
Sliding at = c: a > 0
Ff
(ii) a = g sin c m
k N
= g sin c m
(i)
we had
= g sin c kg cosc
c = tan1s
so
a = g cosc (s k)
(ii)
16
Example. Rear wheel drive car, 3 kN weight on each front wheel,
2 kN on rear. Rubber-road:
s = 1.5, k = 1.1
(mass of car)*g = weight = 2(3 kN + 2 kN) = 10 kN
m = 1 tonne
Neglect rotation of car during accelerations. Assume that brakes produce 1.8 times as much force on front
wheels as on back (why? Look at brake discs and pads). (i) What is max forward acceleration without skidding?
What is maximum deceleration for (ii) not skidding? (iii) 4 wheel skid?
(i)
F
2 * 2.9kN
amax = m =
= 5.8 ms2
1000kg
Stopping.
)
2,
max total friction = (front + rear) = ('2 + 1.8+* .sWF
wheels)
= 1400 kg.wt = 14 kN
Fmax
14 kN
-2
m = 1000 kg = 14 ms
ii)
amax =
iii)
Fk
k W
a= m =
= ... = 11 ms-2
m
Questions:
Does area of rubber-road contact make a difference?
Does the size of the tire make a difference?
17
Centripetal acceleration and force
Circular motion with = const. and v const. eg bus going round a corner
F = ma centrip
T
resultant
Resultant force produces acceleration in the horizontal direction, towards the centre of the motion
Centripetal force, centripetal acceleration
18
Example Conical pendulum. (Uniform circular motion.) What is the frequency?
Free body diagram
Fy = 0
T cos W = 0
mg
T = cos
Horizontal:
mv2
r = mac = T sin
=
v2
r = g tan
v =
2 r
=
period
f =
mg sin
cos
rg tan
rg tan
1
1
= 2
period
g tan
r
19
Example. Foolhardy lecturer swings a bucket of bricks in a vertical circle.
How fast should he swing so that the bricks stay in contact with the bucket at
the top of the trajectory?
mg + N = mac
m
W
a centrip
N0
so mac mg
how to express ac?
v2
ac = r = r2 =
T = 2
r
ac
)2, 2
r(' T +*
r ~ 1m > T 2 s.
r
g
T is easy to measure
20
Example.
Apply force F at to horizontal. Mass m on floor, coefficients s and k.
For any given , what F is required to make the mass move?
Eliminate 2 unknowns N and Ff > F(, s,m,g)
Stationary if
Ff s N
(1)
Newton 2 vertical:
N = mg + F sin (2)
Newton 2 horizontal:
F cos = Ff
(3)
(using (2))
(*)
(F very large)
= crit = tan1(1/s).
If < c, then (cos s sin ) > 0
stationary if
smg
F cos sin
s
smg
i.e. moves when F > Fcrit = cos sin
s
What if
(cos s sin )
= 0
= c, ?
(*) stationary if
smg
F cos sin
s
21
Example Plane travels in horizontal circle, speed v, radius r. For given v, what is the r for which the normal
force exerted by the plane on the pilot = twice her weight? What is the direction of this force?
v2
Centripetal force F = m r = N cos
Vertical forces: N sin = mg
)v4
,
(
2
2
2
N = m ' 2 + g +*
r
eliminate :
) N2
,
(
2+ =
g
'm2
*
v4
> r =
r2
v2
N2
g2
m2
mg 1
sin = N = 2
30 above horizontal, towards axis of rotation
Question. Three identical bricks. What is the minimum force you must
apply to hold them still like this?
Ff
N
Definition of s
Ff
mg
Ff s N
Ff
mg
N s = 2
s
Bricks not accelerating horizontally, so normal force from hands = normal force between bricks.
mg
(each) hand must provide 2 horizontally.
s
Vertically, two hands together provide 3mg.
3mg/2
minimum
force from
hands
mg/2 s