International Journal of Tourism Research, Int. J. Tourism Res.

(2014)
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.2014

Exploring Visitor Experiences, Activities and Benets at Three Religious

Tourism Sites
NIGEL BOND1*, JAN PACKER2 and ROY BALLANTYNE2
1
New Museum Project, Western Australian Museum, Welshpool DC, Western Australia, Australia
2
School of Business (Tourism), The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
ABSTRACT
This research examines and compares the experiences of visitors (N = 534) to three different Christian religious heritage sites: Canterbury
Cathedral, the Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham and the Glastonbury Abbey Christian pilgrimage festival. Employing the activity, setting,
experience and benet framework, the ndings indicate that the three religious sites attract visitors who seek different kinds of experiences
and report different kinds of benets. Results indicate that restorative experiences and benets often overshadow the spiritual or cognitive
benets that many believe to be the primary outcomes of religious tourism. These results challenge traditional ideas about what it means to
be a visitor at historical religious sites. Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 19 March 2014; Revised 03 June 2014; Accepted 18 June 2014

key words

religious tourism; visitor experience; pilgrimage; cultural heritage; visitor benets

INTRODUCTION
Religious site tourism is growing in popularity across Europe
and within the UK. Cathedrals in particular make up a significant component of Englands tourism attractions. For example, in 2003, Shackley noted that the 43 Anglican Diocesan
cathedrals in England were at that time attracting in excess
of 30 million visitors per year. The symbiotic relationship
between religious sites, such as cathedrals, and the tourism industry in England is now well recognized (Francis, Manseld,
Williams & Village, 2010). Indeed, the importance of this
relationship was noted as early as 1994 by the Archbishops
Commission on Cathedrals. The Commissioners stated as
follows:
Tourism is of great signicance to cathedrals in terms of
their mission of teaching, evangelism and welcome, and
is an important source of income. Cathedrals also play a
major part in the nations tourism (Heritage & Renewal,
1994: 135).

A common approach in religious tourism literature is to

compare and explore the experiences of different types of
visitors (e.g. pilgrims and tourists) at a single site. Discussions concerning differences in pilgrim and tourist motivations and needs have been well documented and will not be
presented here (refer to Cohen, 1992; Smith, 1992; Coleman
& Eade, 2004; Gatrell & Collins-Kreiner, 2006; Andriotis,
2009; Olsen, 2010; Di Giovine, 2011; Eade, 2011). However, few studies have compared the experiences of visitors
across different kinds of religious sites. This gap in the
religious tourism literature is signicant, as it assumes that
religious sites offer visitors similar kinds of experiences
irrespective of the different functions that individual sites
*Correspondence to: Nigel Bond, New Museum Project, Western Australia
Museum, Locked Bag 49, Welshpool DC, WA, Australia.
E-mail: nigel.bond@museum.wa.gov.au

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

perform. This paper seeks to present an examination and

comparison of the experiences of visitors at three different
types of religious heritage sites.
Many scholars writing about religious heritage tourism
have found that different religious sites have different
functions and have attempted to categorize these (Nolan &
Nolan, 1989, 1992; Rinschede, 1992; Vukonic, 1996, 2002;
Shackley, 2003; Lanquar, 2011). Given the range of religious
heritage sites and locations, it is likely that visitors choose
which to visit, in part, based on their specic motivational
and experiential needs for that particular visit. It is, for
example, likely that a visitors reasons for visiting a small
rural chapel associated with a particular Saint will be
different from their reasons for visiting a grand cathedral.
Similarly, it is likely that the visitor experience at a small
chapel will be different to that offered at a grand cathedral
or at a religious festival held in the grounds of an ancient
ruined abbey.
A comparison of the different kinds of visitor experiences
offered at different types of religious site is timely, as such
comparisons will provide religious heritage site managers
with a detailed insight into the different ways in which individuals use religious sites and the different roles religious
sites play in the lives of visitors. Such information should
underpin the development of site-specic interpretive experiences to meet different visitor needs. As the religious tourism
market becomes increasingly competitive (Weidenfeld &
Ron, 2008), the provision of a diverse range of experiences
designed to meet visitors site-specic needs is essential to
improve visitor satisfaction, drive repeat visitation and ensure funding for the maintenance of heritage site resources.
Understanding the diversity of the religious tourist
experience
Religious tourism is predominantly an experiential product;
however, only a small proportion of the research in this area

N. Bond, J. Packer and R. Ballantyne

has empirically examined what visitors actually experience at
religious sites or the subsequent benets that visitors attribute
to their experiences (Weidenfeld & Ron, 2008). Those
studies exploring experiences and associated benets of
religious tourism focus primarily on spiritual experiences,
to the neglect of others such as social, educational or restorative experiences. This is despite the acknowledgement that
managers of religious sites should offer a range of experiences for visitors (Tirca & Stanciulescu, 2011).
The need to better understand the spiritual and nonspiritual elements of religious tourism is highlighted by
Weidenfeld and Ron (2008), who note that the spiritual and
non-spiritual offerings at religious sites need to complement
each other in order to provide an inclusive visitor experience.
Weidenfeld and Ron further state that little has been written
about the interrelationships between different experiences
and that further studies addressing these relationships are
required (2008:358). Although religious needs are often
considered to be decreasing in importance in a dominantly
post-modern secular market, it is noteworthy that visitation
of religious sites is increasing, both for those with a religious
afliation (Tirca & Stanciulescu, 2011) and those without
(Davie, 2006).
The degree to which faith-based interests impact on the
choice of religious sites to visit has not yet been explored
in the literature, even though religious and non-religious
motivations are a frequent (if not over-represented) point of
comparison in pilgrimage and religious tourism research
(Olsen, 2010). The degree to which faith or religion affects
the decision to seek out a particular kind of religious site is,
however, important as it sits at the heart of the kinds of
experiences that religious sites may present to visitors. For
example, research suggests that religion is not the primary
motivator for visiting a grand cathedral (Hughes, Bond, &
Ballantyne, 2013) but has been shown to be the primary reason that visitors seek out specic pilgrimage shrines such as
Lourdes in France (Raj & Morpeth, 2007).
Accordingly, this paper reports on research undertaken
across three different religious heritage sites to examine and
compare the experiences as perceived by visitors at each. In
so doing, it will provide those responsible for visitor management at such sites a more detailed insight into the different
experiences and benets sought and reported by visitors at
different types of sites and thus inform the provision and
enhancement of a wider range of visitor experiences.
The activity, setting, experience and benet (ASEB)
framework for evaluating the visitor experience
The experiences that visitors have at any destination can be
classied as experiential products (Beeho & Prentice,
1997; Gilmore & Pine, 2002; Chan, 2009). The need for heritage sites to focus on visitor experiences is now becoming
recognized by both academics and those who work within
the heritage industry (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Cameron
and Gatewood, 2003; Chan, 2009; Poria, Biran, & Reichel,
2009). However, there are very few comprehensive theoretical models developed to help researchers understand what
visitors want from their experiences, what experiences
visitors have (consume) at the site and what benets visitors
Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

derive from their experience when they leave (Williams,

Francis, Robbins, & Annis, 2007; Smallman & Moore, 2010).
Theoretical models that focus on visitor demand are often
hierarchical and propose that people purchase particular
products or engage in specic activities to meet certain needs
or achieve particular goals (Beeho & Prentice, 1997). One
such model of consumer behaviour that has been used
successfully in the heritage tourism literature is the ASEB
model originally proposed by Beeho and Prentice (1997).
The ASEB framework explores the way in which visitors
to an attraction view a sites physical characteristics or settings, the activities that visitors choose to engage in and the
perceived consequences of their visit, i.e. their evaluation
of the experiences and the benets that they believe will result from the experience (Beeho & Prentice, 1997:76).
In the current research, the ASEB framework provides a
basis for understanding how visitor experiences are shaped
by a persons perceptions of a setting and their activities
while at a site and how those experiences, in turn, inuence
their overall satisfaction and subsequent impacts or benets
of the visit (Figure 1). Within the context of a visit to a
religious heritage site, this framework suggests that visitors
attend a particular site that provides them with a desired
experience to achieve certain goals. These goals may be to
develop stronger relationships with friends or family, to learn
something, to gain spiritual benets or to full a commitment
(Gatewood & Cameron, 2004; Cohen, 2006; Packer, 2008;
Andriotis, 2009). It is hypothesized that different kinds of
religious sites offer visitors a different kind of experience.
Furthermore, it is also suggested that visitors choose which
religious heritage site they will visit based on the particular
kind of experience that they are seeking.
Categorizing religious sites
Despite the existence of several typologies categorizing
religious heritage sites (e.g. Vukonic, 1996; Shackley,
2001; Ron, 2009), the system described by Nolan and Nolan
(1989, 1992) is perhaps the most widely referenced when
discussing Western European Christian religious sites.
According to Nolan and Nolan, different religious sites have
differing levels of drawing power. They argue that, over
time, particular sites lose their ability to attract certain groups
of travellers (e.g. pilgrims) as the perceptions of the sacredness or power of the site diminish. They thus created a
typology of religious sites based on their ability to attract
different groups of visitors. From their extensive research
of such sites, the authors identied three categories of
religious sites, as follows:
Sites of high value as tourist attractions: These are major
religious sites that attract large numbers of tourists, for
example, historic cathedrals. Such sites are famous for their
art, architecture and historical associations, and tourists tend to
outnumber pilgrims/worshippers.
Pilgrimage shrines: These are places that serve as a destination
for pilgrims. They have a relatively low value as major tourist
attractions and have little in the way of festivals involving
pageantry or folkloric display.
Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)
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Religious Tourism Experiences

Figure 1. ASEB model of visitor Experience (adapted from Beeho and Prentice [1997]).

Religious festivals: These festivals are usually held as an

annual or biannual event and are most often associated with
a place or site of religious signicance.
Nolan and Nolans typology is helpful in understanding
the relationship between religious sites that still have an
important place as major pilgrimage centres (pilgrimage
shrines and sites noted for pilgrimage events) and sites that,
over time, have ceased to be the primary focus of pilgrims
(sites of high value as tourist attractions). The authors
themselves note that the relationship between the three
categories is complicated and that there is occasionally some
overlapping of roles. For example, although Canterbury
Cathedral (England) is no longer considered a signicant
place of Christian pilgrimage, it stills attracts a small number
of pilgrims wishing to experience the site where Archbishop
Thomas Becket was murdered in 1170 AD.
Accordingly, this research aims to compare three different
religious heritage sites in relation to the activities, settings,
experiences and benets reported by visitors to each. Specifically, it aims to
(1) compare the pre-visit interests and expectations of
visitors to three different religious heritage sites;
(2) measure and compare the experiences and benets reported
by visitors at three different religious heritage sites; and
(3) investigate the extent to which visitors activity participation and evaluations of setting attributes contribute to
and inuence their experiences and benets that they report having gained at each of the three different religious
heritage sites.
METHOD
Research sites
The three sites chosen for this research each represented one
of the three categories identied by Nolan and Nolan (1989,
1992). Specic locations were chosen because of their historic signicance as major sites of pilgrimage and/or because
they receive in excess of 200 000 visitors each year.
Site 1: Site of high value as a tourist attraction
Canterbury Cathedral is located at the centre of the city of
Canterbury in the heart of Kent, England. The cathedral
has been the ofcial home of the Anglican Communion
for approximately ve hundred years. The cathedral itself
was founded in 597 CE and is the site of the Archbishop
Thomas Beckets murder in 1170. The cathedral receives
approximately 1 million visitors each year (Canterbury
Cathedral, 2010).
Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Site 2: Pilgrimage shrine

The pilgrimage destination chosen for this study was the
Anglican Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham (Norfolk,
England). Visitors have made the journey to Walsingham
from all over the world since the eleventh century (Marshal,
2009). The major focus of the pilgrimage journey is the
Holy House believed to have been modelled on the house
of the Virgin Mary in Nazareth. Today, the shrine complex
welcomes 300 000 visitors annually (The Shrine of Our Lady
of Walsingham, 2008; Bond, 2009).
Site 3: Religious festival
An annual Anglican Christian pilgrimage festival is held at
the historic Glastonbury Abbey, located in the south-west
of England. The abbey has a long history of both pilgrimage
and tourism due to the site being recognized as the location
of the rst Christian Church in England, the beautiful historic
ruins of the abbey and the sites connection with the legends
of Joseph of Arimathea and King Arthur. Glastonbury Abbey
is highly signicant for European Christians, and every year,
during the last week in June, the abbey hosts one of the
largest Anglican Christian pilgrimage festivals in the UK
(Bowman, 1993). The Anglican pilgrimage festival attracts
approximately 1000 to 1500 visitors each year.
Each site provides similar kinds of activities and environments for visitors. These include pleasant grounds to explore,
signicant artworks to view and interpretive centres or
exhibition spaces to enjoy. They also offer a range of spiritual activities and spaces including worship services, places
for reection, places to leave prayers and offerings and
places to light candles or perform other forms of rituals.
Participants and procedure
Adult visitors to the shrine, cathedral and festival were
approached as they exited the site and invited to complete a
questionnaire. The research employed a non-probability,
next to pass, sampling approach (Veal, 2006). The nal composition of the sample at each site was dictated by the visiting population on the days of sampling. At the shrine and
the cathedral, data were collected on both weekdays and
the weekend. The Glastonbury pilgrimage festival is a oneday event that restricted the opportunity for data collection.
A total of 534 completed questionnaires were received across
the three sites. At the cathedral, 210 questionnaires were
distributed, with 201 questionnaires returned (response
rate = 96%). At the shrine, 301 questionnaires were distributed, with 201 questionnaires returned (response rate =
67%), and at the festival, 244 questionnaires were
Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)
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N. Bond, J. Packer and R. Ballantyne

distributed, with 182 completed questionnaires returned
(response rate = 75%). Descriptive data for the visitors surveyed at each site are presented in Table 1.

spaces. Larger sites, including those chosen for this research,

have their own small interpretive centres and/or treasuries.
Participation in activities was documented through a series
of yes/no-style questions.

Survey instrument
Visitor interests and expectations
In order to develop an understanding of the interests and expectations of visitors to the three sites, nine items were rated
on a ve-point scale (ranging from 1, not important, through
to 5, very important). For a list of the items, refer to Table 2.

Settings
In order to investigate visitors perceptions of heritage sites,
Cameron and Gatewood (2000) developed a setting attribute
rating scale based on a series of 17 adjectives. Visitors were
given the list of adjectives and asked to rate how well they
described the setting on a ve-point scale ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Activities
In addition to worship services and scheduled events such as
music/choral recitals, religious heritage sites often provide a
range of interpretive activities and visitor services to add to
the experience of the visit. Activities include guided tours,
digital-audio guides, panel displays and small exhibition

Experiences
The experiential measures were based on a 34-item satisfying
experience scale, developed by Packer and Bond (2010) to
measure visitor experiences at a range of restorative leisure
environments (a botanic garden, an aquarium, an art gallery
and a museum). This scale was modied slightly to take into
account the potential experiences offered at religious heritage
sites. Additional items were sourced from the religious and
heritage tourism and visitor studies literature.

Table 1. Percentage of visitors at each site who fell into the various
demographic categories
Cathedral
(N = 201)

Shrine
Festival
(N = 200) (N = 132)

All sites
(N = 533)

Benets
The measures used to explore the benets attributed to the
visit were developed by Packer and Bond (2010). Additional
benet items were included to account for any potential spiritual/religious benets reported and were sourced from a
range of tourism (including religious and heritage tourism)
and visitor studies literature.

Gender
Male
Female

48
52

49
51

49
50

49
51

Age group
1820
2029
3039
4049
5059
60 and above

4
22
13
15
20
26

4
4
13
18
27
34

6
14
16
17
25
22

5
13
14
17
24
28

Residence
Local
Other, England
Other, UK
Overseas

7
50
9
33

3
83
11
3

5
55
20
21

5
63
13
19

Data analysis
Statistical comparisons between the three sites were conducted using both parametric (ANOVA) and non-parametric
(chi-square) techniques. Relationships between activities,
settings, experiences and benets were explored using stepwise regression.

70
2

86

67
1

74
1

RESULTS

1
26
2

10
3

1
25
2

2
20
2

Religious afliation
Christian
Other mainstream
religion
Pagan/Wiccan
No religion
Other

Visitor interests and expectations

The results of the analysis of visitors interests and expectations are presented in Table 2. For ease of reading,

Table 2. Visitor interests and expectations (mean scores on a ve-point scale)

I am interested in visiting the important tourist attractions

in this area**
I am interested in buildings or architecture**
I am interested in history or historic sites**
I am interested in culture and cultural heritage sites**
I am interested in visiting sites important to my own faith**
This visit is part of a pilgrimage journey for me**
This visit is part of a personal quest or search for meaning**
This visit will full a religious obligation for me**

Cathedral (C)

Festival (F)

Shrine (S)

Post hoc Scheffe tests, (p < .05)

4.1

3.77

3.64

C > S and F

4.28
4.44
4.3
3.38
2.11
2.16
2.02

3.99
4.25
4.14
3.88
3.52
3.39
3.14

3.87
4.17
4.09
4.08
3.7
3.34
3.18

C > S and F
C > S and F
C and F > S
C < S and F
C < S and F
C < S and F
C < S and F

Note: Interests that were rated 4.0 or higher on the ve-point scale represent a high level of interest. Interests that were rated between 3.5 and 4.0 (suggest a
moderatehigh degree of interest). Interests that were rated between 3.0 and 3.5 (suggest a mild degree of interest). Ratings of less than 3 represent little interest.
**p < .001.

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)

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Religious Tourism Experiences

Canterbury Cathedral will be referred to simply as Cathedral,
the Glastonbury pilgrimage festival will be referred to as
Festival, and The Shrine of Our Lady will referred to as
Shrine.
The results shown in Table 2 indicate several signicant
differences in the interests and expectations of visitors to
the three sites. Cathedral visitors were more likely to be
interested in visiting important tourist sites, buildings and
architecture than visitors to the shrine or festival. Cathedral
visitors were only mildly interested in visiting sites related
to their faith and were generally not interested in the more
religious aspects of the site. While both the shrine and
festival visitors were moderately interested in visiting an
important tourist site, they too were very interested in history
and historic sites and in culture and cultural heritage sites
(although not to the same degree as cathedral visitors).
Unlike cathedral visitors, both shrine and festival visitors
were moderately interested in the religious/spiritual elements
of the visits.
The degree to which the visitor interests at the three sites
overlapped or diverged is highlighted more clearly when
individual interest items are aggregated into three themes
(interest in history/culture, interest in religious sites and interest
in personal and spiritual benets). As Figure 2 illustrates,
visitors to all three sites reported a high level of interest in
history and culture. The shrine and festival visitors shared
a high level of interest in religious sites and a moderate level
of interest in personal and spiritual benets. Cathedral
visitors showed little interest in personal spiritual benets.
Activities visitors chose to participate in during their visit
For the purpose of analysis, the activities available at each
site were aggregated into two primary themes: exploratory
activities (visited interpretive centres, went on a guided tour,
used visitor services, wandered around the site and relaxed in
the grounds) and worship activities (took part in services or
ceremonies, took part in personal prayer, left some kind of
offering, made a request for spiritual help and lit candles).
The activities watching others take part in religious services

(observing others worship) and purchasing items in the gift

shop (shopping activities) were considered neither exploratory nor worship activities and were therefore treated
separately.
As illustrated in Figure 3, the greatest proportions of
visitors at each site took part in exploratory activities (such
as relaxing in the grounds, exploring the site and visiting
interpretive centres). Pairwise, 2 2 chi-square comparisons
revealed that shrine visitors were more likely than cathedral
( 2 [1] = 29.56, p < .001) or festival visitors ( 2 [1] = 4.85,
p = .03) to take part in worship activities, such as taking part
in services, lighting candles, etc., and cathedral visitors were
the least likely to take part in such activities. Shrine visitors
were also more likely to purchase items in the gift shop than
either cathedral visitors ( 2 [1] = 11.86, p = .001) or festival
visitors ( 2 [1] = 9.60, p = .002). Lastly, shrine visitors
( 2 [1] = 19.08, p < .001) and festival visitors ( 2
[1] = 11.83, p = .001) were more likely than cathedral visitors to watch others engage in worship activities.
Perceptions of setting attributes
Visitors to each site were asked to rate the site on 17 setting
attributes using a ve-point scale ( 2 to +2). Although each
individual setting rating is in itself interpretable, as noted by
Gatewood and Cameron (2004), the 17 adjectives are not
independent of each other. In order to identify latent themes
present within the scale, a principal axis factor analysis was
employed using varimax rotation. Based on the factor
analysis, it was apparent that visitor impressions of the
religious heritage site settings could be represented by ve
factors (with a range of three to ve items loading on each
factor). These were named meaningfulness, commodication, historicity, peacefulness and fun. The factor solution,
although similar to the solution provided by Gatewood and
Cameron (2004), did differ slightly. In the current analysis,
individual items pertaining to the factors historicity and
peacefulness loaded on two separate factors, whereas in
Gatewood and Camerons (2004) study, they loaded on to
one factor only. The ve-factor solution explained 58.1%

5.00
4.50

4.27
4.09

4.00

4.00
3.84

3.41

4.01

3.89

3.50

3.35

3.00

Cathedral

2.50

Shrine
2.10

2.00

Festival

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Interest in history/culture

Interest in Religious sites

Interest in personal spiritual

benefits

Figure 2. Visitor interests and expectations by site.

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr

N. Bond, J. Packer and R. Ballantyne

100
94

90

96

91.7
84.1

80

74.2

70
60

59.7
51.2

49.8

% undertaking activity 50

Cathedral
Shrine

48.5

Festival

40
32.8
32.6

30

29.9

20
10
0
Exploratory

Worship

Shopping

Observing others
worship

Figure 3. Percentage of visitors at each site who took part in specic activities (by site).

followed by the cathedral (F [2, 483] = 25.03, p < .001).

While each site was considered moderately meaningful, historic and peaceful, visitors did not consider the sites particularly fun, with all three receiving low but positive ratings
on this dimension no signicant differences were found
between the sites. Although none of the three sites was believed
to be overly commodied, one-way ANOVA did indicate that
the cathedral was deemed the most commodied, followed by
the festival and the shrine site (F [2, 464] = 19.88, p < .001).

of the common variance. Based on the results of the factor

analysis, ve new composite variables were created. The
internal consistency of each variable was also examined. The
resulting Cronbachs alphas ranged from 0.84 to 0.56.
One-way ANOVAs (using the ve composite setting
ratings as dependent variables) were used to determine the
extent to which the perceptions of the setting attributes
differed between the three sites. Examination of the composite mean scores demonstrates similarities and differences in
the ways in which visitors to the three sites perceived the
settings. These results are displayed graphically in Figure 4.
Visitors at all three sites rated the location as meaningful
(composite score >.5). One-way ANOVA with post hoc
Scheffe tests (p < .05) showed that the shrine was rated
signicantly higher than the festival site, which, in turn, was
rated higher than the cathedral (F [2, 473] = 12.21, p < .001).
The cathedral and the festival sites were rated as the most
historic, while the shrine site was perceived to be the least
historic (F [2, 464] = 19.5, p < .001). The shrine and the
festival site returned the highest peacefulness ratings,

Experiences reported by visitors to religious heritage sites

Exploratory principal axis factor analysis (with varimax
rotation) returned a ve-factor structure for the reported
experience scale that accounted for a total of 64.77% of the
shared variance in the model. The ve experience factors
were named connecting spiritually and emotionally, discovering new things, engaging mentally, interacting and belonging and relaxing and nding peace. These ve experiential
factors were dened as follows:

1.65
1.6

1.5

1.37
1.34
1.27

1.15

0.99
0.88

0.88
Cathedral

Mean Setting 0.5

ratings

Shrine

0.33

Festival

0.23
0.26

0
-0.21
-0.56

-0.5

-0.74

-1
Meaningful

Commodification

Historicity

Peacefulness

Fun

Figure 4. Mean (composite) setting ratings by site.

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr

Religious Tourism Experiences

(1) Connecting spiritually and emotionally: This factor comprised 10 items that reected deep emotional and personal meaning, combined with a deep level of spiritual
and emotional connection. This experiential factor reects a deep spiritual experience of connecting with
something outside of ones self.
(2) Discovering new things: This factor comprised seven
items that reected experiencing something new and exciting something out of the ordinary.
(3) Engaging mentally: This factor comprised six items that
indicated that the respondent was fully absorbed and fascinated by what they were doing. This factor also reects
cognitive/learning experiences.
(4) Interacting and belonging: This factor comprised six
items focussing on experiences of social interaction and
relationship building.
(5) Relaxing and nding peace: This nal factor comprised
four items that related to aspects of rest, rejuvenation
and relaxation.
The results of the factor analysis were used to create ve
new experience variables. Mean scores for each composite
variable are provided in Figure 5. The resulting Cronbachs
alpha for each composite variable was within the acceptable
limits and ranged from 0.88 to 0.94.
As indicated in Figure 5, there were signicant differences
between the three sites on four of the ve experience variables:
Connecting spiritually and emotionally: Results of the one-way
ANOVA indicate a signicant difference between sites in levels
of spiritual and emotional experience (F [2, 508] = 22.90,
p < .001). Post hoc Scheffe comparisons showed that while
there was no signicant difference between the shrine and the
pilgrimage festival ratings, both these sites received signicantly
higher ratings (p < .01) than the cathedral.
Discovering new things: Results of the one-way ANOVA
indicate a signicant difference between sites in levels of discovery experiences (F [2, 509] = 3.612, p = 028). Post hoc

Scheffe comparisons (p < .05) showed that the cathedral received signicantly greater ratings than both the shrine and the
festival sites. There were no signicant differences between
the ratings of these two sites.
Interacting and belonging: Results of the one-way ANOVA
indicate a signicant difference between sites in levels of
interacting and belonging experiences (F [2, 503] = 25.83,
p < .001). Post hoc Scheffe tests showed that visitors to
the shrine and the pilgrimage festival reported signicantly
higher levels of this experience than did visitors to the
cathedral.
Relaxing and nding peace: Results of the one-way ANOVA
indicate a signicant difference between sites in levels of
relaxing and nding peace experiences (F [2, 513] = 33.06,
p < .00). Post hoc Scheffe comparisons showed that shrine
visitors reported signicantly higher levels of this experience
than visitors to either the pilgrimage festival or the cathedral.
Festival visitors reported signicantly greater levels of this
experience than cathedral visitors. Relaxing and nding peace
experiences were some of the highest rated experiences overall. For shrine and festival visitors in particular, feeling a sense
of rest and relaxation was the experience rated most highly,
even more than the spiritual aspects of the experience.
Engaging mentally: There were no signicant differences
between the three sites on this experience item. Visitors at
each of the three sites reported moderately high levels of this
experience.
Benecial aspects of the visit
The individual benet items were subjected to principal axis
factor analysis with varimax rotation. The factor analysis
returned a ve-factor solution that accounted for a total of
79.3% of the shared variance. These factors were named
personal fullment, spiritual growth, cognitive insight, social
bonding and restoration.

4.5

3.5

4.12
3.77
3.62
3.6

3.7
3.52

3.74
3.54

3.5
3.3

3.81
3.27

3.02

2.9

Mean Experience
2.5
ratings

Cathedral
2.24

Shrine
Festival

1.5

0.5

Engaging
mentally

Connecting Discovering new Intercting and Relaxing and

belonging
spiritually and
finding peace
things
emotionally

Figure 5. Mean (composite) experience ratings by site.

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr

N. Bond, J. Packer and R. Ballantyne

The personal fullment factor comprised seven items
relating to an individuals improved ability to understand
his or her place in the world and to achieving a greater sense
of purpose. This factor also incorporated the idea of selfreection and developing the strength or will to deal with
the challenges of life.
Spiritual growth benets consisted of three items that
relate specically to a strengthening of ones spiritual identity.
Cognitive insight consisted of six items that relate to cognitive or learning benets. Individual items in this factor
speak to benets such as gaining a greater insight into the
world around me and understanding things more deeply.
Social bonding consisted of four items relating to improved or strengthened social connections with associates
and/or companions.
Restoration comprised four items relating to a sense of
peace, rejuvenation and relaxation. The term restoration is used
in the environmental psychology literature to refer to the
process of recovering from fatigue, restoring ones physical
and emotional energy and nding respite from the stresses of
life (Herzog, Ouellette, Rolens, & Koenigs, 2010) and has
been previously described as a benet of visiting religious sites
(e.g. Ouellette, Kaplan, & Kaplan, 2005).
The reliability of each composite variable was examined.
The resulting Cronbachs alphas ranged from 0.91 to 0.97, indicating a high level of internal reliability within each variable.
As illustrated in Figure 6, there were signicant differences
between the three sites in the levels of benets reported.
Cognitive insight: Results from the one-way ANOVA and
post hoc Scheffe tests (p < .05) show that visitors to the shrine
and the festival reported greater levels of cognitive insight than
visitors to the cathedral (F [2, 498] = 9.6, p < .001). However,
for both shrine and festival visitors, cognitive insight was the
benet rated the lowest. For cathedral visitors, cognitive insight was the second highest rated benet.
Social bonding: Shrine and festival visitors reported moderate
to high levels of social bonding benets, while cathedral

visitors reported only mild levels of social benets (F [2,

485] = 19.22, p < .001).
Restoration: Restoration benets were the highest rated benets for visitors at each of the three sites. One-way ANOVA results (F [2, 493] = 28.46, p < .001) and Scheffe tests (p < .05)
showed that shrine visitors reported signicantly greater levels
of restoration benets than either festival or cathedral visitors.
Personal fullment: Both shrine and festival visitors reported
moderate levels of personal fullment. Cathedral visitors
reported the lowest levels of personal fullment; indeed, for
these visitors, personal fullment was the lowest rated benet
(F [2, 494] = 23.96, p < .001).
Spiritual growth: For shrine and festival visitors, spiritual
growth was the second highest rated benet (behind restoration). Once again, results show that cathedral visitors reported
the lowest levels of spiritual growth (F [2, 496] = 29.27,
p < .001). As demonstrated in Figure 6, spiritual growth
returned the greatest difference between the highest-rating site
(the shrine) and the lowest rating (the cathedral). This is
evidence that spiritual growth was the greatest area of discrepancy between the three sites in terms of benets received.
Inter-relationships between the activities, settings,
experience and benet elements
The nal objective of this research was to explore the interrelationships between the four ASEB elements at each site.
This analysis was conducted using a series of stepwise linear
regressions, using the activity, setting and experience
variables as independent variables and each of the benets,
in turn, as a dependent variable.
Stepwise regression analysis revealed that for cathedral
visitors, the experience variable connecting spiritually and
emotionally was strongly predictive of all ve benets
(p < .01, beta > .5). The experience relaxing and nding
peace was also a signicant predictor of restoration benets,
while interacting and belonging was a signicant predictor

4.88

4.27

4.32

3.98

4.41

4.77
4.3

3.59

3.51

3.19

3.16

Cathedral
Mean Benefit ratings 3

Shrine
Festival

Cognitive insight

Social bonding

Restoration

Personal fulfilment

Figure 6. Mean (composite) benet ratings by site.

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)

DOI: 10.1002/jtr

Religious Tourism Experiences

of social bonding benets. No activities or setting variables
were signicant predictors of any of the reported benets.
Stepwise regression analysis revealed that for shrine
visitors, the experience variable connecting spiritually and
emotionally was again predictive of all ve benet variables
but strongly predictive of personal fullment and spiritual
growth. Relaxing and nding peace was strongly predictive
(p < .001, beta < .5) of restoration benets. The experience
variable interacting and belonging was strongly predictive
of social bonding benets (p < .001, beta > .5), while the
experience discovering new things was mildly predictive of
cognitive insight benets (p < .001, beta < .5). For shrine
visitors, activities and settings were not signicant predictors
of subsequent benets.
Stepwise regression analysis revealed that for festival
visitors, the experience variable connecting spiritually and
emotionally was strongly predictive (p < .001, beta > .5) of
four out of ve benets. The experience variable interacting
and belonging was strongly predictive of social bonding
(p < .001, beta > .5), while discovering new things was
mildly predictive of cognitive insight (p < .001, beta < .5).
Worship activities were predictive of spiritual growth and
personal fullment benets. Visitor perceptions of the setting
did not predict any subsequent benets.
Thus, the results of regression analyses were mostly consistent across the three sites. Relaxing and nding peace led
to restoration benets, interacting and belonging led to social bonding benets, and discovering new things led to cognitive insight benets. Of particular interest, however, is the
strong association between connecting spiritually and emotionally and all ve of the benet variables, including personal fullment and spiritual growth.

DISCUSSION
The ability of a religious site to attract visitors is, in part,
connected to peoples beliefs about the authenticity of the
site and what this authenticity represents to them personally
(Andriotis, 2011). As this study has shown, different religious sites have different kinds of attracting power. Grand
cathedrals such as Canterbury primarily attract those seeking
a cultural and historical experience, while shrines and religious festival sites attract visitors who wish to engage in
more worship-focussed experiences. According to Nolan
and Nolan (1992), particular sites seem to lose their ability
to attract certain groups of visitors (or offer certain kinds of
experiences), as perceptions of the site change. The results
of this study support this argument.
Ron (2009) suggests that visitors seek out some religious
sites in search of historical and cultural meaning, not only as
places of worship the results of this study support this
suggestion. Compared with shrine or festival visitors, cathedral visitors were less likely to take part in the more spiritually focussed activities and were more interested in the
architectural and aesthetic qualities that the site had to offer.
This was also evidenced in the nding that cathedral visitors
were more likely to rate learning experiences (discovering
new things) higher than most other experiences. This echoes
Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

the ndings of other cathedral-based research (for example,

Francis, Williams, Annis, & Robbins, 2008, 2010; Hughes
et al., 2013) and suggests that cathedrals should develop their
interpretive resources to enhance the educational and cultural
experience of visitors, in addition to maintaining their spiritual offerings. Despite the experience being a more cognitive
one, cathedral visitors also reported being emotionally involved with their experience. It is evident that for cathedral
visitors, forming a strong emotional connection to the site
had a signicant positive impact on the benets received as
a result of the visit. This nding supports the argument put
forward by Davie (2006) that many English people still have
a strong afnity for their Christian heritage, even if they no
longer practise their beliefs in any overt or explicit way. It
is this identication with Christian heritage that still draws
many visitors to sites such as the grand cathedrals.
Like visitors to the cathedral, shrine and festival visitors were
interested in the historic aspects of the site. However, shrine and
festival visitors were also interested in the more spiritual
elements available. Shrine and festival visits were perceived as
spiritually rewarding, a nding consistent with many studies
exploring the experiences of visitors at similar historic religious
sites (Andriotis, 2009; Petreas, 2011). Surprisingly, however,
spiritual experiences and spiritual benets were not the primary
visitor experience or outcome reported at either the shrine or
the festival. Visitors to both these sites also reported their
visits as being highly restorative in nature.
The importance of the restorative function of religious
sites has generally been overlooked in the religious tourism
literature (Ouellette et al., 2005; Herzog, Grey, Dunville,
Hicks, & Gilson, 2011), which tends to highlight the spiritual
benets of such places while ignoring other elements of the
experience (Collins-Kreiner, 2010). Both Herzog et al.
(2011) and Manning, Watkins and Anthony (2009) also note
that much of the religious tourism literature fails to explore
visitor perceptions of the physical environment of places of
worship. Herzog and his colleagues (2010, 2011) have suggested that in addition to spiritual benets, visiting places
of worship can serve to conserve and restore attention, as
well as promote meditation and reection. Herzog et al.
(2011) and Manning et al. (2009) argue that religious sites
often provide visitors with environmental conditions (such
as peacefulness and tranquillity) that are the ideal conditions
for restorative experiences to occur. Packer (2014) notes that
tourist attractions that enable visitors to slow down for a
while, and offer an environment where visitors can be
absorbed in interesting activities while not feeling
overwhelmed or rushed, may also lead to restorative benets.
The results of the ASEB regression analyses suggested that
the activities undertaken by visitors played only a small role in
inuencing the overall experience or benets gained. At all three
sites, the experience of connecting spiritually and emotionally
was the strongest predictor of a range of benecial outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS
This research has focussed on comparing the experiences
and reported benets of visitors to three different religious
Int. J. Tourism Res. (2014)
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N. Bond, J. Packer and R. Ballantyne

heritage sites: a shrine, a pilgrimage festival and a cathedral. The ndings support Nolan and Nolans (1992) suggestion that different categories of religious sites attract
different kinds of visitors, each in search of different kinds
of experiences. These ndings are particularly important
for those responsible for the management of visitor experiences at religious sites. Visitors select the kind of religious
site that they wish to visit based on their levels of interest
in religion and faith, cultural heritage and art and architecture, as well as the degree to which a particular site (be it
a shrine, festival or tourist attraction) meets their particular
combinations of interest. Shrines and religious festivals
attract those with more spiritually focused interests and
motivations, while those visitors with greater interest in
religious history and cultural heritage seek out the grand
cathedrals. This means that interpretation content and activities provided for each kind of site should be different
the focus of the messages and activities designed for
visitors needs to be designed to meet the different visitor
expectations and motives for visiting the different sites
as identied in this research.
The results presented here support the argument that
spiritual outcomes are not the primary benets that visitors
report as a result of their experiences. For visitors to each
of the three sites, restoration benets were deemed the
most important. These ndings support previous research
highlighting the restorative potential of places of worship
spiritual benets are not the only benets that visitors
to religious sites seek. Although there have been numerous
studies exploring the outcomes of religious site tourism, to
date, this has been the only study that has clearly shown
not only that restoration is a signicant benet but also
that this benet is reported consistently across different
categories of religious heritage sites. The current research
builds on the suggestions of Herzog et al. (2010, 2011)
and Ouellette et al. (2005) and shows that places of
worship can be considered as restorative environments
and that, frequently, this is the primary experience and
subsequent benet that visitors are seeking.
Religious heritage sites, perhaps more than the other
heritage sites, signify cultural ideals and values. Whether
in grand cathedrals such as Canterbury or small shrines
such as Walsingham, these values, both spiritual and secular, are portrayed in the architecture of the buildings, in
paintings and sculpture and in the numerous ceremonies
and performances that take place within their grounds.
These sites are important representations of cultural and
religious history and instil in visitors a sense of emotional
connection and place. As individual lives become more
hectic, and families become more dispersed, the performance of rituals, and seeking out culturally familiar places
and practices, helps to ground people in something that is
familiar (Davie, 2006). The results of this study demonstrate that visiting a religious heritage site can be emotionally, cognitively and spiritually rewarding. Religious
tourism provides an important opportunity to escape from
the everyday life within an environment that allows people
to reconnect with themselves, with their families and with
their cultural and/or religious heritage.
Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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