Mechanics

This article is about an area of scientic study. For other lems which are unmanageably dicult in quantum meuses, see Mechanic (disambiguation).
chanics and hence remains useful and well used. Modern
descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful deniMechanics (Greek ) is an area of science con- tion of such quantities as displacement (distance moved),
time, velocity, acceleration, mass, and force. Until about
cerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent ef- 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a
very dierent point of view. For example, following the
fects of the bodies on their environment. The scientic
discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writ- ideas of Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle, sciings of Aristotle and Archimedes[1][2][3] (see History of entists reasoned that a cannonball falls down because its
classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechan- natural position is in the Earth; the sun, the moon, and
ics). During the early modern period, scientists such as the stars travel in circles around the earth because it is
Galileo, Kepler, and especially Newton, laid the founda- the nature of heavenly objects to travel in perfect circles.
The Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo brought together the ideas of other great thinkers of his time and
began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled
from some starting position and the time that it took. He
showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily
during the time of their fall. This acceleration is the same
for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction
(air resistance) is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis
by dening force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of
light, Newtons laws were superseded by Albert Einsteins
theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles,
Newtons laws were superseded by quantum theory. For
everyday phenomena, however, Newtons three laws of
motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the
study of what causes motion.

tion for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a

branch of classical physics that deals with particles that
are either at rest or are moving with velocities signicantly less than the speed of light. It can also be dened
as a branch of science which deals with the motion of and
forces on objects.

Classical versus quantum

The major division of the mechanics discipline separates

classical mechanics from quantum mechanics.
Historically, classical mechanics came rst, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newton's laws of
motion in Principia Mathematica; Quantum Mechanics
was discovered in 1925. Both are commonly held to
constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about
physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact
sciences. Essential in this respect is the relentless use
of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role
played by experiment in generating and testing them.

2 Relativistic versus Newtonian

mechanics

Quantum mechanics is of a wider scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According
to the correspondence principle, there is no contradiction
or conict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specic situations. The correspondence principle
states that the behavior of systems described by quantum
theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of large
quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded
classical mechanics at the foundational level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes
at molecular and (sub)atomic level. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve prob-

In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einstein's general and special theories
of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton and
Galileo's formulation of mechanics. The dierences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become signicant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. For instance,
in Newtonian mechanics, Newtons laws of motion specify that F = ma , whereas in Relativistic mechanics and
Lorentz transformations, which were rst discovered by
Hendrik Lorentz, F = ma ( is the Lorentz factor,
which is almost equal to 1 for low speeds).
1

HISTORY

General relativistic versus quantum

Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated. The two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle
which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything.

History

Main articles: History of classical mechanics and History

of quantum mechanics

4.1

Antiquity

Main article: Aristotelian mechanics

The main theory of mechanics in antiquity was
Aristotelian mechanics.[4] A later developer in this traArabic Machine Manuscript. Unknown date (at a guess: 16th to
dition is Hipparchus.[5]
19th centuries).

4.2

Medieval age

Main article: Theory of impetus

In the Middle Ages, Aristotles theories were criticized
and modied by a number of gures, beginning with
John Philoponus in the 6th century. A central problem
was that of projectile motion, which was discussed by
Hipparchus and Philoponus. This led to the development of the theory of impetus by 14th century French
Jean Buridan, which developed into the modern theories
of inertia, velocity, acceleration and momentum. This
work and others was developed in 14th century England
by the Oxford Calculators such as Thomas Bradwardine,
who studied and formulated various laws regarding falling
bodies.

account of mechanics, using the newly developed mathematics of calculus and providing the basis of Newtonian
mechanics.[5]

There is some dispute over priority of various ideas:

Newtons Principia is certainly the seminal work and has
been tremendously inuential, and the systematic mathematics therein did not and could not have been stated
earlier because calculus had not been developed. However, many of the ideas, particularly as pertain to inertia (impetus) and falling bodies had been developed and
stated by earlier researchers, both the then-recent Galileo
and the less-known medieval predecessors. Precise credit
is at times dicult or contentious because scientic language and standards of proof changed, so whether meOn the question of a body subject to a constant (uniform)
dieval statements are equivalent to modern statements or
force, the 12th century Jewish-Arab Nathanel (Iraqi, of
sucient proof, or instead similar to modern statements
Baghdad) stated that constant force imparts constant acand hypotheses is often debatable.
celeration, while the main properties are uniformly accelerated motion (as of falling bodies) was worked out by the
14th century Oxford Calculators.

4.3

Early modern age

Two central gures in the early modern age are Galileo

Galilei and Isaac Newton. Galileos nal statement of his
mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his Two New
Sciences (1638). Newtons 1687 Philosophi Naturalis
Principia Mathematica provided a detailed mathematical

4.4 Modern age

Two main modern developments in mechanics are
general relativity of Einstein, and quantum mechanics,
both developed in the 20th century based in part on earlier 19th century ideas.

6.1

Classical mechanics

Types of mechanical bodies

The often-used term body needs to stand for a wide

assortment of objects, including particles, projectiles,
spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids, parts
of uids (gases and liquids), etc.
Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of
mechanics, concern the nature of the bodies being described. Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical points in classical
mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain
a simplicity close to that of the particle, adding just a
few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in
space.
Prof. Walter Lewin explains Newtons law of gravitation in MIT
[6]
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non- course 8.01
rigid, i.e. uid. These subjects have both classical and
quantum divisions of study.
Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical
For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its
formalism, based on the principle of the least
orbit and attitude (rotation), is described by the relativisaction.
tic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous
Classical statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary
movements of an atomic nucleus are described by quanclassical mechanics to consider systems in an untum mechanics.
known state; often used to derive thermodynamic
properties.

Sub-disciplines in mechanics

The following are two lists of various subjects that are

studied in mechanics.

Celestial mechanics, the motion of bodies in space:

planets, comets, stars, galaxies, etc.
Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc.

Note that there is also the "theory of elds" which constitutes a separate discipline in physics, formally treated
as distinct from mechanics, whether classical elds or
quantum elds. But in actual practice, subjects belonging
to mechanics and elds are closely interwoven. Thus, for
instance, forces that act on particles are frequently derived from elds (electromagnetic or gravitational), and
particles generate elds by acting as sources. In fact, in
quantum mechanics, particles themselves are elds, as described theoretically by the wave function.

Solid mechanics, elasticity, the properties of deformable bodies.

6.1

Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils

Classical mechanics

The following are described as forming classical mechanics:

Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion
(kinematics) and forces (dynamics).
Analytical mechanics is a reformulation of Newtonian mechanics with an emphasis on system energy,
rather than on forces. There are two main branches
of analytical mechanics:
Hamiltonian mechanics,
a theoretical
formalism, based on the principle of conservation of energy.

Fracture mechanics
Acoustics, sound ( = density variation propagation)
in solids, uids and gases.
Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium
Fluid mechanics, the motion of uids

Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both

solid and uid)
Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids
Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium
Applied mechanics, or Engineering mechanics
Biomechanics, solids, uids, etc. in biology
Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms
Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal
gravitation.

11

6.2

Quantum mechanics

EXTERNAL LINKS

9 References

The following are categorized as being part of quantum

mechanics:

[1] Dugas, Rene. A History of Classical Mechanics. New

York, NY: Dover Publications Inc, 1988, pg 19.

Schrdinger wave mechanics, used to describe the

motion of the wavefunction of a single particle.

[2] Rana, N.C., and Joag, P.S. Classical Mechanics. West

Petal Nagar, New Delhi. Tata McGraw-Hill, 1991, pg 6.

Matrix mechanics is an alternative formulation that

allows considering systems with a nite-dimensional
state space.

[3] Renn, J., Damerow, P., and McLaughlin, P. Aristotle,

Archimedes, Euclid, and the Origin of Mechanics: The
Perspective of Historical Epistemology. Berlin: Max
Planck Institute for the History of Science, 2010, pg 12.

Quantum statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary

quantum mechanics to consider systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic
properties.
Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions
of particles
Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions
of nuclei
Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids,
liquids, etc.

Professional organizations
Applied Mechanics Division, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Fluid Dynamics Division, American Physical Society

[4] "A history of mechanics". Ren Dugas (1988). p.19.

ISBN 0-486-65632-2
[5] "A Tiny Taste of the History of Mechanics". The University of Texas at Austin.
[6] Walter Lewin (October 4, 1999). Work, Energy, and Universal Gravitation. MIT Course 8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 11. (ogg) (videotape). Cambridge, MA USA:
MIT OCW. Event occurs at 1:21-10:10. Retrieved December 23, 2010.

10 Further reading
Robert Stawell Ball (1871) Experimental Mechanics
from Google books.
Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1972). Mechanics
and Electrodynamics, Vol. 1. Franklin Book Company, Inc. ISBN 0-08-016739-X.

Society for Experimental Mechanics

Institution of Mechanical Engineers is the United
Kingdoms qualifying body for Mechanical Engineers and has been the home of Mechanical Engineers for over 150 years.
International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

11 External links
iMechanica: the web of mechanics and mechanicians
Mechanics Blog by a Purdue University Professor
The Mechanics program at Virginia Tech

See also
Applied mechanics
Dynamics
Engineering
Index of engineering science and mechanics articles
Kinematics
Kinetics
Non-autonomous mechanics
Statics
Wiesen Test of Mechanical Aptitude (WTMA)

Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video

clips from the University of New South Wales
U.S. National Committee on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
Interactive learning resources for teaching Mechanics
The Archimedes Project

12
12.1

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Text

Mechanics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics?oldid=653899249 Contributors: Tarquin, Andre Engels, Youssefsan,

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