Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
20
R. Cottam1,2, M. Brandt2,3
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; 2Defence Materials
Technology Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; 3RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
1
20.1
Introduction
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20.2
As the phase diagram shown in Figure 20.1, NAB alloys that have between 9% and
12% aluminum at elevated temperatures form two phases, a and b. The a phase is an
fcc phase and the b is a bcc phase. Then, upon slow cooling the b phase transforms to
a + kIII. This reaction is the eutectoid reaction of NAB where the kIII forms a lamella
structure. At high cooling rates, this reaction does not take place and martensite or
the Widmanstatten morphology microstructure forms. The eutectoid reaction can
also take place in reverse and, as such, the kIII precipitate is dissolved and the b
phase forms. Therefore, with the right processing parameters it is possible to dissolve
the kIII phase and cool at a rate that the Widmanstatten morphology microstructure
does not form and the kIII is not precipitated. In this case, both elements of the NAB
microstructure that are responsible for the poor corrosion performance can be eliminated with the right heating and cooling conditions. The reverse eutectoid reaction is
diffusion dependant and the nature of the reaction is analogous to the perlite austenitization reaction in low-carbon steels [8]. Therefore, a two-phase diffusion model
was employed to determine the kinetics of the reaction. This is detailed in the next
section.
1200
L
1040
T
1000
e
m
p 910
e
r
800
a
t
u
r
600
e
+
+
++
400
4
8
8.5
12
16
10.8
wt.% Aluminum
Figure 20.1 NAB phase diagram for increasing aluminum content, where the iron and nickel
contents are 5 wt.%.
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
km Lamella
km Lamella
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910 C
Figure 20.2 The reverse reaction for the NAB eutectoid reaction.
x Da c
@t xm @x
@x
(20.1)
@c 1 @ m
@c
m
x Db c
@t x @x
@x
(20.2)
cab cba
@y
@c
@c
Db
Da
@t
@x
@x
(20.3)
where @y
@t is the interface velocity in meter per second, cab is the a-phase side of the
partition concentration, and cba is the b-phase side of the partition concentration.
There are several methods to solve the two-phase diffusion problem including the
472
finite element method [9], the finite volume method [10], and the finite difference
method [8]. In this work, the finite difference scheme of Karlsson and Larsson [11]
was employed to solve the diffusion equations, due to its relative simplicity to
implement.
The boundary conditions used were as follows. The concentration of the a-phase
initially was 7.2 wt.% Al and was taken from the microprobe analysis of Hasan et al.
[12]. The concentration of the b-phase was 50% because the kIII precipitate is equal
parts nickel and aluminum. The partition concentrations used were 8.5 wt.% Al for cab
and 10.8 wt.% Al for cba, Figure 20.1. The spacing of the kIII lamellae in the a-matrix
was taken from a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the alloy used in the
investigation, Figure 20.2. The kIII thickness was taken as 0.75 mm and the spacing
between them as 1.25 mm for the larger spaced lamellae, which would take longer
to transform.
The results of the calculation are shown in the reverse time-temperaturetransformation diagram of Figure 20.3. The kinetics of the transformation of the
boundary condition used in the model ranges from 0.2 to 0.75 s. The diffusion of
aluminum in copper is quite fast; even though it is a substitution-based process (as
opposed to an interstitial process) the diffusion rates at temperature are comparable
with carbon in iron.
Temperature (C)
1010
1000
990
980
970
960
950
940
930
920
910
0.01
0.1
Time (s)
50%Trans
100%Trans
Figure 20.3 Reverse time-temperature-transformation diagram for as-cast NAB for the
a + kIII ! b reaction.
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
473
traversing speed, and power. Using the analytical heating model of Komanduri and
Hou [13], the relationship between these variables was determined with NAB as
the substrate material. The model and its associated equations are as follows:
T x, y, z
AQv
4lap2 =2r2L
ri rL , wv2 t=4a
r i 0,w0
eXV Br i
1 wu=4w
e
I 0 dwdri
w3=2
(20.4)
where T is the temperature rise at any position, x, y, z, in degree Celsius under the
laser beam; A is a constant given in Table 20.1, depending on the laser beam profile;
Q is the absorbed laser power in Watts; l is thermal conductivity in W m1oC1; a is
the thermal diffusivity of the medium in meter square per second; rL is the radius of
the laser in meters; ri is the radius of that integration segment in meters; B is a mathematical function that is determined by the laser beam profile given in Table 20.1;
v is the laser traversing speed in meter per second; and t is the time the laser is on for
in seconds.
Equations (20.5)(20.7) are used to define the other variables:
Rv
2a
q
R r 2i + X20 + y2 + z2
u
X0 x vt
(20.5)
(20.6)
(20.7)
(x, y, z) are any position relative to the starting position in meters. I0 is calculated from
a function that has been defined mathematically in Ref. [14] and V v/2a.
This heating model was programmed in MATLAB and was used to construct the
theoretical processing map in Figure 20.5. Using a melting point of 1040 C, a thermal
diffusivity of 1.32 105 m2 s1, and a thermal conductivity of 37.7 W m1 oC1,
the laser power and traversing speed were varied to determine conditions where
the above-mentioned parameters produced a temperature of 1040 C (a locus of
points). Repeating this analysis for several laser spot sizes, a theoretical solid-state
processing map was produced in Figure 20.4. For each laser beam radius, the area
above the line represents too much power and, consequently, surface melting, while
the area below represents not enough heat and, consequently, a nonoptimized process.
Table 20.1
Distribution
Normal
Bimodal
Uniform
9
4.3677
1
e3ri =rL
2
2
e3:947ri =rL 0:947 + e3:947ri =rL 0:947
1
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900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
0
200
400
600
Laser traversing speed (mm min1)
800
3 mm Gaussian
5 mm Gaussian
4 mm Gaussian
6 mm Gaussian
7 mm Gaussian
Figure 20.4 Laser heating processing map for NAB for different laser spot dimensions. The
laser spot sizes are a radius dimension.
Due to the processing limitations of the equipment used to do the experiments, a laser
spot size of 4 mm radius with a processing traversing speed of 6 mm min1 and 780 W
of dialed power were used.
20.3
Experimental procedure
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
475
Figure 20.5 Picture of laser processing of NAB; (a) laser set up and (b) treated plate.
20.4
476
Figure 20.6 Scanning electron microscopy micrographs of NAB in the (a) as-cast condition
and (b) after laser heat treatment.
Figure 20.7 Macrostructure of the laser-processed NAB showing the overlapping tracks.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
2
3
Position from surface (mm)
Laser processed
Laser melted
Figure 20.8 Micro Vickers hardness traverses of NAB both laser melted and laser processed.
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
477
inflection of the laser-melted curve near the interface is as a result of the compressive
stress exerted by the martensitic transformation during cooling of this zone.
XRD of the laser-treated samples shows that the phase of the as-cast, laser melted,
and laser processed are all the same (see Figure 20.10). The shift in the peak position
150
100
50
0
0
50
100
150
Laser processed
Interface
Figure 20.9 Residual stress analysis of NAB in the laser-melted and laser-processed state using
neutron diffraction.
(111)FCC
1200
800
(200)FCC
(111)FCC
1000
600
400
200
0
40
As-cast
45
50
2q
Laser melted
55
60
Laser processed
Figure 20.10 XRD 2y scan of NAB in the as-cast, laser-melted and laser-heated states.
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20.5
Corrosion performance
The establishment of a new microstructure leads to an evaluation of its corrosion performance. For this investigation, this has included electrochemical corrosion performance, in the form of linear polarization and cavitation corrosion testing. These two
tests give an indication of the performance of this new material in the stagnant and
dynamic condition that most NAB parts experience in service.
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
479
0.1
0.05
0
Potential (V)
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
1E-08
0.0000001
0.000001
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
A/cm 2
Laser-processed
As-cast
Figure 20.11 Linear polarization curves for as-cast substrate and laser-heated NAB.
20.6
Conclusion
A new approach to improve the corrosion resistance of NAB at the surface by laser
processing has been developed. The technique produced a new type of microstructure for NAB, which has been developed by heating the surface with a laser near to
480
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
10
Time (H)
Laser processed
As-cast
Laser melted
Extruded
Figure 20.12 Cavitation erosion testing result for NAB in the laser-processed, as-cast,
extruded, and laser-melted conditions.
its melting point for a long enough period to dissolve the kIII phase in the solid state
and cooled at a rate where the Widmanstatten morphology microstructure is avoided.
The processing parameters required to do this were developed with the aid of
mathematical modeling of both the reverse phase transformation and laser heating.
The resulting microstructure exhibited a low residual stress, no significant increase
in hardness, and a crystal structure the same as the cast material. The corrosion
performance of the new microstructure showed improved electrochemical performance and cavitation erosion performance when compared with as-cast NAB, thus
proving the value of this new processing technique for extending the life of NAB
components.
Acknowledgments
This work has been conducted by funding from the Defence Materials Technology Centre, Program 2, Project 2.2 Surface Processing Technologies for Repair and Improved Performance of
Submarine and Surface Ship Components. The authors would like to acknowledge Brian
Dempster for conducting the laser-processing experiments and the valuable help of Dr Lenore
Pedrina of DSTO with corrosion testing. As well as for ANSTO and AINSE for providing neutron beam time through neutron proposal ID 2310 Residual stress analysis of laser-treated
nickel-aluminum bronze.
Laser surface treatment to improve the surface corrosion properties of nickel-aluminum bronze
481
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