Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Eulers Identity:
e +1=0
CONTAINING FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTARY, HIGH SCHOOL
AND UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS
COMPILED FROM MANY SOURCES BY ALEX SPARTALIS
2009-2013
4/9/2013 9:44:00 PM
Page 1 of 330
REVISION HISTORY
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
08/06/2012
UPDATED: Format
NEW: Multivariable Calculus
UPDATED: Convergence tests
UPDATED: Composite Functions
10/07/2012
NEW: Three Phase Delta & Y
NEW: Electrical Power
14/08/2012
NEW: Factorial
NEW: Electromagnetics
NEW: Linear Algebra
NEW: Mathematical Symbols
NEW: Algebraic Identities
NEW: Graph Theory
UPDATED: Linear Algebra
UPDATED: Linear Transformations
31/08/2012
NEW: Graphical Functions
NEW: Prime numbers
NEW: Power Series Expansion
NEW: Inner Products
UPDATED: Pi Formulas
UPDATED: General Trigonometric Functions Expansion
UPDATED: Linear Algebra
UPDATED: Matrix Inverse
10/09/2012
NEW: Machin-Like Formulae
NEW: Infinite Summations To Pi
NEW: Classical Mechanics
NEW: Relativistic Formulae
NEW: Statistical Distributions
NEW: Logarithm Power Series
NEW: Spherical Triangle Identities
NEW: Bernoulli Expansion
UPDATED: Pi Formulas
UPDATED: Logarithm Identities
UPDATED: Riemann Zeta Function
UPDATED: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
3/10/2012
NEW: QR Factorisation
NEW: Jordan Forms
NEW: Macroeconomics
NEW: Golden Ratio & Fibonacci Sequence
NEW: Complex Vectors and Matrices
NEW: Numerical Computations for Matrices
UPDATED: Prime Numbers
UPDATED: Errors within Matrix Formula
25/10/2012
NEW: USV Decomposition
NEW: Ordinary Differential Equations Using Matrices
NEW: Exponential Identities
UPDATED: Matrix Inverse
CORRECTION: Left and Right Matrix Inverse
31/12/2012
NEW: Applications of Functions
NEW: Higher Order Integration
NEW: Root Expansions
Page 2 of 330
2.9.
2.10.
Page 3 of 330
CONTENTS
REVISION HISTORY
CONTENTS
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1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
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30
31
31
SI PREFIXES:
SI BASE UNITS:
SI DERIVED UNITS:
UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS:
ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS:
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS:
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS:
ADOPTED VALUES:
NATURAL UNITS:
MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS:
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2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
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3.1 AREA:
TRIANGLE:
RECTANGLE:
SQUARE:
PARALLELOGRAM:
RHOMBUS:
TRAPEZIUM:
QUADRILATERAL:
RECTANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS:
REGULAR HEXAGON:
REGULAR OCTAGON:
REGULAR POLYGON:
3.2 VOLUME:
CUBE:
CUBOID:
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PRISIM:
PYRAMID:
TETRAHEDRON:
OCTAHEDRON:
DODECAHEDRON:
ICOSAHEDRON:
3.3 SURFACE AREA:
CUBE:
CUBOIDS:
TETRAHEDRON:
OCTAHEDRON:
DODECAHEDRON:
ICOSAHEDRON:
CYLINDER:
3.4 MISCELLANEOUS:
DIAGONAL OF A RECTANGLE
DIAGONAL OF A CUBOID
LONGEST DIAGONAL (EVEN SIDES)
LONGEST DIAGONAL (ODD SIDES)
TOTAL LENGTH OF EDGES (CUBE):
TOTAL LENGTH OF EDGES (CUBOID):
CIRCUMFERENCE
PERIMETER OF RECTANGLE
SEMI PERIMETER
EULERS FORMULA
3.5 ABBREVIATIONS (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4)
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EVEN PRIME:
FACTORIAL PRIMES:
FERMAT PRIMES:
FIBONACCI PRIMES:
FORTUNATE PRIMES:
GAUSSIAN PRIMES:
GENERALIZED FERMAT PRIMES BASE 10:
GENOCCHI NUMBER PRIMES:
GILDA'S PRIMES:
GOOD PRIMES:
HAPPY PRIMES:
HARMONIC PRIMES:
HIGGS PRIMES FOR SQUARES:
HIGHLY COTOTIENT NUMBER PRIMES:
IRREGULAR PRIMES:
(P, P5) IRREGULAR PRIMES:
(P, P9) IRREGULAR PRIMES:
ISOLATED PRIMES:
KYNEA PRIMES:
LEFT-TRUNCATABLE PRIMES:
LEYLAND PRIMES:
LONG PRIMES:
LUCAS PRIMES:
LUCKY PRIMES:
MARKOV PRIMES:
MERSENNE PRIMES:
MERSENNE PRIME EXPONENTS:
MILLS PRIMES:
MINIMAL PRIMES:
MOTZKIN PRIMES:
NEWMANSHANKSWILLIAMS PRIMES:
NON-GENEROUS PRIMES:
ODD PRIMES:
PADOVAN PRIMES:
PALINDROMIC PRIMES:
PALINDROMIC WING PRIMES:
PARTITION PRIMES:
PELL PRIMES:
PERMUTABLE PRIMES:
PERRIN PRIMES:
PIERPONT PRIMES:
PILLAI PRIMES:
PRIMEVAL PRIMES:
PRIMORIAL PRIMES:
PROTH PRIMES:
PYTHAGOREAN PRIMES:
PRIME QUADRUPLETS:
PRIMES OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORM:
QUARTAN PRIMES:
RAMANUJAN PRIMES:
REGULAR PRIMES:
REPUNIT PRIMES:
PRIMES IN RESIDUE CLASSES:
RIGHT-TRUNCATABLE PRIMES:
SAFE PRIMES:
SELF PRIMES IN BASE 10:
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SEXY PRIMES:
SMARANDACHEWELLIN PRIMES:
SOLINAS PRIMES:
SOPHIE GERMAIN PRIMES:
STAR PRIMES:
STERN PRIMES:
SUPER-PRIMES:
SUPERSINGULAR PRIMES:
SWINGING PRIMES:
THABIT NUMBER PRIMES:
PRIME TRIPLETS:
TWIN PRIMES:
TWO-SIDED PRIMES:
ULAM NUMBER PRIMES:
UNIQUE PRIMES:
WAGSTAFF PRIMES:
WALL-SUN-SUN PRIMES:
WEAKLY PRIME NUMBERS
WIEFERICH PRIMES:
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 3 (MIRIMANOFF PRIMES:)
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 5
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 6
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 7
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 10
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 11
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 12
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 13
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 17
WIEFERICH PRIMES: BASE 19
WILSON PRIMES:
WOLSTENHOLME PRIMES:
WOODALL PRIMES:
4.13 GENERALISATIONS FROM PRIME NUMBERS:
PERFECT NUMBERS:
LIST OF PERFECT NUMBERS:
AMICABLE NUMBERS:
LIST OF AMICABLE NUMBERS:
SOCIABLE NUMBERS:
LIST OF SOCIABLE NUMBERS:
4.14 GOLDEN RATIO & FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:
RELATIONSHIP:
INFINITE SERIES:
CONTINUED FRACTIONS:
TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSIONS:
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:
4.15 FERMATS LAST THEOREM:
4.16 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
AXIOMS:
THEOREMS OF ONE VARIABLE:
THEOREMS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES:
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5.1 2D
TRIANGLE NUMBER
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SQUARE NUMBER
PENTAGONAL NUMBER
5.2 3D
TETRAHEDRAL NUMBER
SQUARE PYRAMID NUMBER
5.3 PERMUTATIONS
PERMUTATIONS:
PERMUTATIONS (WITH REPEATS):
5.4 COMBINATIONS
ORDERED COMBINATIONS:
UNORDERED COMBINATIONS:
ORDERED REPEATED COMBINATIONS:
UNORDERED REPEATED COMBINATIONS:
GROUPING:
5.5 MISCELLANEOUS:
TOTAL NUMBER OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES FROM A A X B RECTANGLE:
NUMBER OF INTERPRETERS:
MAX NUMBER OF PIZZA PIECES:
MAX PIECES OF A CRESCENT:
MAX PIECES OF CHEESE:
CARDS IN A CARD HOUSE:
DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENT OF DOMINOS:
UNIT FRACTIONS:
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO HANDS OF A CLOCK:
WINNING LINES IN NOUGHTS AND CROSSES:
BAD RESTAURANT SPREAD:
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:
ABBREVIATIONS (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5)
5.6 FACTORIAL:
DEFINITION:
TABLE OF FACTORIALS:
APPROXIMATION:
5.7 THE DAY OF THE WEEK:
5.8 BASIC PROBABILITY:
AXIOMS OF PROBABILITY:
COMMUTATIVE LAWS:
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS:
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS:
INDICATOR FUNCTION:
5.9 VENN DIAGRAMS:
COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS:
NULL SET:
TOTALITY:
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY:
UNION:
INDEPENDENT EVENTS:
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE:
SUBSETS:
BAYES THEOREM:
5.11 BASIC STATISTICAL OPERATIONS:
VARIANCE:
ARITHMETIC MEAN:
GEOMETRIC MEAN:
HARMONIC MEAN:
STANDARDIZED SCORE:
QUANTILE:
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PART 7: PI
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7.1 AREA:
CIRCLE:
CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL:
AREA OF A SECTOR (DEGREES)
AREA OF A SECTOR (RADIANS)
AREA OF A SEGMENT (DEGREES)
AREA OF AN ANNULUS:
ELLIPSE:
7.2 VOLUME:
SPHERE:
CAP OF A SPHERE:
CONE:
ICE-CREAM & CONE:
DOUGHNUT:
SAUSAGE:
ELLIPSOID:
7.3 SURFACE AREA:
SPHERE:
HEMISPHERE:
DOUGHNUT:
SAUSAGE:
CONE:
7.4 MISELANIOUS:
LENGTH OF ARC (DEGREES)
LENGTH OF CHORD (DEGREES)
PERIMETER OF AN ELLIPSE
7.6 PI:
ARCHIMEDES BOUNDS:
JOHN WALLIS:
ISAAC NEWTON:
JAMES GREGORY:
SCHULZ VON STRASSNITZKY:
JOHN MACHIN:
LEONARD EULER:
JOZEF HOENE-WRONSKI:
FRANCISCUS VIETA:
INTEGRALS:
INFINITE SERIES:
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CONTINUED FRACTIONS:
7.7 CIRCLE GEOMETRY:
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR RECTANGLES:
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR SQUARES:
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR TRIANGLES:
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR QUADRILATERALS:
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR SQUARES:
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE FOR TRIANGLES:
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE:
RADIUS OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE:
7.8 ABBREVIATIONS (7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7):
7.9 CRESCENT GEOMETRY:
AREA OF A LUNAR CRESCENT:
AREA OF AN ECLIPSE CRESCENT:
7.10 ABBREVIATIONS (7.9):
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99
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8.1 MOVEMENT:
STOPPING DISTANCE:
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION:
CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
DROPPING TIME :
FORCE:
KINETIC ENERGY:
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF A CANNON:
PENDULUM SWING TIME:
POTENTIAL ENERGY:
RANGE OF A CANNON:
TIME IN FLIGHT OF A CANNON:
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
ABBREVIATIONS (8.1):
8.2 CLASSICAL MECHANICS:
NEWTONS LAWS:
INERTIA:
MOMENTS OF INERTIA:
VELOCITY AND SPEED:
ACCELERATION:
TRAJECTORY (DISPLACEMENT):
KINETIC ENERGY:
CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
CIRCULAR MOTION:
ANGULAR MOMENTUM:
TORQUE:
WORK:
LAWS OF CONSERVATION:
ABBREVIATIONS (8.2)
8.3 RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS:
KINETIC ENERGY:
MOMENTUM:
TIME DILATION:
LENGTH CONTRACTION:
RELATIVISTIC MASS:
8.4 ACCOUNTING:
PROFIT:
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PROFIT MARGIN:
SIMPLE INTEREST:
COMPOUND INTEREST:
CONTINUOUS INTEREST:
ABBREVIATIONS (8.4):
8.5 MACROECONOMICS:
GDP:
RGDP:
NGDP:
GROWTH:
NET EXPORTS:
WORKING AGE POPULATION:
LABOR FORCE:
UNEMPLOYMENT:
NATURAL UNEMPLOYMENT:
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE:
EMPLOYMENT RATE:
PARTICIPATION RATE:
CPI:
INFLATION RATE:
ABBREVIATIONS (8.5)
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PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY
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9.1 CONVERSIONS:
9.2 BASIC RULES:
SIN RULE:
COS RULE:
TAN RULE:
AUXILIARY ANGLE:
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM:
PERIODICY:
9.3 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
9.4 BASIC IDENTITES:
9.5 IDENTITIES BETWEEN RELATIONSHIPS:
9.6 ADDITION FORMULAE:
9.7 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE:
9.8 TRIPLE ANGLE FORMULAE:
9.9 HALF ANGLE FORMULAE:
9.10 POWER REDUCTION:
9.11 PRODUCT TO SUM:
9.12 SUM TO PRODUCT:
9.13 HYPERBOLIC EXPRESSIONS:
9.14 HYPERBOLIC RELATIONS:
9.15 MACHIN-LIKE FORMULAE:
FORM:
FORMULAE:
IDENTITIES:
9.16 SPHERICAL TRIANGLE IDENTITIES:
9.17 ABBREVIATIONS (9.1-9.16)
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10.1
121
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY:
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10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
EXPONENTIAL IDENTITIES:
LOG IDENTITIES:
LAWS FOR LOG TABLES:
COMPLEX NUMBERS:
LIMITS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC TERMS
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11.1 GENERAL:
FUNDAMENTAL:
STANDARD FORM:
POLAR FORM:
ARGUMENT:
MODULUS:
CONJUGATE:
EXPONENTIAL:
DE MOIVRES FORMULA:
EULERS IDENTITY:
11.2 OPERATIONS:
ADDITION:
SUBTRACTION:
MULTIPLICATION:
DIVISION:
SUM OF SQUARES:
11.3 IDENTITIES:
EXPONENTIAL:
LOGARITHMIC:
TRIGONOMETRIC:
HYPERBOLIC:
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POLAR TO CARTESIAN:
CARTESIAN TO CYLINDRICAL:
CYLINDRICAL TO CARTESIAN:
SPHERICAL TO CARTESIAN:
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15.5 INVERSE
2X2:
3X3:
MINOR:
COFACTOR:
ADJOINT METHOD FOR INVERSE:
LEFT INVERSE:
RIGHT INVERSE:
PSEUDO INVERSE:
15.6 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
AXIOMS FOR A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION:
TRANSITION MATRIX:
ZERO TRANSFORMATION:
IDENTITY TRANSFORMATION:
15.7 COMMON TRANSITION MATRICIES
ROTATION (CLOCKWISE):
ROTATION (ANTICLOCKWISE):
SCALING:
SHEARING (PARALLEL TO X-AXIS):
SHEARING (PARALLEL TO Y-AXIS):
15.8 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
DEFINITIONS:
EIGENVALUES:
EIGENVECTORS:
CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL:
ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICITY:
GEOMETRIC MULTIPLICITY:
TRANSFORMATION:
LINEARLY INDEPENDENCE:
DIGITALIZATION:
CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM:
ORTHONORMAL SET:
QR FACTORISATION:
15.9 JORDAN FORMS
GENERALISED DIAGONLISATION:
JORDAN BLOCK:
JORDAN FORM:
ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICITY:
GEOMETRIC MULTIPLICITY:
GENERALISED CHAIN:
POWERS:
15.12 SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION
FUNDAMENTALLY:
SIZE:
PSEUDO INVERSE:
PROCEDURE:
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TORTION:
ABBREVIATIONS
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185
17.1 MISCELLANEOUS
GENERAL FORM:
INFINITE FORM:
PARTIAL SUM OF A SERIES:
0.99=1:
17.2 TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE
TEST FOR CONVERGENCE:
TEST FOR DIVERGENCE:
GEOMETRIC SERIES
P SERIES
THE SANDWICH THEOREM
THE INTEGRAL TEST
THE DIRECT COMPARISON TEST
THE LIMIT COMPARISON TEST
DALMBERTS RATIO COMPARISON TEST
THE NTH ROOT TEST
ABELS TEST:
NEGATIVE TERMS
ALTERNATING SERIES TEST
ALTERNATING SERIES ERROR
17.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION:
DEFINITION:
NTH TERM:
SUM OF THE FIRST N TERMS:
17.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION:
DEFINITION:
NTH TERM:
SUM OF THE FIRST N TERMS:
SUM TO INFINITY:
GEOMETRIC MEAN:
17.5 SUMMATION SERIES
LINEAR:
QUADRATIC:
CUBIC:
17.6 APPROXIMATION SERIES
TAYLOR SERIES
MACLAURUN SERIES
LINEAR APPROXIMATION:
QUADRATIC APPROXIMATION:
CUBIC APPROXIMATION:
17.7 MONOTONE SERIES
STRICTLY INCREASING:
NON-DECREASING:
STRICTLY DECREASING:
NON-INCREASING:
CONVERGENCE:
17.8 RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION
FORM:
EULERS TABLE:
ALTERNATING SERIES:
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
185
186
186
186
186
186
186
186
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
189
Page 20 of 330
189
190
190
191
193
193
193
193
193
194
196
197
197
197
198
198
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
201
202
202
202
202
202
202
203
203
203
204
204
205
205
Page 21 of 330
206
206
206
207
207
207
208
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
210
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
1 FACTORS OF A K 2 n GRAPH:
19.3 VERTEX COLOURING:
211
211
Page 22 of 330
CHROMATIC NUMBER:
UNION/INTERSECTION:
EDGE CONTRACTION:
COMMON CHROMATIC POLYNOMIALS:
19.4 EDGE COLOURING:
COMMON CHROMATIC POLYNOMIALS:
212
212
212
212
212
212
213
213
213
213
214
215
216
217
219
220
220
221
221
222
222
222
223
224
226
227
228
229
230
230
232
233
234
234
234
236
238
239
240
241
242
243
245
246
247
248
250
250
251
252
252
253
255
Page 23 of 330
SCALED-INVERSE-CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION
DAGUM DISTRIBUTION
EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION
FISHER'S Z-DISTRIBUTION
FOLDED NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FRCHET DISTRIBUTION
GAMMA DISTRIBUTION
ERLANG DISTRIBUTION
INVERSE-GAMMA DISTRIBUTION
INVERSE GAUSSIAN/WALD DISTRIBUTION
LVY DISTRIBUTION
LOG-CAUCHY DISTRIBUTION
LOG-LOGISTIC DISTRIBUTION
LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
MITTAGLEFFLER DISTRIBUTION
PARETO DISTRIBUTION
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION
RICE DISTRIBUTION
TYPE-2 GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION
WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION
5.22 UNBOUNDED CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTIONS
CAUCHY DISTRIBUTION
EXPONENTIALLY MODIFIED GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION
FISHERTIPPETT/ GENERALIZED EXTREME VALUE DISTRIBUTION
GUMBEL DISTRIBUTION
FISHER'S Z-DISTRIBUTION
GENERALIZED NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
GEOMETRIC STABLE DISTRIBUTION
HOLTSMARK DISTRIBUTION
HYPERBOLIC DISTRIBUTION
HYPERBOLIC SECANT DISTRIBUTION
LAPLACE DISTRIBUTION
LVY SKEW ALPHA-STABLE DISTRIBUTION
LINNIK DISTRIBUTION
LOGISTIC DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL-EXPONENTIAL-GAMMA DISTRIBUTION
SKEW NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
STUDENT'S T-DISTRIBUTION
NONCENTRAL T-DISTRIBUTION
VOIGT DISTRIBUTION
GENERALIZED PARETO DISTRIBUTION
TUKEY LAMBDA DISTRIBUTION
5.23 JOINT DISTRIBUTIONS
DIRICHLET DISTRIBUTION
BALDINGNICHOLS MODEL
MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
MULTIVARIATE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NEGATIVE MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
WISHART DISTRIBUTION
INVERSE-WISHART DISTRIBUTION
MATRIX NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
MATRIX T-DISTRIBUTION
5.24 OTHER DISTRIBUTIONS
CATEGORICAL DISTRIBUTION
CANTOR DISTRIBUTION
Page 24 of 330
256
257
258
261
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
278
279
281
282
283
283
285
285
286
287
288
289
291
291
293
294
294
295
297
297
298
299
299
299
300
301
301
302
303
303
303
304
304
304
305
PHASE-TYPE DISTRIBUTION
TRUNCATED DISTRIBUTION
306
306
308
99.1
99.2
99.3
99.4
99.5
99.6
99.7
99.8
99.9
99.10
99.11
99.12
99.13
99.14
99.15
99.16
99.17
99.18
99.19
99.20
99.21
99.22
99.23
99.24
99.25
99.26
99.27
99.28
99.29
99.30
99.31
99.32
99.33
99.34
99.35
99.36
99.37
99.38
99.39
308
310
311
314
315
315
317
317
319
319
320
320
321
321
322
322
324
325
325
326
326
326
327
327
327
327
327
328
328
328
328
329
329
329
329
329
330
330
330
LENGTH:
AREA:
VOLUME:
PLANE ANGLE:
SOLID ANGLE:
MASS:
DENSITY:
TIME:
FREQUENCY:
SPEED OR VELOCITY:
FLOW (VOLUME):
ACCELERATION:
FORCE:
PRESSURE OR MECHANICAL STRESS:
TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE:
ENERGY, WORK, OR AMOUNT OF HEAT:
POWER OR HEAT FLOW RATE:
ACTION:
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY:
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:
ELECTRIC CURRENT:
ELECTRIC CHARGE:
ELECTRIC DIPOLE:
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:
CAPACITANCE:
MAGNETIC FLUX:
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY:
INDUCTANCE:
TEMPERATURE:
INFORMATION ENTROPY:
LUMINOUS INTENSITY:
LUMINANCE:
LUMINOUS FLUX:
ILLUMINANCE:
RADIATION - SOURCE ACTIVITY:
RADIATION EXPOSURE:
RADIATION - ABSORBED DOSE:
RADIATION - EQUIVALENT DOSE:
Page 25 of 330
SI PREFIXES:
Prefix
yotta
zetta
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
zepto
yocto
1.2
Symbol
Y
Z
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
n
p
f
a
z
y
1000m
10008
10007
10006
10005
10004
10003
10002
10001
10002 3
10001 3
10000
100013
100023
10001
10002
10003
10004
10005
10006
10007
10008
10n
1024
1021
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
100
101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024
Decimal
Scale
1000000000000000000000000
1000000000000000000000
1000000000000000000
1000000000000000
1000000000000
1000000000
1000000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
0.000000001
0.000000000001
0.000000000000001
0.000000000000000001
0.000000000000000000001
0.000000000000000000000001
Septillion
Sextillion
Quintillion
Quadrillion
Trillion
Billion
Million
Thousand
Hundred
Ten
One
Tenth
Hundredth
Thousandth
Millionth
Billionth
Trillionth
Quadrillionth
Quintillionth
Sextillionth
Septillionth
SI BASE UNITS:
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
length
meter
mass
kilogram
kg
time
second
electric current
ampere
thermodynamic
temperature
kelvin
amount of substance
mole
mol
luminous intensity
candela
cd
Page 26 of 330
1.3
SI DERIVED UNITS:
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
angle, plane
angle, solid
radian*
steradian*
degree
Celsius
farad
rad
sr
coulomb
siemens
henry
C
S
H
Celsius temperature
electric capacitance
electric charge, quantity
of electricity
electric conductance
electric inductance
electric potential
difference, electromotive
force
electric resistance
energy, work, quantity of
heat
force
frequency (of a periodic
phenomenon)
illuminance
luminous flux
magnetic flux
magnetic flux density
power, radiant flux
pressure, stress
activity (referred to a
radionuclide)
absorbed dose, specific
energy imparted, kerma
dose equivalent, ambient
dose equivalent,
directional dose
equivalent, personal dose
equivalent, organ dose
equivalent
catalytic activity
C
F
volt
ohm
joule
newton
J
N
hertz
lux
lumen
weber
tesla
watt
pascal
Hz
lx
lm
Wb
T
W
Pa
becquerel
Bq
V/A
Nm
kgm/s2
1/s
lm/m2
cdsr
Vs
Wb/m2
J/s
N/m2
1/s
J/kg
gray
Gy
J/kg
sievert
katal
Sv
kat
Page 27 of 330
mol/s
1.4
UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS:
Quantity
speed of light in
vacuum
Newtonian constant of
gravitation
Planck constant
reduced Planck
constant
1.5
Relative Standard
Uncertainty
Value
299 792 458 ms1
defined
5.0 108
ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS:
Quantity
magnetic constant
(vacuum permeability)
electric constant (vacuum
permittivity)
characteristic impedance
of vacuum
Coulomb's constant
elementary charge
Bohr magneton
conductance quantum
inverse conductance
quantum
Josephson constant
magnetic flux quantum
nuclear magneton
von Klitzing constant
1.6
Symbol
Symbol
Relative Standard
Uncertainty
defined
defined
defined
defined
2.5 108
2.5 108
6.8 1010
6.8 1010
6.8 1010
Quantity
Symbol
5.291 772
108(18) 1011
m
2.817 940
2894(58) 1015
m
9.109 382 15(45)
1031 kg
1.166 39(1)
105 GeV2
7.297 352 537
6(50) 103
4.359 744 17(75)
1018 J
1.672 621
637(83) 1027
kg
3.636 947
550(24) 104
m s1
10 973 731.568
525(73) m1
6.652 458 73(13)
1029 m
Bohr radius
classical
electron radius
electron mass
Fermi coupling
constant
fine-structure
constant
Hartree energy
proton mass
quantum of
circulation
Rydberg
constant
Thomson cross
section
weak mixing
angle
1.7
0.222 15(76)
Relative Standard
Uncertainty
3.3 109
2.1 109
5.0 108
8.6 106
6.8 1010
1.7 107
5.0 108
6.7 109
6.6 1012
2.0 108
3.4 103
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS:
Quantity
Symbol
Relative
Standard
Uncertainty
1.7 107
1.7 107
1.8 106
8.6 108
5.0 108
constant
for
spectral
radiance
at
T=273.15
Loschmidt
K and
constant
p=101.325
kPa
1.8
1.7 107
1.8 106
8.314 472(15)
1.7 106
JK1mol1
3.990 312 716(27)
6.7 109
1010 Jsmol1
gas constant
at
T=273.15
K and
molar
p=100 kPa
volume of
an ideal at
T=273.15
gas
K and
p=101.325
kPa
at T=1 K
and p=100
kPa
SackurTetrode at T=1 K
constant and
p=101.325
kPa
second radiation
constant
StefanBoltzmann
constant
Wien displacement
law constant
2.2710 981(40)
102 mmol1
1.7 106
2.2413 996(39)
102 mmol1
1.7 106
3.8 106
3.8 106
ADOPTED VALUES:
Quantity
Symbol
conventional value of
Josephson constant
conventional value of von
Klitzing constant
molar mass
Value (SI
units)
4.835 979
1014 HzV1
Relative Standard
Uncertainty
defined
25 812.807 defined
constant
1 103
kgmol1
defined
of carbon-12
1.2 102
defined
Page 30 of 330
kgmol1
standard acceleration of
gravity (gee, free-fall on
Earth)
standard atmosphere
1.9
9.806 65
ms2
defined
101 325 Pa
defined
NATURAL UNITS:
Name
Dimension
Expression
Planck length
Length (L)
1.616252(81) 1035 m
Planck mass
Mass (M)
2.17644(11) 108 kg
Planck time
Time (T)
5.39124(27) 1044 s
Planck charge
1.875545870(47) 1018 C
1.416785(71) 1032 K
MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS:
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510582097494459230781640628620899862803482
5342117067982148086513282306647093844609550582231725359408128481117450284102701938521105559
6446229489549303819644288109756659334461284756482337867831652712019091456485669234603486104
5432664821339360726024914127372458700660631558817488152092096282925409171536436789259036001
1330530548820466521384146951941511609433057270365759591953092186117381932611793105118548074
4623799627495673518857527248912279381830119491298336733624406566430860213949463952247371907
0217986094370277053921717629317675238467481846766940513200056812714526356082778577134275778
9609173637178721468440901224953430146549585371050792279689258923542019956112129021960864034
4181598136297747713099605187072113499999983729780499510597317328160963185950244594553469083
0264252230825334468503526193118817101000313783875288658753320838142061717766914730359825349
0428755468731159562863882353787593751957781857780532171226806613001927876611195909216420199
e
2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995957496696762772407663035354759457138217
8525166427427466391932003059921817413596629043572900334295260595630738132328627943490763233
8298807531952510190115738341879307021540891499348841675092447614606680822648001684774118537
4234544243710753907774499206955170276183860626133138458300075204493382656029760673711320070
9328709127443747047230696977209310141692836819025515108657463772111252389784425056953696770
7854499699679468644549059879316368892300987931277361782154249992295763514822082698951936680
3318252886939849646510582093923982948879332036250944311730123819706841614039701983767932068
3282376464804295311802328782509819455815301756717361332069811250996181881593041690351598888
5193458072738667385894228792284998920868058257492796104841984443634632449684875602336248270
4197862320900216099023530436994184914631409343173814364054625315209618369088870701676839642
4378140592714563549061303107208510383750510115747704171898610687396965521267154688957035035
Page 31 of 330
1.61803398874989484820458683436563811772030917980576286213544862270526046281890244970720720
4189391137484754088075386891752126633862223536931793180060766726354433389086595939582905638
3226613199282902678806752087668925017116962070322210432162695486262963136144381497587012203
4080588795445474924618569536486444924104432077134494704956584678850987433944221254487706647
8091588460749988712400765217057517978834166256249407589069704000281210427621771117778053153
1714101170466659914669798731761356006708748071013179523689427521948435305678300228785699782
9778347845878228911097625003026961561700250464338243776486102838312683303724292675263116533
9247316711121158818638513316203840052221657912866752946549068113171599343235973494985090409
4762132229810172610705961164562990981629055520852479035240602017279974717534277759277862561
9432082750513121815628551222480939471234145170223735805772786160086883829523045926478780178
8992199027077690389532196819861514378031499741106926088674296226757560523172777520353613936
Page 32 of 330
equality
inequality
greater than
less than
greater than or equal to
less than or equal to
calculate expression inside first
calculate expression inside first
addition
subtraction
both plus and minus operations
5 = 2+3
54
5>4
4<5
54
45
2 (3+5) = 16
[(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
1+1=2
21=1
3 5 = 8 and -2
minus - plus
asterisk
times sign
multiplication dot
division sign / obelus
division slash
multiplication
multiplication
multiplication
division
division
3 5 = -2 and 8
2*3=6
23=6
23=6
62=3
6/2=3
horizontal line
division / fraction
modulo
period
power
caret
remainder calculation
decimal point, decimal separator
exponent
exponent
7 mod 2 = 1
2.56 = 2+56/100
23 = 8
2 ^ 3= 8
square root
a a = a
9 = 3
Symbol
=
>
<
()
[]
+
mod
.
ab
a^b
a
a
4
a
n
a
%
ppm
ppb
ppt
3
2.2
cube root
forth root
n-th root (radical)
percent
per-mille
per-million
per-billion
per-trillion
Meaning / definition
Example
8 = 2
16 = 2
for n=3, n8 = 2
10% 30 = 3
10 30 = 0.3
10ppm 30 = 0.0003
10ppb 30 = 310-7
10ppb 30 = 310-10
3
4
1% = 1/100
1 = 1/1000 = 0.1%
1ppm = 1/1000000
1ppb = 1/1000000000
1ppb = 10-12
GEOMETRY SYMBOLS
Symbol
Symbol Name
angle
measured angle
spherical angle
right angle
degree
arcminute
Meaning / definition
formed by two rays
Example
ABC = 30
ABC
= 30
AOB = 30
= 90
1 turn = 360
1 = 60
Page 33 of 330
= 90
= 60
= 6059'
AB
= 6059'59''
arcsecond
line
1 = 60
line from point A to point B
ray
perpendicular
AC | BC
||
parallel
parallel lines
AB || CD
congruent to
similarity
ABC ~ XYZ
triangle
triangle shape
ABC BCD
| x-y |
distance
| x-y | = 5
= 3.141592654...
rad
grad
2.3
pi constant
radians
grads
360 = 2 rad
360 = 400 grad
ALGEBRA SYMBOLS
Symbol
Symbol Name
x
x variable
equivalence
Meaning / definition
unknown value to find
identical to
Example
when 2x = 4, then x = 2
equal by definition
equal by definition
:=
~
equal by definition
equal by definition
approximately equal
approximately equal
weak approximation
approximation
11 ~ 10
sin(0.01) 0.01
proportional to
proportional to
f(x) g(x)
lemniscate
infinity symbol
1 1000000
()
[]
{}
parentheses
brackets
braces
1000000 1
2 * (3+5) = 16
[(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
floor brackets
4.3= 4
x
x!
|x|
f (x)
ceiling brackets
exclamation mark
single vertical bar
function of x
factorial
absolute value
maps values of x to f(x)
4.3= 5
4! = 1*2*3*4 = 24
| -5 | = 5
f (x) = 3x+5
(f g)
function composition
(f g) (x) = f (g(x))
(a,b)
open interval
x (2,6)
[a,b]
closed interval
[a,b] {x | a x b}
change / difference
= b2 - 4ac
summation - sum of all values in range of
series
x [2,6]
t = t1 - t0
delta
discriminant
sigma
Page 34 of 330
xi= x1+x2+...+xn
double summation
capital pi
xi=x1x2...xn
e = 2.718281828...
e = lim (1+1/x)x , x
e constant / Euler's
number
Euler-Mascheroni
constant
golden ratio
2.4
sigma
= 0.527721566...
golden ratio constant
AB
Symbol Name
dot
cross
Meaning / definition
scalar product
vector product
Example
ab
ab
tensor product
AB
inner product
[]
()
|A|
det(A)
|| x ||
2.5
brackets
parentheses
determinant
determinant
double vertical bars
matrix of numbers
matrix of numbers
determinant of matrix A
determinant of matrix A
norm
AT
transpose
matrix transpose
(AT)ij = (A)ji
Hermitian matrix
(A)ij = (A)ji
A*
Hermitian matrix
(A*)ij = (A)ji
A -1
inverse matrix
A A-1 = I
rank(A)
matrix rank
rank of matrix A
rank(A) = 3
dim(U)
dimension
dimension of matrix A
rank(U) = 3
E(X)
E(X | Y)
Symbol Name
probability function
probability of events
intersection
probability of events
union
conditional probability
function
probability density
function (pdf)
cumulative distribution
function (cdf)
population mean
expectation value
Meaning / definition
probability of event A
P(A) = 0.5
Example
P(AB) = 0.5
P(AB) = 0.5
P(A | B) = 0.3
P(a x b) = f (x) dx
F(x) = P(X x)
= 10
E(X) = 10
E(X | Y=2) = 5
var(X)
2
variance
variance
std(X)
standard deviation
standard deviation
median
covariance
corr(X,Y)
correlation
X,Y
correlation
summation
double summation
double summation
Mo
mode
MR
mid-range
MR = (xmax+xmin)/2
Md
Q1
sample median
lower / first quartile
Q3
x
s2
s
zx
X~
N(,2)
U(a,b)
exp()
gamma(c, )
2(k)
standard score
zx = (x-x) / sx
distribution of X
normal distribution
uniform distribution
exponential distribution
gamma distribution
chi-square distribution
F distribution
Bin(n,p)
binomial distribution
Poisson()
Poisson distribution
f (k) = ke- / k!
geometric distribution
f (k) = p (1-p) k
HG(N,K,n)
Bern(p)
X = 2
F (k1, k2)
Geom(p)
std(X) = 2
cov(X,Y)
Q2
var(X) = 4
2 = 4
hyper-geometric
distribution
Bernoulli distribution
Page 36 of 330
X ~ N(0,3)
X ~ N(0,3)
X ~ U(0,3)
2.6
COMBINATORICS SYMBOLS
Symbol
Symbol Name
n!
factorial
nPk
Meaning / definition
n! = 123...n
Example
5! = 12345 = 120
permutation
5P3
= 5! / (5-3)! = 60
combination
5 C3
= 5!/[3!(5-3)!]=10
n Ck
2.7
set
AB
intersection
AB
union
AB
subset
AB
Meaning / definition
Example
a collection of elements
A={3,7,9,14}, B={9,14,28}
objects that belong to set A and set
A B = {9,14}
B
objects that belong to set A or set
A B = {3,7,9,14,28}
B
subset has less elements or equal to
{9,14,28} {9,14,28}
the set
subset has less elements than the
{9,14} {9,14,28}
set
AB
not subset
{9,66} {9,14,28}
AB
superset
{9,14,28} {9,14,28}
AB
AB
2A
not superset
power set
all subsets of A
(A)
power set
all subsets of A
A=B
equality
Ac
Symbol Name
complement
A\B
relative complement
A-B
relative complement
AB
symmetric difference
AB
symmetric difference
{9,14,28} {9,66}
A={3,9,14},
B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
A={3,9,14},
B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
A={3,9,14},
B={1,2,3}, A B={1,2,9,14}
A={3,9,14},
B={1,2,3}, A B={1,2,9,14}
aA
element of
set membership
A={3,9,14}, 3 A
xA
(a,b)
not element of
no set membership
A={3,9,14}, 1 A
AB
cartesian product
|A|
#A
ordered pair
cardinality
cardinality
collection of 2 elements
set of all ordered pairs from A and
B
the number of elements of set A
A={3,9,14}, |A|=3
the number of elements of set A
A={3,9,14}, #A=3
Page 37 of 330
infinite cardinality
={}
set of all possible values
C = {}
0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...}
0 0
aleph
empty set
universal set
natural numbers set (with
zero)
natural numbers set
(without zero)
1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...}
6 1
= {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
-6
= {x | x=a/b, a,b}
2/6
= {x | - < x <}
6.343434
= {z | z=a+bi, -<a<,
<b<}
2.8
6+2i
LOGIC SYMBOLS
Symbol
Symbol Name
Meaning / definition
Example
and
and
x y
caret / circumflex
and
x^y
&
ampersand
and
x&y
plus
or
x+y
reversed caret
or
xy
vertical line
or
x|y
x'
single quote
not - negation
x'
bar
not - negation
not
not - negation
exclamation mark
not - negation
!x
exclusive or - xor
xy
tilde
negation
~x
implies
equivalent
for all
there exists
therefore
because / since
if and only if
Page 38 of 330
2.9
Symbol Name
Meaning / definition
limit
e
y'
y ''
y(n)
e = lim (1+1/x)x , x
(3x3)' = 9x2
(3x3)'' = 18x
(3x3)(3) = 18
derivative
d(3x3)/dx = 9x2
second derivative
derivative of derivative
d2(3x3)/dx2 = 18x
nth derivative
n times derivation
time derivative
derivative of derivative
epsilon
integral
opposite to derivation
double integral
triple integral
[a,b]
(a,b)
i
z*
z
[a,b] = {x | a x b}
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}
i -1
z = a+bi z*=a-bi
z = a+bi z = a-bi
z = 3 + 2i
z* = 3 + 2i
z = 3 + 2i
nabla / del
f (x,y,z)
vector
unit vector
x*y
(x2+y2)/x = 2x
partial derivative
Example
convolution
Laplace transform
F(s) = {f (t)}
Fourier transform
X() = {f (t)}
delta function
Page 39 of 330
AREA:
Triangle:
Rectangle:
Square:
Parallelogram:
Rhombus:
Trapezium:
Quadrilateral:
1
1
a 2 sin B sin C
A = bh = ab sin C =
= s (s a )(s b )(s c )
2
2
2 sin A
A = lw
A = a2
A = bh = ab sin A
A = a 2 sin A
a+b
A = h
A=
d1 d 2 sin I
2
Rectangle with rounded corners: A = lw r 2 (4 )
A=
Regular Hexagon:
Regular Octagon:
Regular Polygon:
3.2
A=
na
180
4 tan
VOLUME:
Cube:
Cuboid:
Prisim:
Pyramid:
Tetrahedron:
Octahedron:
Dodecahedron:
Icosahedron:
3.3
3 3 a2
2
A = 2 1+ 2 a2
A=
V = a3
V = abc
V = A(b ) h
1
V = A(b ) h
3
2
V=
a3
12
2
V=
a3
3
15 + 7 5
V=
a3
4
53+ 5
V=
a3
12
SURFACE AREA:
Cube:
Cuboids:
SA = 6a 2
SA = 2(ab + bc + ca )
Page 40 of 330
Tetrahedron:
SA = 3 a 2
Octahedron:
SA = 2 3 a 2
Dodecahedron:
SA = 3 25 + 10 5 a 2
Icosahedron:
Cylinder:
SA = 5 3 a 2
SA = 2r (h + r )
3.4
MISCELLANEOUS:
Diagonal of a Rectangle
d = l 2 + w2
d = a2 + b2 + c2
a
Longest Diagonal (Even Sides)
=
180
sin
n
a
Longest Diagonal (Odd Sides)
=
90
2 sin
n
Total Length of Edges (Cube):
= 12a
Total Length of Edges (Cuboid): = 4(a + b + c )
Diagonal of a Cuboid
Circumference
Perimeter of rectangle
Semi perimeter
Eulers Formula
3.5
C = 2r = d
P = 2(a + b )
P
s=
2
Faces + Verticies = Edges + 2
A=area
a=side a
b=base
b=side b
C=circumference
C=central angle
c=side c
d=diameter
d=diagonal
d1=diagonal 1
d2=diagonal 2
E=external angle
h=height
I=internal angle
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
r=radius
Page 41 of 330
r1=radius 1
s=semi-perimeter
SA=Surface Area
V=Volume
w=width
Page 42 of 330
POLYNOMIAL FORMULA:
Qudaratic:
Where ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,
b b 2 4ac
2a
3
2
Where ax + bx + cx + d = 0 ,
b
Let, x = y
3a
3
2
b
b
b
a y + b y + c y + d = 0
3a
3a
3a
b2
bc
2b 3
ay 3 + c y + d +
= 0
2
3a
3a
27a
x=
Cubic:
b2
2b 3
bc
c
d +
2
3a
3a
27a
y3 +
y+
=0
a
a
b2
bc
2b 3
c
d +
2
3a
3a
27a
y3 +
y =
a
a
2
b
c
3a
Let, A =
= 3st...(1)
a
2b 3
bc
d +
27 a 2 3a
Let, B =
= s 3 t 3 ...(2)
a
y 3 + Ay = B
y 3 + 3sty = s 3 t 3
(s
Let, u = t 3
A3
u + Bu
=0
27
2
Page 43 of 330
ie : u 2 + u + = 0
=1
=B
A3
=
27
2 4
u=
2
u=
B B2 +
4 A3
27
2
4 A3
B B +
27
2
2
t = 3 u =
3
B B2 + 4A
3
27
s3 = B + t 3 = B +
3
B B2 + 4A
3
27
s = 3 B +
Now, y = s t
3
4 A3
B B2 + 4A
2
B
+
3
27 3
27
y = 3 B+
2
2
b
Now, x = y
3a
3
3
3
4
A
4
A
B B2 +
B B2 +
3
3
27
27 b
x = 3 B+
3a
2
2
2
3
b
2b
bc
c
d +
2
3a
3a
27 a
Where, A =
&B =
a
a
Page 44 of 330
4.2
FUNDAMENTALS OF ARITHMETIC:
(r 1) + (r + 1)
2
1 x is rational
Irrational Numbers: lim lim cos 2 n (m! x ) =
m n
0 x is irrational
4.3
ALGEBRAIC EXPANSION:
Babylonian Identity:
(c1800BC)
Binomial Theorem:
For any value of n, whether positive, negative, integer or non-integer, the value of the nth
power of a binomial is given by:
Binomial Expansion:
For any power of n, the binomial (a + x) can be expanded
Page 45 of 330
This is particularly useful when x is very much less than a so that the first few terms provide a
good approximation of the value of the expression. There will always be n+1 terms and the
general form is:
BrahmaguptaFibonacci Identity:
Also,
Note that:
Page 46 of 330
and,
4.4
1
k
ROOT EXPANSIONS:
kx ky
) =(
2
x y
x y=
1
k
x y=
y
1
y
x y=
1
x xy
x
kx ky
x
y
x y = k
k
k
4.5
LIMIT MANIPULATIONS:
)(
( )
lim(a b ) = (lim(a ))(lim(b ))
lim( f (a )) = f (lim(a ))
n
lim(kan ) = k lim(an )
n
n
n n
LHopitals Rule:
f ' ( x)
exists (ie g ' ( x) 0, x = a ), then it follows that
lim( f ( x) ) = lim( g ( x) ) = 0 or , and lim
xa
x a
xa g ' ( x )
f ( x)
f ' ( x)
= lim
lim
xa g ( x )
x a g ' ( x )
If
Proof:
f ( x)
f ( x) (x a )
( f ( x) f (a) ) (x a )
= lim
= lim
lim
xa g ( x )
xa g ( x) ( x a ) xa ( g ( x ) g ( a ) ) ( x a )
( f ( x) f (a) )
lim
xa
(x a )
f ' ( x) f ' (a)
=
=
= lim
x
a
g ' ( x) g ' (a )
(g ( x) g (a) )
lim
xa
(x a )
Page 47 of 330
4.6
SUMMATION MANIPULATIONS:
, where C is a constant
4.7
COMMON FUNCTIONS:
Constant Function:
y=a or f (x)=a
Line/Linear Function:
y = mx + c
Graph is a line with point (0,c) and slope m.
Where the gradient is between any two points ( x1 , y1 ) & ( x2 , y 2 )
Page 48 of 330
m=
rise y 2 y1
=
run x2 x1
Also, y = y1 + m( x x1 )
The equation of the line with gradient m .and passing through the point
( x1 , y1 ) .
Parabola/Quadratic Function:
y = a ( x h) 2 + k
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a
vertex at (h,k).
y = ax 2 + bx + c
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a
b b
vertex at
, f
.
2a 2a
x = ay 2 + by + c
The graph is a parabola that opens right if a > 0 or left if a < 0 and has a
b b
vertex at g
,
. This is not a function.
2a 2a
Circle:
(x h )2 + ( y k )2 = r 2
Graph is a circle with radius r and center (h,k).
Ellipse:
(x h )2 + ( y k )2
a2
b2
=1
Graph is an ellipse with center (h,k) with vertices a units right/left from
the center and vertices b units up/down from the center.
Hyperbola:
(x h )2 ( y k )2
a2
b2
=1
Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and right, has a center at (h,k) ,
vertices a units left/right of center and asymptotes that pass through
b
center with slope .
a
( y k )2 (x h )2
b2
a2
=1
Page 49 of 330
4.8
LINEAR ALGEBRA:
Subspace:
When the subspace is a subset of another vector space, only axioms (a) and (b)
need to be proved to show that the subspace is also a vector space.
Common Spaces:
Page 50 of 330
Real Numbers
Complex Numbers:
Polynomials
All continuous functions
Then, c1 = c 2 = c n = 0
If the trivial solution is the only solution, r1 , r2 ,...rn are
independent.
r ( A) r ( A | b) : No Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) = n : Unique Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) < n : Infinite Solutions
Basis:
S is a basis of V if:
S spans V
S is linearly dependant
S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }
Page 51 of 330
x
y
The general vector within the vector space is: w =
z
...
w = c1u1 + c2 u 2 + c3u3 + ... + cn u n
u11 u 21 u31 ... u n1 c1
u
u 22 u32 ... u n 2 c2
12
Therefore,
[w] = u13 u 23 u33 ... u n3 c3
... ... ... ... ... ...
u1n u 2 n u 3n ... u nn cn
If the determinant of the square matrix is not zero, the matrix is invertible.
Therefore, the solution is unique. Hence, all vectors in w are linear
combinations of S. Because of this, S spans w.
Standard Basis:
Real Numbers
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
n
S ( ) = 0 , 0 , 1 ,..., 0
... ... ... ...
0 0 0 1
Polynomials
S ( Pn ) = 1, x, x 2 , x 3 ,..., x n
Any set the forms the basis of a vector space must contain the same number of linearly
independent vectors as the standard basis.
Orthogonal Complement:
W is the nullspace of A, where A is the matrix that contains {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn } in rows.
dim(W ) = nullity ( A)
Orthonormal Basis:
A basis of mutually orthogonal vectors of length 1. Basis can be found with the GramSchmidt process outline below.
0 i j
< vi , v j >=
1 i = j
In an orthonormal basis:
Gram-Schmidt Process:
This finds an orthonormal basis recursively.
Page 52 of 330
In a basis
B = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }
q1 = u1
^
v1 = q1 =
q1
q1
vn = q n =
qn
qn
Coordinate Vector:
If
v = c1e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en
c1
c
vB = 2
...
c n
For a fixed basis (usually the standard basis) there is 1 to 1 correspondence between
vectors and coordinate vectors.
Hence, a basis can be found in Rn and then translated back into the general vector
space.
Dimension:
dim( n ) = n
dim( Pn ) = n + 1
dim( M p ,q ) = p q
Real Numbers
Polynomials
Matricis
If you know the dimensions and you are checking if a set forms a basis of the vector
space, only Linear Independence or Span needs to be checked.
4.9
Form:
a1 + ib1
a + ib
2
n
C = 2
...
a n + ibn
Dot Product:
_
u v = u1 v1 + u 2 v 2 + ... + u n v n
Where:
Page 53 of 330
u v = vu vu
(u + v) w = u w + v w
su v = s (u v), s C
u u 0
u u = 0 iff u = 0
Inner Product:
u = u u =
u1 + u 2 + ... + u n
2
d (u , v) = u v
Orthogonal if u v = 0
Parallel if u = sv, s C
4.10
Transition Matrix:
v B ' = C BB 'v B
For a general vector space with the standard basis:
S = {s1 , s 2 ,..., s n }
V = span({v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn })
B1 = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn }
U = span({u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m })
B2 = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m }
4.
^
Unit Vector: u =
< u , u > 0
< u , u >= 0 iff u = 0
u
u
< u , v > 2 < u , u > < v, v >
Cavchy-Schuarz Inequality:
Inner Product Space:
1
< u, v >
1 1 < u , v > 1
< u , v > u v
u v
u v
u 0, u = 0 iff u = 0
2
ku = k u
u+v = u + v
Angle between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
< u, v >
cos( ) =
u v
Orthogonal if: < u , v >= 0
Distance between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
d (u , v) = u v
Generalised Pythagoras for orthogonal vectors:
2
2
2
u+v = u + v
4.12
PRIME NUMBERS:
Determinate: ( N ) =
1 +
N +1
0 if N is odd and composite
2
2k + 1 N
2k + 1
k =1 N
3
1+
N
11
13
17
19
23
29
31
37
41
43
47
53
59
61
67
71
73
79
83
89
97
101
103
107
109
113
127
131
137
139
149
151
157
163
167
173
179
181
191
193
197
199
211
223
227
229
233
239
241
251
257
263
269
271
277
281
283
293
307
311
313
317
331
337
347
349
353
359
367
373
379
383
389
397
401
409
419
421
431
433
439
443
449
457
461
463
467
479
487
491
499
503
509
521
523
541
547
557
563
569
571
577
587
593
599
601
607
613
617
619
631
641
643
647
653
659
661
673
677
683
691
701
709
719
727
733
739
743
751
757
761
769
773
787
797
809
811
821
823
827
829
839
853
857
859
863
877
881
883
887
907
911
919
929
937
941
Page 55 of 330
947
953
967
971
977
983
991
997
1009
1013
1019
1021
1031
1033
1039
1049
1051
1061
1063
1069
1087
1091
1093
1097
1103
1109
1117
1123
1129
1151
1153
1163
1171
1181
1187
1193
1201
1213
1217
1223
1229
1231
1237
1249
1259
1277
1279
1283
1289
1291
1297
1301
1303
1307
1319
1321
1327
1361
1367
1373
1381
1399
1409
1423
1427
1429
1433
1439
1447
1451
1453
1459
1471
1481
1483
1487
1489
1493
1499
1511
1523
1531
1543
1549
1553
1559
1567
1571
1579
1583
1597
1601
1607
1609
1613
1619
1621
1627
1637
1657
1663
1667
1669
1693
1697
1699
1709
1721
1723
1733
1741
1747
1753
1759
1777
1783
1787
1789
1801
1811
1823
1831
1847
1861
1867
1871
1873
1877
1879
1889
1901
1907
1913
1931
1933
1949
1951
1973
1979
1987
1993
1997
1999
2003
2011
2017
2027
2029
2039
2053
2063
2069
2081
2083
2087
2089
2099
2111
2113
2129
2131
2137
2141
2143
2153
2161
2179
2203
2207
2213
2221
2237
2239
2243
2251
2267
2269
2273
2281
2287
2293
2297
2309
2311
2333
2339
2341
2347
2351
2357
2371
2377
2381
2383
2389
2393
2399
2411
2417
2423
2437
2441
2447
2459
2467
2473
2477
2503
2521
2531
2539
2543
2549
2551
2557
2579
2591
2593
2609
2617
2621
2633
2647
2657
2659
2663
2671
2677
2683
2687
2689
2693
2699
2707
2711
2713
2719
2729
2731
2741
2749
2753
2767
2777
2789
2791
2797
2801
2803
2819
2833
2837
2843
2851
2857
2861
2879
2887
2897
2903
2909
2917
2927
2939
2953
2957
2963
2969
2971
2999
3001
3011
3019
3023
3037
3041
3049
3061
3067
3079
3083
3089
3109
3119
3121
3137
3163
3167
3169
3181
3187
3191
3203
3209
3217
3221
3229
3251
3253
3257
3259
3271
3299
3301
3307
3313
3319
3323
3329
3331
3343
3347
3359
3361
3371
3373
3389
3391
3407
3413
3433
3449
3457
3461
3463
3467
3469
3491
3499
3511
3517
3527
3529
3533
3539
3541
3547
3557
3559
3571
Annihilating primes:
Primes: such that d(p) = 0, where d(p) is the shadow of a sequence of natural numbers
3, 7, 11, 17, 47, 53, 61, 67, 73, 79, 89, 101, 139, 151, 157, 191, 199
Carol primes:
Of the form (2n1)2 2.
7, 47, 223, 3967, 16127, 1046527, 16769023, 1073676287, 68718952447, 274876858367, 4398042316799,
1125899839733759, 18014398241046527, 1298074214633706835075030044377087
Page 56 of 330
43, 71, 197, 463, 547, 953, 1471, 1933, 2647, 2843, 3697, 4663, 5741, 8233, 9283, 10781, 11173, 12391, 14561,
18397, 20483, 29303, 29947, 34651, 37493, 41203, 46691, 50821, 54251, 56897, 57793, 65213, 68111, 72073,
76147, 84631, 89041, 93563
Chen primes:
Where p is prime and p+2 is either a prime or semiprime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 47, 53, 59, 67, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139,
149, 157, 167, 179, 181, 191, 197, 199, 211, 227, 233, 239, 251, 257, 263, 269, 281, 293, 307, 311, 317, 337,
347, 353, 359, 379, 389, 401, 409
Circular primes:
A circular prime number is a number that remains prime on any cyclic rotation of its digits (in base 10).
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 113, 131, 197, 199, 311, 337, 373, 719, 733, 919, 971, 991, 1193,
1931, 3119, 3779, 7793, 7937, 9311, 9377, 11939, 19391, 19937, 37199, 39119, 71993, 91193, 93719, 93911,
99371, 193939, 199933, 319993, 331999, 391939, 393919, 919393, 933199, 939193, 939391, 993319, 999331
Cousin primes:
Where (p, p+4) are both prime.
(3, 7), (7, 11), (13, 17), (19, 23), (37, 41), (43, 47), (67, 71), (79, 83), (97, 101), (103, 107), (109, 113), (127,
131), (163, 167), (193, 197), (223, 227), (229, 233), (277, 281)
Cuban primes:
x3 y3
3
Of the form
, x = y + 1 ( y + 1) y 3
x y
7, 19, 37, 61, 127, 271, 331, 397, 547, 631, 919, 1657, 1801, 1951, 2269, 2437, 2791, 3169, 3571, 4219, 4447,
5167, 5419, 6211, 7057, 7351, 8269, 9241, 10267, 11719, 12097, 13267, 13669, 16651, 19441, 19927, 22447,
23497, 24571, 25117, 26227, 27361, 33391, 35317
( y + 2) y 3
x3 y3
Of the form
,x = y+2
x y
2
3
13, 109, 193, 433, 769, 1201, 1453, 2029, 3469, 3889, 4801, 10093, 12289, 13873, 18253, 20173, 21169, 22189,
28813, 37633, 43201, 47629, 60493, 63949, 65713, 69313, 73009, 76801, 84673, 106033, 108301, 112909,
115249
Cullen primes:
Dihedral primes:
Primes: that remain prime when read upside down or mirrored in a seven-segment display.
2, 5, 11, 101, 181, 1181, 1811, 18181, 108881, 110881, 118081, 120121, 121021, 121151, 150151, 151051,
151121, 180181, 180811, 181081
Emirps:
Primes which become a different prime when their decimal digits are reversed.
13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 107, 113, 149, 157, 167, 179, 199, 311, 337, 347, 359, 389, 701, 709, 733, 739,
743, 751, 761, 769, 907, 937, 941, 953, 967, 971, 983, 991
Euclid primes:
Of the form pn# + 1 (a subset of primorial prime:).
3, 7, 31, 211, 2311, 200560490131
Even prime:
Of the form 2n.
2
Factorial primes:
Of the form n! 1 or n! + 1.
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 719, 5039, 39916801, 479001599, 87178291199, 10888869450418352160768000001,
265252859812191058636308479999999, 263130836933693530167218012159999999,
8683317618811886495518194401279999999
Fermat primes:
2n +1
Of the form 2
+1
3, 5, 17, 257, 65537
Fibonacci primes:
Primes in the Fibonacci sequence
2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, 433494437, 2971215073, 99194853094755497,
1066340417491710595814572169, 19134702400093278081449423917
Fortunate primes:
Fortunate numbers that are prime
3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 23, 37, 47, 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 89, 101, 103, 107, 109, 127, 151, 157, 163, 167, 191, 197, 199,
223, 229, 233, 239, 271, 277, 283, 293, 307, 311, 313, 331, 353, 373, 379, 383, 397
Gaussian primes:
Prime elements of the Gaussian integers (primes: of the form 4n + 3).
3, 7, 11, 19, 23, 31, 43, 47, 59, 67, 71, 79, 83, 103, 107, 127, 131, 139, 151, 163, 167, 179, 191, 199, 211, 223,
227, 239, 251, 263, 271, 283, 307, 311, 331, 347, 359, 367, 379, 383, 419, 431, 439, 443, 463, 467, 479, 487,
491, 499, 503
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Gilda's primes:
Gilda's numbers that are prime.
29, 683, 997, 2207, 30571351
Good primes:
Primes: pn for which pn2 > pni pn+i for all 1 i n1, where pn is the nth prime.
5, 11, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 59, 67, 71, 97, 101, 127, 149, 179, 191, 223, 227, 251, 257, 269, 307
Happy primes:
Happy numbers that are prime.
7, 13, 19, 23, 31, 79, 97, 103, 109, 139, 167, 193, 239, 263, 293, 313, 331, 367, 379, 383, 397, 409, 487, 563,
617, 653, 673, 683, 709, 739, 761, 863, 881, 907, 937, 1009, 1033, 1039, 1093
Harmonic primes:
Primes p for which there are no solutions to Hk 0 (mod p) and Hk p (mod p) for 1 k p2, where pis the
Wolstenholme quotient.
5, 13, 17, 23, 41, 67, 73, 79, 107, 113, 139, 149, 157, 179, 191, 193, 223, 239, 241, 251, 263, 277, 281, 293, 307,
311, 317, 331, 337, 349
Irregular primes:
Odd primes p which divide the class number of the p-th cyclotomic field.
37, 59, 67, 101, 103, 131, 149, 157, 233, 257, 263, 271, 283, 293, 307, 311, 347, 353, 379, 389, 401, 409, 421,
433, 461, 463, 467, 491, 523, 541, 547, 557, 577, 587, 593, 607, 613, 617, 619
Isolated primes:
Primes p such that neither p2 nor p+2 is prime.
2, 23, 37, 47, 53, 67, 79, 83, 89, 97, 113, 127, 131, 157, 163, 167, 173, 211, 223, 233, 251, 257, 263, 277, 293,
307, 317, 331, 337, 353, 359, 367, 373, 379, 383, 389, 397, 401, 409, 439, 443, 449, 457, 467, 479, 487, 491,
499, 503, 509, 541, 547, 557, 563, 577, 587, 593, 607, 613, 631, 647, 653, 673, 677, 683, 691, 701, 709, 719,
727, 733, 739, 743, 751, 757, 761, 769, 773, 787, 797, 839, 853, 863, 877, 887, 907, 911, 919, 929, 937, 941,
947, 953, 967, 971, 977, 983, 991, 997
Kynea primes:
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Left-truncatable primes:
Primes that remain prime when the leading decimal digit is successively removed.
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 23, 37, 43, 47, 53, 67, 73, 83, 97, 113, 137, 167, 173, 197, 223, 283, 313, 317, 337, 347, 353,
367, 373, 383, 397, 443, 467, 523, 547, 613, 617, 643, 647, 653, 673, 683
Leyland primes:
Of the form xy + yx, with 1 < x y.
17, 593, 32993, 2097593, 8589935681, 59604644783353249, 523347633027360537213687137,
43143988327398957279342419750374600193
Long primes:
Primes p for which, in a given base b,
b p 1 1
gives a cyclic number. They are also called full reptend primes:.
p
Lucas primes:
Primes in the Lucas number sequence L0 = 2, L1 = 1, Ln = Ln1 + Ln2.
2, 3, 7, 11, 29, 47, 199, 521, 2207, 3571, 9349, 3010349, 54018521, 370248451, 6643838879, 119218851371,
5600748293801, 688846502588399, 32361122672259149
Lucky primes:
Lucky numbers that are prime.
3, 7, 13, 31, 37, 43, 67, 73, 79, 127, 151, 163, 193, 211, 223, 241, 283, 307, 331, 349, 367, 409, 421, 433, 463,
487, 541, 577, 601, 613, 619, 631, 643, 673, 727, 739, 769, 787, 823, 883, 937, 991, 997
Markov primes:
Primes p for which there exist integers x and y such that x2 + y2 + p2 = 3xyp.
2, 5, 13, 29, 89, 233, 433, 1597, 2897, 5741, 7561, 28657, 33461, 43261, 96557, 426389, 514229, 1686049,
2922509, 3276509, 94418953, 321534781, 433494437, 780291637, 1405695061, 2971215073, 19577194573,
25209506681
Mersenne primes:
Of the form 2n 1.
3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287, 2147483647, 2305843009213693951, 618970019642690137449562111,
162259276829213363391578010288127, 170141183460469231731687303715884105727
Mills primes:
Of the form
, where is Mills' constant. This form is prime for all positive integers n.
2, 11, 1361, 2521008887, 16022236204009818131831320183
3n
Minimal primes:
Primes for which there is no shorter sub-sequence of the decimal digits that form a prime. There are exactly 26
minimal primes::
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 19, 41, 61, 89, 409, 449, 499, 881, 991, 6469, 6949, 9001, 9049, 9649, 9949, 60649, 666649,
946669, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049
Motzkin primes:
Primes that are the number of different ways of drawing non-intersecting chords on a circle between n points.
2, 127, 15511, 953467954114363
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NewmanShanksWilliams primes:
NewmanShanksWilliams numbers that are prime.
7, 41, 239, 9369319, 63018038201, 489133282872437279, 19175002942688032928599
Non-generous primes:
Primes p for which the least positive primitive root is not a primitive root of p2.
2, 40487, 6692367337
Odd primes:
Of the form 2n 1.
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113,
127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199...
Padovan primes:
Primes in the Padovan sequence P(0) = P(1) = P(2) = 1, P(n) = P(n2) + P(n3).
2, 3, 5, 7, 37, 151, 3329, 23833, 13091204281, 3093215881333057,
1363005552434666078217421284621279933627102780881053358473
Palindromic primes:
Primes that remain the same when their decimal digits are read backwards.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 373, 383, 727, 757, 787, 797, 919, 929, 10301, 10501, 10601,
11311, 11411, 12421, 12721, 12821, 13331, 13831, 13931, 14341, 14741
Partition primes:
Partition numbers that are prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 101, 17977, 10619863, 6620830889, 80630964769, 228204732751, 1171432692373,
1398341745571, 10963707205259, 15285151248481, 10657331232548839, 790738119649411319,
18987964267331664557
Pell primes:
Primes in the Pell number sequence P0 = 0, P1 = 1, Pn = 2Pn1 + Pn2.
2, 5, 29, 5741, 33461, 44560482149, 1746860020068409, 68480406462161287469,
13558774610046711780701, 4125636888562548868221559797461449
Permutable primes:
Any permutation of the decimal digits is a prime.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 31, 37, 71, 73, 79, 97, 113, 131, 199, 311, 337, 373, 733, 919, 991, 1111111111111111111,
11111111111111111111111
Perrin primes:
Primes in the Perrin number sequence P(0) = 3, P(1) = 0, P(2) = 2, P(n) = P(n2) + P(n3).
2, 3, 5, 7, 17, 29, 277, 367, 853, 14197, 43721, 1442968193, 792606555396977, 187278659180417234321,
66241160488780141071579864797
Pierpont primes:
Of the form 2u3v + 1 for some integers u,v 0.
These are also class 1- primes:.
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 37, 73, 97, 109, 163, 193, 257, 433, 487, 577, 769, 1153, 1297, 1459, 2593, 2917, 3457,
3889, 10369, 12289, 17497, 18433, 39367, 52489, 65537, 139969, 147457
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Pillai primes:
Primes p for which there exist n > 0 such that p divides n!+ 1 and n does not divide p1.
23, 29, 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 83, 109, 137, 139, 149, 193, 227, 233, 239, 251, 257, 269, 271, 277, 293, 307, 311,
317, 359, 379, 383, 389, 397, 401, 419, 431, 449, 461, 463, 467, 479, 499
Primeval primes:
Primes for which there are more prime permutations of some or all the decimal digits than for any smaller
number.
2, 13, 37, 107, 113, 137, 1013, 1237, 1367, 10079
Primorial primes:
Of the form pn# 1 or pn# + 1.
3, 5, 7, 29, 31, 211, 2309, 2311, 30029, 200560490131, 304250263527209,
23768741896345550770650537601358309
Proth primes:
Pythagorean primes:
Of the form 4n + 1.
5, 13, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 61, 73, 89, 97, 101, 109, 113, 137, 149, 157, 173, 181, 193, 197, 229, 233, 241, 257,
269, 277, 281, 293, 313, 317, 337, 349, 353, 373, 389, 397, 401, 409, 421, 433, 449
Prime quadruplets:
Where (p, p+2, p+6, p+8) are all prime.
(5, 7, 11, 13), (11, 13, 17, 19), (101, 103, 107, 109), (191, 193, 197, 199), (821, 823, 827, 829), (1481, 1483,
1487, 1489), (1871, 1873, 1877, 1879), (2081, 2083, 2087, 2089), (3251, 3253, 3257, 3259), (3461, 3463, 3467,
3469), (5651, 5653, 5657, 5659), (9431, 9433, 9437, 9439)
Quartan primes:
Ramanujan primes:
Integers Rn that are the smallest to give at least n primes: from x/2 to x for all x Rn (all such integers are
primes:).
2, 11, 17, 29, 41, 47, 59, 67, 71, 97, 101, 107, 127, 149, 151, 167, 179, 181, 227, 229, 233, 239, 241, 263, 269,
281, 307, 311, 347, 349, 367, 373, 401, 409, 419, 431, 433, 439, 461, 487, 491
Regular primes:
Primes p which do not divide the class number of the p-th cyclotomic field.
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 107, 109, 113, 127, 137, 139, 151,
163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199, 211, 223, 227, 229, 239, 241, 251, 269, 277, 281
Repunit primes:
Primes containing only the decimal digit 1.
11, 1111111111111111111, 11111111111111111111111
The next have 317 and 1,031 digits.
Three cases have their own entry: 2n+1 are the odd primes:, 4n+1 are Pythagorean primes:, 4n+3 are the integer
Gaussian primes:.
2n+1: 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53
4n+1: 5, 13, 17, 29, 37, 41, 53, 61, 73, 89, 97, 101, 109, 113, 137
4n+3: 3, 7, 11, 19, 23, 31, 43, 47, 59, 67, 71, 79, 83, 103, 107
6n+1: 7, 13, 19, 31, 37, 43, 61, 67, 73, 79, 97, 103, 109, 127, 139
6n+5: 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 113
8n+1: 17, 41, 73, 89, 97, 113, 137, 193, 233, 241, 257, 281, 313, 337, 353
8n+3: 3, 11, 19, 43, 59, 67, 83, 107, 131, 139, 163, 179, 211, 227, 251
8n+5: 5, 13, 29, 37, 53, 61, 101, 109, 149, 157, 173, 181, 197, 229, 269
8n+7: 7, 23, 31, 47, 71, 79, 103, 127, 151, 167, 191, 199, 223, 239, 263
10n+1: 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 211, 241, 251, 271, 281
10n+3: 3, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83, 103, 113, 163, 173, 193, 223, 233, 263
10n+7: 7, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 107, 127, 137, 157, 167, 197, 227, 257, 277
10n+9: 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 109, 139, 149, 179, 199, 229, 239, 269, 349, 359
10n+d (d = 1, 3, 7, 9) are primes: ending in the decimal digit d.
Right-truncatable primes:
Primes that remain prime when the last decimal digit is successively removed.
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 29, 31, 37, 53, 59, 71, 73, 79, 233, 239, 293, 311, 313, 317, 373, 379, 593, 599, 719, 733, 739, 797,
2333, 2339, 2393, 2399, 2939, 3119, 3137, 3733, 3739, 3793, 3797
Safe primes:
Where p and (p1) / 2 are both prime.
5, 7, 11, 23, 47, 59, 83, 107, 167, 179, 227, 263, 347, 359, 383, 467, 479, 503, 563, 587, 719, 839, 863, 887, 983,
1019, 1187, 1283, 1307, 1319, 1367, 1439, 1487, 1523, 1619, 1823, 1907
Sexy primes:
Where (p, p+6) are both prime.
(5, 11), (7, 13), (11, 17), (13, 19), (17, 23), (23, 29), (31, 37), (37, 43), (41, 47), (47, 53), (53, 59), (61, 67), (67,
73), (73, 79), (83, 89), (97, 103), (101, 107), (103, 109), (107, 113), (131, 137), (151, 157), (157, 163), (167,
173), (173, 179), (191, 197), (193, 199)
SmarandacheWellin primes:
Primes which are the concatenation of the first n primes: written in decimal.
2, 23, 2357
The fourth Smarandache-Wellin prime is the 355-digit concatenation of the first 128 primes: which end with 719.
Solinas primes:
Star primes:
Of the form 6n(n 1) + 1.
13, 37, 73, 181, 337, 433, 541, 661, 937, 1093, 2053, 2281, 2521, 3037, 3313, 5581, 5953, 6337, 6733, 7561,
7993, 8893, 10333, 10837, 11353, 12421, 12973, 13537, 15913, 18481
Page 63 of 330
Stern primes:
Primes that are not the sum of a smaller prime and twice the square of a nonzero integer.
2, 3, 17, 137, 227, 977, 1187, 1493
Super-primes:
Primes with a prime index in the sequence of prime numbers (the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, ... prime).
3, 5, 11, 17, 31, 41, 59, 67, 83, 109, 127, 157, 179, 191, 211, 241, 277, 283, 331, 353, 367, 401, 431, 461, 509,
547, 563, 587, 599, 617, 709, 739, 773, 797, 859, 877, 919, 967, 991
Supersingular primes:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 41, 47, 59, 71
Swinging primes:
Primes which are within 1 of a swinging factorial: n 1.
2, 3, 5, 7, 19, 29, 31, 71, 139, 251, 631, 3433, 12011
Prime triplets:
Where (p, p+2, p+6) or (p, p+4, p+6) are all prime.
(5, 7, 11), (7, 11, 13), (11, 13, 17), (13, 17, 19), (17, 19, 23), (37, 41, 43), (41, 43, 47), (67, 71, 73), (97, 101,
103), (101, 103, 107), (103, 107, 109), (107, 109, 113), (191, 193, 197), (193, 197, 199), (223, 227, 229), (227,
229, 233), (277, 281, 283), (307, 311, 313), (311, 313, 317), (347, 349, 353)
Twin primes:
Where (p, p+2) are both prime.
(3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61), (71, 73), (101, 103), (107, 109), (137, 139), (149,
151), (179, 181), (191, 193), (197, 199), (227, 229), (239, 241), (269, 271), (281, 283), (311, 313), (347, 349),
(419, 421), (431, 433), (461, 463)
Two-sided primes:
Primes which are both left-truncatable and right-truncatable. There are exactly fifteen two-sided primes::
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 37, 53, 73, 313, 317, 373, 797, 3137, 3797, 739397
Unique primes:
The list of primes p for which the period length of the decimal expansion of 1/p is unique (no other prime gives
the same period).
3, 11, 37, 101, 9091, 9901, 333667, 909091, 99990001, 999999000001, 9999999900000001,
909090909090909091, 1111111111111111111, 11111111111111111111111, 900900900900990990990991
Wagstaff primes:
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Wall-Sun-Sun primes:
A prime p > 5 if p2 divides the Fibonacci number
p 1 if p 1
=
5 1 if p 2
p
p
5
p
is defined as
5
(mod 5)
As of 2011, no Wall-Sun-Sun primes: are known.
(mod 5)
Wieferich primes:
Primes p for which p2 divides 2p1 1.
1093, 3511
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Wilson primes:
Wolstenholme primes:
Primes p for which the binomial coefficient
2 p 1
1 (mod p 4 )
p
16843, 2124679
Woodall primes:
Of the form n2n 1.
7, 23, 383, 32212254719, 2833419889721787128217599, 195845982777569926302400511,
4776913109852041418248056622882488319
4.13
Perfect Numbers:
Perfect number
Digits
Year
1
2
3
4
2
3
5
7
6
28
496
8128
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
13
17
19
31
61
89
107
127
521
607
1279
2203
2281
3217
4253
4423
9689
9941
33550336
8589869056
8
10
12
19
37
54
65
77
314
366
770
1327
1373
1937
2561
2663
5834
5985
1456
1588
1588
1772
1883
1911
1914
1876
1952
1952
1952
1952
1952
1957
1961
1961
1963
1963
Page 66 of 330
Discoverer
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
11213
19937
21701
23209
44497
86243
110503
132049
216091
756839
859433
1257787
1398269
2976221
3021377
6972593
13466917
20996011
24036583
25964951
6751
12003
13066
13973
26790
51924
66530
79502
130100
455663
517430
757263
841842
1791864
1819050
4197919
8107892
12640858
14471465
15632458
1963
1971
1978
1979
1979
1982
1988
1983
1985
1992
1994
1996
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
2003
2004
2005
43
30402457
18304103
2005
44
45
46
47
32582657
37156667
42643801
43112609
19616714
22370543
25674127
25956377
2006
2008
2009
2008
Gillies
Tuckerman
Noll & Nickel
Noll
Nelson & Slowinski
Slowinski
Colquitt & Welsh
Slowinski
Slowinski
Slowinski & Gage
Slowinski & Gage
Slowinski & Gage
Armengaud, Woltman, et al.
Spence, Woltman, et al.
Clarkson, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Hajratwala, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Cameron, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Shafer, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Findley, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Nowak, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
al.
Elvenich, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Strindmo, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Smith, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Amicable Numbers: Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of
the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.
List of Amicable Numbers:
Amicable Pairs
220
1,184
2,620
5,020
6,232
10,744
12,285
17,296
63,020
66,928
67,095
69,615
79,750
100,485
122,265
122,368
141,664
142,310
171,856
284
1,210
2,924
5,564
6,368
10,856
14,595
18,416
76,084
66,992
71,145
87,633
88,730
124,155
139,815
123,152
153,176
168,730
176,336
Amicable Pairs
1,328,470
1,358,595
1,392,368
1,466,150
1,468,324
1,511,930
1,669,910
1,798,875
2,082,464
2,236,570
2,652,728
2,723,792
2,728,726
2,739,704
2,802,416
2,803,580
3,276,856
3,606,850
3,786,904
Amicable Pairs
1,483,850 8,619,765
1,486,845 8,666,860
1,464,592 8,754,130
1,747,930 8,826,070
1,749,212 9,071,685
1,598,470 9,199,496
2,062,570 9,206,925
1,870,245 9,339,704
2,090,656 9,363,584
2,429,030 9,478,910
2,941,672 9,491,625
2,874,064 9,660,950
3,077,354 9,773,505
2,928,136 10,254,970
2,947,216 10,533,296
3,716,164 10,572,550
3,721,544 10,596,368
3,892,670 10,634,085
4,300,136 10,992,735
Page 67 of 330
9,627,915
10,638,356
10,893,230
10,043,690
9,498,555
9,592,504
10,791,795
9,892,936
9,437,056
11,049,730
10,950,615
10,025,290
11,791,935
10,273,670
10,949,704
10,854,650
11,199,112
14,084,763
12,070,305
176,272
185,368
196,724
280,540
308,620
319,550
356,408
437,456
469,028
503,056
522,405
600,392
609,928
624,184
635,624
643,336
667,964
726,104
802,725
879,712
898,216
947,835
998,104
1,077,890
1,154,450
1,156,870
1,175,265
1,185,376
1,280,565
180,848
203,432
202,444
365,084
389,924
430,402
399,592
455,344
486,178
514,736
525,915
669,688
686,072
691,256
712,216
652,664
783,556
796,696
863,835
901,424
980,984
1,125,765
1,043,096
1,099,390
1,189,150
1,292,570
1,438,983
1,286,744
1,340,235
3,805,264
4,238,984
4,246,130
4,259,750
4,482,765
4,532,710
4,604,776
5,123,090
5,147,032
5,232,010
5,357,625
5,385,310
5,459,176
5,726,072
5,730,615
5,864,660
6,329,416
6,377,175
6,955,216
6,993,610
7,275,532
7,288,930
7,489,112
7,577,350
7,677,248
7,800,544
7,850,512
8,262,136
4,006,736
4,314,616
4,488,910
4,445,050
5,120,595
6,135,962
5,162,744
5,504,110
5,843,048
5,799,542
5,684,679
5,812,130
5,495,264
6,369,928
6,088,905
7,489,324
6,371,384
6,680,025
7,418,864
7,158,710
7,471,508
8,221,598
7,674,088
8,493,050
7,684,672
7,916,696
8,052,488
8,369,864
11,173,460
11,252,648
11,498,355
11,545,616
11,693,290
11,905,504
12,397,552
12,707,704
13,671,735
13,813,150
13,921,528
14,311,688
14,426,230
14,443,730
14,654,150
15,002,464
15,363,832
15,938,055
16,137,628
16,871,582
17,041,010
17,257,695
17,754,165
17,844,255
17,908,064
18,056,312
18,194,715
18,655,744
13,212,076
12,101,272
12,024,045
12,247,504
12,361,622
13,337,336
13,136,528
14,236,136
15,877,065
14,310,050
13,985,672
14,718,712
18,087,818
15,882,670
16,817,050
15,334,304
16,517,768
17,308,665
16,150,628
19,325,698
19,150,222
17,578,785
19,985,355
19,895,265
18,017,056
18,166,888
22,240,485
19,154,336
3370604
4938136
5753864
5504056
5423384
7169104
7538660
8292568
7520432
C5 Poulet 1918 5D
12496 2^4*11*71
14288 2^4*19*47
15472 2^4*967
14536 2^3*23*79
14264 2^3*1783
C6 Moews&Moews 1992 11D
21548919483 3^5*7^2*13*19*17*431
23625285957 3^5*7^2*13*19*29*277
24825443643 3^2*7^2*13*19*11*20719
26762383557 3^4*7^2*13*19*27299
25958284443 3^2*7^2*13*19*167*1427
23816997477 3^2*7^2*13*19*218651
C6 Moews&Moews 1995 11D/12D
90632826380 2^2*5*109*431*96461
101889891700 2^2*5^2*31*193*170299
127527369100 2^2*5^2*31*181*227281
159713440756 2^2*31*991*1299709
129092518924 2^2*31*109*9551089
106246338676 2^2*17*25411*61487
C6 Needham 2006 13D
1771417411016 2^3*11*20129743307
1851936384424 2^3*7*1637*20201767
2118923133656 2^3*7*863*43844627
2426887897384 2^3*59*5141711647
2200652585816 2^3*43*1433*4464233
2024477041144 2^3*253059630143
C6 Needham 2006 13D
3524434872392 2^3*7*17*719*5149009
4483305479608 2^3*89*6296777359
4017343956392 2^3*13*17*3019*752651
4574630214808 2^3*607*6779*138967
4018261509992 2^3*31*59*274621481
3890837171608 2^3*61*22039*361769
Page 69 of 330
358336
418904
366556
274924
275444
243760
376736
381028
285778
152990
122410
97946
48976
45946
22976
22744
19916
17716
2^6*11*509
2^3*52363
2^2*91639
2^2*13*17*311
2^2*13*5297
2^4*5*11*277
2^5*61*193
2^2*95257
2*43*3323
2*5*15299
2*5*12241
2*48973
2^4*3061
2*22973
2^6*359
2^3*2843
2^2*13*383
2^2*43*103
4.14
Relationship:
= 1.6180339887498948482045868343656381177203091798058
Infinite Series:
Continued Fractions:
Page 71 of 330
Trigonometric Expressions:
Fibonacci Sequence:
F ( n) =
n (1 ) n
5
n ( ) n
5
n
1 1 + 5 1 5
F ( n) =
5 2 2
4.15
4.16
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
Axioms:
Axiom
B = 0 if B 1
0 =1
00 = 0
11 = 1
0 1 = 1 0 = 0
Dual
B = 1 if B 0
1= 0
1+1 = 1
0+0 = 0
0 +1 = 1+ 0 = 1
Page 72 of 330
Name
Binary Field
NOT
AND/OR
AND/OR
AND/OR
Theorem
B+0= B
B +1 = 1
B+B= B
B=B
BB = 0
Dual
Name
Identity
Null Element
Idempotency
Involution
B + B =1
Complements
BC = C B
(B C ) D = B (C D )
(B C ) + (B D ) = B (C + D )
B (B + C ) = B
Dual
B+C =C + B
(B + C ) + D = B + (C + D )
(B + C ) (B + D ) = B + (C D )
B + (B C ) = B
Name
Commutativity
Associativity
Distributivity
Covering
Combining
(B C ) + (B C ) = B
(B + C ) (B + C ) = B
(B C ) + (B D ) + (C D ) = B C + B D (B C ) + (B D ) + (C D ) = B C +Consesnus
B1 B2 ... = B1 + B2 + ...
B1 + B2 + ... = B1 B2 ...
Page 73 of 330
De Morgans
2D
n(n + 1)
2
2
n = Tn + Tn 1
Triangle Number
Tn =
Square Number
Tn = n 2
n(3n 1)
Tn =
2
Pentagonal Number
5.2
3D
Tetrahedral Number
Square Pyramid Number
n 3 + 3n 2 + 2n
6
3
2n + 3n 2 + n
Tn =
6
Tn =
5.3
PERMUTATIONS
Permutations:
= n!
5.4
n!
(groupA)!(groupB )!...
COMBINATIONS
Ordered Combinations:
Unordered Combinations:
n!
(n p )!
n
n!
= =
p p!(n p )!
( p + n 1)!
p!(n 1)!
n n n1 n n1 n2
n!
... =
=
n3
n1!n2 !n3!...nr !
n1 n2
5.5
MISCELLANEOUS:
Total Number of Rectangles and Squares from a a x b rectangle:
= Ta Tb
Number of Interpreters:
Max number of pizza pieces:
Max pieces of a crescent:
Max pieces of cheese:
= TL 1
c(c + 1)
=
+1
2
c(c + 3)
=
+1
2
c 3 + 5c
=
+1
6
Page 74 of 330
l (3l + 1)
2
nd
Different arrangement of dominos: = 2 n!
=
b
a MOD
a
1
a
Unit Fractions:
=
+
b
b
b
INT + 1 b INT + 1
a
a
P
1 s
n
n
1 1 + 5 1 5
Fibonacci Sequence: =
5 2 2
a=side a
b=side b
c=cuts
d=double dominos
h=hours
L=Languages
l=layers
m=minutes
n= nth term
n=n number
P=Premium/Starting Quantity
p=number you pick
r=number of roles/turns
s=spread factor
T=Term
=the angle
5.6
FACTORIAL:
Definition:
n!= n (n 1) (n 2) ... 2 1
Table of Factorials:
0!
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
1 (by definition)
1
2
6
24
120
720
5040
11!
12!
13!
14!
15!
16!
17!
Page 75 of 330
39916800
479001600
6227020800
87178291200
1307674368000
20922789888000
355687428096000
8!
9!
10!
Approximation:
5.7
40320
362880
3628800
n! 2 n
n+
18!
19!
20!
1
2
e n
6402373705728000
121645100408832000
2432902008176640000
31m y y y
= MOD7 d + y +
+
+
12 4 100 400
d=day
m=month
y=year
SQUARE BRAKETS MEAN INTEGER DIVISION
INT=Keep the integer
MOD=Keep the remainder
5.8
BASIC PROBABILITY:
Axioms of Probability:
1. P( ) = 1 for the eventspace
2. P( A) [0,1] for any event A.
3. If A1 and A2 are disjoint, then P( A1 A2 ) = P( A1 ) + P( A2 )
Generally, if
Commutative Laws:
Associative Laws:
Distributive Laws:
Indicator Function:
5.9
Ai are mutually disjoint, then P U Ai = P( Ai )
i =1 i =1
A B = B A
A B = B A
( A B ) C = A (B C )
( A B ) C = A (B C )
( A B ) C = ( A C ) (B C )
( A B ) C = ( A C ) (B C )
1 if point is D
D =
0 if point is D
VENN DIAGRAMS:
Complementary Events:
Null Set:
()
1 P ( A) = P A
P( ) = 0
m
Totality:
P( A) = P ( A | Bi ) P( Bi )
i =1
P( A) = P ( A | B1 ) P( B1 ) + P( A | B2 ) P ( B2 ) + ...
where Bi B j = for i j
P( A) = P( A B ) + P( A B ' )
Page 76 of 330
P( A B )
P (B )
P( A B ) = P(B ) P( A | B ) = P( A) P (B | A) (Multiplication Law)
P( A B ) = P( A) + P(B ) P( A B ) (Addition Law)
P ( A B ) = P ( A) P ( B )
P ( A B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) P ( A) P ( B )
P (B | A) = P (B )
P( A1 A2 ... Ak ) = P( A1 )P( A2 )...P( Ak )
P( A B ) = 0
P( A B ') = P( A)
P ( A B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )
P ( A B ') = P ( B ')
if A B then P( A) P(B )
P( A | B ) =
Conditional Probability:
Union:
Independent Events:
Mutually Exclusive:
Subsets:
Bayes Theorem:
P( B | A) =
P( A | B ) P( B)
P( A | B ) P( B)
=
P ( A)
P ( A | B) P ( B) + P( A | B' ) P( B' )
P( A) = P( A Bi )
Events Space:
i =1
Confidence Interval:
Quantile:
The pth of quantile of the distribution F is defined to be the value xp such that
F ( x p ) = p or P( X x p ) = p
x p = F 1 ( p )
5.12
Standard Deviation:
(x
ns
Expected Value:
Page 77 of 330
E[ X ] = P ( xi ) xi
1
E[aX + b] = aE[ X ] + b
Variance:
(x
v=
ns
v = (E [x E[ x]])
v = E[ x 2 ] (E[ x])
var[aX + b] = a 2 var[ X ]
Probability Mass Function: P( x) = f ( x) = P( X = x)
Cumulative Distribution Function: F ( x) = P( X x)
F ( x + 0) = F ( x)
5.13
COMMON DRVs:
Bernoulli Trial:
Definition:
Example:
Outcomes:
Probability:
Expected Value:
Variance:
S X = {0,1}
x =1
p
PX ( x) =
1 p x = 0
E[ X ] = p
Var[ X ] = p p 2 = p(1 p )
Binomial Trial:
Definition:
Example:
Outcomes:
Probability:
Expected Value:
Variance:
S X = {0,1,2,3,...n}
n
x
n x
PX ( x ) = ( p ) (1 p )
x
E[ X ] = np
Var[ X ] = np(1 p )
Poisson Distribution:
Definition:
Example:
Outcomes:
Probability:
Expected Value:
Variance:
S X = {0,1,2,3,...n}
x
e , = np
x!
E[ X ] = np =
Var[ X ] = np =
PX ( x ) =
Page 78 of 330
Expected Value:
Variance:
S X = {0,1,2,3,...}
PX (x ) = p (1 p )
1
E[ X ] =
p
1 p
Var[ X ] = 2
p
x 1
x 1 x
p (1 p )n x
PX ( x ) =
n 1
k
E[ X ] =
p
kn(1 p )
Var[ X ] =
p2
Hypergeometric Trial:
Definition:
Example:
Probability:
Expected Value:
r n r
k m k
PX ( x ) =
n
m
mr
E[ X ] =
n
n = number of balls
r = number of black balls
m = number of balls drawn from urn without replacement
k = number of black balls drawn from urn
If
f ( x ) dx
Interval Probability:
Page 79 of 330
E ( x) =
Expected Value:
x f ( x)dx
E ( g ( x)) =
g ( x) f ( x)dx
Var ( X ) = E ( X 2 ) ( E ( X )) 2
Variance:
5.15
COMMON CRVs:
Uniform Distribution:
Declaration:
PDF:
X ~ Uniform(a, b)
1
a xb
f ( x) = b a
0
otherwise
0
xa
F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx =
b a
1
x
CDF:
Expected Value:
Variance:
a+b
2
2
(
b a)
=
12
Exponential Distribution:
Declaration:
X ~ Exponential ( )
Page 80 of 330
x<a
a xb
x>b
PDF:
0
f ( x ) = x
e
CDF:
F ( x) =
x<0
x0
f ( x)dx = 1 e
x<0
x0
1
= 2
Expected Value:
Variance:
Normal Distribution:
Declaration:
Standardized Z Score:
X ~ Normal ( , 2 )
x
Z=
1 x
1
f ( x) =
e2
2
PDF:
z2
1
e2
2
CDF:
Expected Value:
Variance:
5.16
BIVARIABLE DISCRETE:
Probability:
P ( X = x, Y = y ) = f ( x, y )
Marginal Distribution:
f X ( x ) = f ( xi , y )
y
f Y ( y ) = f ( x, yi )
x
Expected Value:
E[ X ] = x f X ( x)
x
E[Y ] = y f Y ( y )
y
E[ X , Y ] = x y f X ,Y ( x, y )
x
Independence:
f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) f Y ( y )
Covariance:
Cov = E[ X , Y ] E[ X ] E[Y ]
5.17
BIVARIABLE CONTINUOUS:
Conditions:
f X ,Y ( x, y ) 0 &
f (x, y )dxdy = 1
X ,Y
Probability:
P( X x, Y y ) = FX ,Y ( x, y ) =
y x
X ,Y
( x, y )dxdy
( x)dx
( y )dy
D = {( x, y ) : x (a, b ), y ( ( x ), ( x ))}
b (x )
f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy =
a
f ( x, y )dydx
( )
X ,Y
D = {( x, y ) : x ( ( x ), ( x )), y (c, d )}
d (x )
f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy =
f (x, y )dxdy
c (x )
X ,Y
d (x )
c (x)
f X ,Y ( x, y )dydx =
( )
x
f (x, y )dxdy = 1
X ,Y
Marginal Distribution:
b
Page 82 of 330
Measure:
mes(D ) = f X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy where f X ,Y ( x, y ) = 1
D
Expected Value:
E[ X ] = x f X ( x)dx
y f
E[Y ] =
( y )dy
E[ X , Y ] =
x y f
X ,Y
( x, y )dxdy
Independence:
Conditional:
f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) f Y ( y )
f ( x, y )
f X |Y ( x | y ) = X ,Y
fY ( y)
f X |Y ( x | y ) = f X ( x | Y = y )
P( X A | Y = y ) = f X (x | Y = y )dx
A
Covariance:
Correlation Coefficient:
Cov = E[ X , Y ] E[ X ] E[Y ]
Cov( X , Y )
X ,Y =
XY
y x
X ,Y
( x, y )dxdy
k=
dxdy
1
mes( D)
k=
1
mes( D)
1
2 X Y 1 2
2 1 2
(x X
X2
)2 + ( y Y )2 2 ( x X )( y Y )
Y2
XY
5.18
Sums (Discrete):
Z = X +Y
Z = z iff X = x, Y = z x
f Z ( z ) = P (Z = z ) = P ( X = x , Y = z x ) = f X , Y ( x , z x )
x
f X ( x ) & fY ( x ) )
f Z ( z ) = f X , Y ( x, z x ) = f X ( x ) f Y ( z x )
x
Sums (Continuous):
Z = X +Y
Z z iff ( X , Y ) is in the region {x + y z}
FZ ( z ) = P(Z z ) =
zx
f (x, y )dydx
X ,Y
zx
zx
dFZ
d
d
f Z (z ) =
(z ) = f X ,Y (x, y )dydx = f X ,Y (x, y )dy dx = f X ,Y (x, z x )dx
z
dz
dz
f X ( x ) & fY ( x ) )
f Z (z ) =
Quotients (Discrete):
Z =Y /X
Z = z iff X = x, Y = zx
f Z ( z ) = P(Z = z ) = P( X = x, Y = zx ) = f X ,Y ( x, zx )
x
f Z ( z ) = f X ,Y ( x, z x ) = f X (x ) fY ( zx )
x
Quotients (Continuous):
Z =Y /X
Z z iff ( X , Y ) is in the region {y / x z}
If x > 0 , then y < zx . If x < 0 , then y > zx . Thus,
FZ ( z ) = P(Z z ) =
zx
zx
f X ,Y ( x, y )dydx +
f (x, y )dydx
Page 84 of 330
X ,Y
f Z (z ) =
zx
dFZ
(z ) = d f X ,Y (x, y )dydx + d f X ,Y (x, y )dydx
z
dz zx
dz 0
zx
0
d
d
(
)
(
)
(
)
f
x
y
dy
dx
+
f
x
y
dy
dx
xf
x
zx
dx
,
,
=
,
+
dz zx X ,Y
0 dz X ,Y
X ,Y
0 xf X ,Y (x, zx )dx
f Z (z ) =
x f (x, zx )dx
X ,Y
f Z (z ) =
x f (x ) f (zx )dx
X
Maximum:
Assuming that
Z = max ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Z z iff X i z , i
Minimum:
Assuming that
Z = min ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Order Statistics:
Assuming that
Sorting
X (1) X (2 ) ... X (n )
The kth order statistic of a statistical sample is equal to its kth smallest value.
Particularly: X (1) = min ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n ) and X ( n ) = max ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Let
= f (x)F (x)
(1 F(x))
dx
f K (k ) =
n!
k 1
nk
f (x )F ( x ) (1 F ( x ))
(k 1)!(n k )!
Page 85 of 330
5.19
Bivariate Functions:
Let X and Y have joint density
Let g1 :
f X ,Y ( x, y )
& g 2 : 2
U = g1 ( X , Y ) & V = g 2 ( X , Y )
2
Assuming that
Multivariate Functions:
Let X 1 ,..., X n have joint density f X ( x1 ,.., xn )
Let g i
: n
Yi = g i ( X 1 ,..., X n )
Assuming that
X i = hi (Y1 ,..., Yn )
Jacobian:
g1
g1
x ( x, y ) y ( x, y ) g
g
g
g
J ( x, y ) =
= 1 ( x, y ) 2 ( x , y ) 1 ( x, y ) 2 ( x, y )
g
y
y
x
2
2 ( x, y )
(x, y ) x
x
g1
g1
x (x ) ... x ( x )
n
1
J ( x, y ) = ...
...
...
g n ( x ) ... g n ( x )
x1
xn
Joint Density:
fU ,V (u , v ) =
f X ,Y (h1 (u, v ), h2 (u , v ))
J (h1 (u , v ), h2 (u, v ))
fY ( y1 ,..., yn ) =
ABBREVIATIONS
= Standard Deviation
= mean
ns = number of scores
p = probability of favourable result
v = variance
xi = Individual x score
x = mean of the x scores
Page 86 of 330
J ( x, y ) 0x, y
z = Standardized Score
Page 87 of 330
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
y.. = yij , y.. =
i =1 j =1
y..
N
yi .
n1
y. j = yij , y. j =
y. j
j =1
i =1
SS x
df ( x )
MS x
F-Statistic of x:
F=
MSE
(a 1)
SS
F-Statistic of the Null Hypothesis: F0 = TREATMENT
~ Fa 1, N a
SS ERROR ( N a )
P-Value:
p = P ( F > F0 )
Relative Efficiency:
Multiplication of CRD observations that need to be carried out to
MS x =
6.2
Treatments:
=a
Factors:
=1
Replications per treatment: = ni
Total Treatments:
= N = nT = n1 + n2 + ... + nt
Mathematical Model:
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = i + ij ,
j = 1,2,..., ni
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = + i + ij ,
j = 1,2,..., ni
yij ~ N ( + i , 2 )
a: number of levels of the factor,
ni :is the number of observations on the ith level of the factor,
yij :is the ijth observation and
Page 88 of 330
: overall mean =
i: treatment mean
i =1
= yi . y.. where
i =1
=0
ANOVA:
Source of Variation
Degrees of Freedom
Sum of Squares
Treatment
SS TREATMENT = ni yi . y..
t-1
i =1
Error
nT - 1
ni
i =1 j =1
Total
nT - t
ni
SS T = yij y..
i =1 j =1
6.3
a y 2 y2
= i . ..
i =1 ni N
= SST SSTREATMENT
a ni 2 y.. 2
= yij
i =1 j =1
N
Treatments:
=a
Factors:
=1
Replications per treatment: = b
Total Treatments:
= N = ab
Mathematical Model:
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = ij + ij ,
j = 1,2,..., b
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = + i + j + ij ,
j = 1,2,..., ni
a: number of levels of the factor,
b :is the number of blocks
yij :is the ijth observation and
ij :random experimental error, normally independently distributed with mean
0 and variance 2
: overall mean
Page 89 of 330
Relative Efficiency:
RE RBD / CRD =
ANOVA:
Source of
Variation
Degrees of
Freedom
Sum of Squares
a
Treatment
i =1
(a-1)(b-1)
Total
SS T = yij y..
ab-1
i =1 j =1
6.4
SS BLOCK = a y. j y..
b-1
Error
y
1 b
2
y. j ..
a i =1
N
= SS T SS TREATMENT SS BLOCKS
a-1
i =1
Block
1 a 2 y
= yi . ..
b i =1
N
2
a b
y..
2
= yij
i =1 j =1
N
a=4 design
1
y111
y 221
y331
y 441
y 212
y322
y 432
y142
y313
y 423
y133
y 243
y 414
y124
y 234
y344
Treatments:
=a
Factors:
=1
Replications per treatment: = a
Total Treatments:
= N = a2
Mathematical Model:
yijk
i = 1,2,..., a
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = + i + j + k + ij , j = 1,2,..., a
k = 1,2,..., a
a: number of levels of the factor,
yijk :is the ijkth observation and
Page 90 of 330
Relative Efficiency:
RE LSD / CRD =
ANOVA:
Source of
Variation
Degrees of
Freedom
Treatment
a-1
Sum of Squares
a
i =1
Rows
SS ROWS = a y. j . y...
a-1
i =1
Columns
a 2 3a + 2
a2 1
SS T = yijk y...
i =1 j =1 k =1
Total
6.5
i =1
a-1
Error
i =1 j =1 k =1
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE:
Mathematical Model:
i = 1,2,..., a
yij = + i + xij x + ij ,
j = 1,2,..., ni
Assumptions:
6.6
For each treatment fit a linear regression model and assess its quality
Definition:
1st order:
2nd order:
Common Designs:
6.7
Page 92 of 330
6.8
GENERAL FACTORIAL:
6.9
etc.
etc.
ANOVA ASSUMPTIONS:
Assumptions:
Normality
o ANOVA applied to the absolute deviation of a response from the mean
o Plot of observed values against expected value => Linear plot will imply normality
Constant Variance
o Plot of residual agains predicted values => Random plot with no vertical funnelling structure
will imply constant variance
o Levenes Test
Independence
o Plot of residuals in time sequence => Random plot will imply independence
Page 93 of 330
Levenes Test:
i = 1,2,..., a
d ij = yij i
j = 1,2,..., ni
Where i =
o
o
o
6.10
CONTRASTS:
a
l = 1 1 + 2 2 + ... + n n ; i = 0
Linear Contrast:
i =1
E (l ) = i i
i =1
i2
i =1
ni
^ ^
v (l ) = s 2
f =
F of Contrast:
E (l )
^ ^
v(l )
i =1
if
i 2
n
i =1
Orthogonal Contrasts:
=0
6.11
When the null hypothesis is rejected and the optimum treatment combination needs to be found,
Bonderroni Method:
Difference of the contrast is significant if F(l) > Critical Value of F using new level of significance
Difference is significant if
Tukeys W Procedure:
yi. y j . q (t , v)
Difference is significant if
MSE
n
Scheffes Method:
^ ^
a is the number of treatments, df1 = a-1, df2 = degrees of freedom for MSE
Page 94 of 330
Difference is significant if
E (l ) > S
Page 95 of 330
PART 7: PI
7.1
AREA:
d 2
Cd
4
4
Cyclic Quadrilateral:
(s a )(s b)(s c )(s d )
Q
Area of a sector (degrees) A =
r 2
360
1
Area of a sector (radians) A = r 2
2
r2 Q
Circle:
A = r =
Area of an annulus:
A = r2 r1
Ellipse:
A=
w
=
2
lw = r1 r2
7.2
VOLUME:
Cylinder:
V = r 2 h
4
Sphere:
V = r 3
3
1
2
Cap of a Sphere: V = h 3r1 + h 2
6
1 2
Cone:
V = r h
3
1
Ice-cream & Cone: V = r 2 (h + 2r )
3
Doughnut:
V = 2 2 r2 r1 =
2
4
w w
V=
l
4
3
4
V = r1 r2 r3
3
(b + a )(b a )2
Sausage:
Ellipsoid:
7.3
SURFACE AREA:
Sphere:
SA = 4r 2
Hemisphere: SA = 3r 2
Doughnut:
SA = 4 2 r2 r1 = 2 b 2 a 2
Sausage:
SA = wl
Cone:
SA = r r + r 2 + h 2
Page 96 of 330
7.4
MISELANIOUS:
Q
Q
C =
r
360
180
Q
l = 2r sin = 2 r 2 h 2
2
2
1 + 3(r1 r2 )
(r1 + r2 )2
P (r1 + r2 )
2
3(r1 r2 )
10
+
4
(r1 + r2 )2
l=
Perimeter of an ellipse
7.6
PI:
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288...
C
=
d
Archimedes Bounds:
2 k n sin k < < 2 k n sin k
2
2
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8
4n 2
John Wallis:
= ... = 2
2 1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9
n =1 4n 1
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 6 1
Isaac Newton:
= +
+ ...
+
+
6 2 2 3 23 2 4 5 25 2 4 6 7 2 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
James Gregory:
= 1 + + + ...
4
3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
1
1
Schulz von Strassnitzky:
= arctan + arctan + arctan
4
2
5
8
1
1
John Machin:
= 4 arctan arctan
4
5
239
2 1 1
1
1
Leonard Euler:
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 1
2
3
4
3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31
= ...
4 4 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 28 32
where the numerators are the odd primes; each denominator is the
multiple of four nearest to the numerator.
`
= 1+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + + + + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Jozef Hoene-Wronski:
Franciscus Vieta:
1
1
n
n
4 n ( 1 + i ) ( 1 i )
= lim
i
n
2+ 2+ 2
2
2+ 2
...
2
2
2
Page 97 of 330
Integrals:
Infinite Series:
n
1 ( 1)
25
1
28
26
22
22
1
+
6
10 n
2 n=0 2 4n + 1 4n + 3 10n + 1 10n + 3 10n + 5 10n + 7 10n + 9
See also: Zeta Function within Part 17
Page 98 of 330
Continued Fractions:
7.7
CIRCLE GEOMETRY:
r=
a2 + b2
2
a
2
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
2 sin A
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Quadrilaterals:
(ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc )
1
r=
(s a )(s b )(s c )(s d )
4
a
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Squares: r =
2
A
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
s
Radius of Circumscribed Circle:
r=
a
180
2 sin
Page 99 of 330
7.8
r=
a
180
2 tan
A=Angle A
A=Area
a=side a
B=Angle B
b=side b
B=Angle B
c=side c
C=circumference
d=diameter
d=side d
h=shortest length from the center to the chord
r=radius
r1=radius 1 ( r1 < r2 )
r2=radius 2 ( r2 < r3 )
r3=radius 3
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
Q=central angle
s=semi-perimeter
w=width
w=length of chord from r1
7.9
CRESCENT GEOMETRY:
1
Area of a lunar crescent:
A = cd
4
Area of an eclipse crescent:
w2 + l 2 b 2
w2 + l 2 b 2
sin 2 cos 1
2 cos 1
2 wl
2wl
A = w2
+
360
2
w2 + l 2 b 2
2 cos 1
2 wl
b 2
360
w2 + l 2 b 2
sin 2 cos 1
2wl
+
2
7.10
ABBREVIATIONS (7.9):
A=Area
b=radius of black circle
c=width of the crescent
d=diameter
l=distance between the centres of the circles
w=radius of white circle
MOVEMENT:
Stopping distance:
v2
s=
2a
Centripetal acceleration:
a=
Centripetal force:
FC = ma =
Dropping time :
t=
Force:
F=
Kinetic Energy:
v2 2
1 2
c
1
E k = mv 2
2
2
(
u sin )
h=
g
v2
r
mv 2
r
2h
g
ma
3
Potential Energy:
l
g
E p = mgh
Range of a cannon:
s = t (u cos ) =
t=
Universal Gravitation:
t = 2
2u sin
g
mm
F = G 12 2
r
ABBREVIATIONS (8.1):
2u sin
(u cos )
g
r=radius
r=distance between two points
s=distance
t=time
u=initial speed
v=final speed
=the angle
8.2
CLASSICAL MECHANICS:
Newtons Laws:
First law: If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant; the object is either at rest (if its
velocity is zero), or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero).
Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the
body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e.,
F = ma.
Third law: When two bodies interact by exerting force on each other, these forces (termed the action and the
reaction) are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
Inertia:
Moments of Inertia:
Description
Two point masses, M
and m, with reduced
mass and separated
by a distance, x.
Rod of length L and
mass m
(Axis of rotation at the
end of the rod)
Diagram
Formulae
Solid cylinder of
radius r, height h and
mass m
Thick-walled
cylindrical tube with
open ends, of inner
radius r1, outer radius
r2, length h and mass m
Sphere (hollow) of
radius r and mass m
About a diameter:
Ellipsoid (solid) of
semiaxes a, b, and c
with axis of rotation a
and mass m
...,
and
mass
uniformly
distributed on its
interior, rotating about
an axis perpendicular
to the plane and
passing through the
origin.
Infinite disk with mass
normally distributed
on two axes around the
axis of rotation
(i.e.
Where :
is
the mass-density as a
function of x and y).
Acceleration:
a AVE =
V
t
Trajectory (Displacement):
Kinetic Energy:
Centripetal Force:
Circular Motion:
, or
,
Angular Momentum:
Torque:
Work:
Laws of Conservation:
Momentum:
Energy:
Force:
E
F
IN
= EOUT
NET
ABBREVIATIONS (8.2)
a=acceleration
EK=Kinetic Energy
Er=rotational kinetic energy
F=force
I=mass moment of inertia
J=impulse
L=angular momentum
m=mass
P=path
p=momentum
t=time
v=velocity
W=work
=torque
8.3
RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS:
Kinetic Energy:
Momentum:
Time Dilation:
Length Contraction:
Relativistic Mass:
8.4
ACCOUNTING:
p = sc
p
m = 100
c
= P(1 + tr )
Profit:
Profit margin:
Simple Interest:
= P(1 + r )
= Pe rt
Compound Interest:
Continuous Interest:
ABBREVIATIONS (8.4):
c=cost
I=interest
m=profit margin (%)
p=profit
P=premium
r=rate
s=sale price
t=time
8.5
MACROECONOMICS:
GDP:
RGDP:
NGDP:
y = AE = AD = C + I + G + NX
y = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by cost
RGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by base year cost
NGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by current year cost
Growth:
Growth =
Net Exports:
NX = X - M
RGDPCURRENT RGDPBASE
100
RGDPBASE
Labor Force:
Unemployment:
Natural Unemployment:
LF = Employed + Unemployed
UE = Frictional + Structural + Cyclical
NUE = Frictional + Structural
Unemployment Rate:
UE% =
UE
100
LF
E
100
LF
LF
UE + E
Participation Rate: P% =
100 =
100
WAP
WAP
CPI:
CPI = Indexed Average Price of all Goods and Services
CPI CURRENT CPI BASE
Inflation Rate:
Inflation Rate =
100
CPI BASE
Employment Rate: E% =
ABBREVIATIONS (8.5)
AD=Aggregate Demand
AE=Aggregate Expenditure
C=Consumption
CPI=Consumer Price Index
E=Employed
G=Government
I=Investment
LF=Labor Force
M=Imports
NGDP=Nominal GDP
NUE=Natural Unemployment
NX=Net Export
P=Participation
RGDP=Real GDP (Price is adjusted to base year)
UE=Unemployed
WAP=Working Age Population
X=Exports
Y=GDP
PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY
9.1
CONVERSIONS:
30
60
Degrees
120
150
210
240
300
330
Radians
Grads
33
grad
66
grad
133
grad
166
grad
233
grad
266
grad
333
grad
366
grad
Degrees
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Radians
Grads
9.2
50 grad 100 grad 150 grad 200 grad 250 grad 300 grad 350 grad 400 grad
BASIC RULES:
tan =
Sin Rule:
Cos Rule:
sin
cos
a
b
c
sin A sin B sin C
=
=
or
=
=
sin A sin B sin C
a
b
c
2
2
2
b +c a
or a 2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos A
cos A =
2bc
Tan Rule:
Auxiliary Angle:
Pythagoras Theorem:
Periodicy:
a 2 + b2 = c2
sin (n ) = 0, n
cos(n ) = ( 1) , n
n
9.3
RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
1
sec =
cos
1
csc =
sin
1
cos
=
cot =
tan sin
9.4
BASIC IDENTITES:
Pythagorean Identity:
9.5
sin ( ) = 1 cos 2 ( ) =
cos( ) = 1 sin 2 ( ) =
tan ( )
1 + tan 2 ( )
1
1 + tan 2 ( )
sec 2 ( ) 1
1
1
=
=
csc( )
sec( )
1 + cot 2 ( )
csc 2 ( ) 1
1
cot ( )
=
=
csc( )
sec( )
1 + cot 2 ( )
tan ( ) =
csc( ) =
sin ( )
1 sin 2 ( )
1 cos 2 ( )
1
1
=
= sec 2 ( ) 1 =
2
cos( )
cot ( )
csc ( ) 1
1 + tan 2 ( )
1
1
sec( )
=
=
=
= 1 + cot 2 ( )
2
2
(
)
sin ( )
tan
1 cos ( )
sec ( ) 1
cot ( ) =
1 sin 2 ( )
cos( )
1
1
=
=
= csc 2 ( ) 1 =
2
2
sin ( )
1 cos ( ) tan ( )
sec ( ) 1
1
1
arctan = arctan
+ arctan
2
x
x+k
x + kx + 1
9.6
ADDITION FORMULAE:
Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Arcsine:
Arccosine:
Arctangent:
9.7
Sine:
Generally,
n
n
1
k =0 k
Cosine:
Generally,
n
n
1
k =0 k
Tangent:
Generally.
n
1
sin (nx )
2
k
tan (nx ) =
=
n
cos(nx )
k =0
1
k cos (x )sin (x ) cos 2 (n k )
n
k =0
Cot:
9.8
Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Cot:
9.9
n k
Sine:
Cosine:
Tangent:
Cot:
Page 115 of 330
n k
9.10
POWER REDUCTION:
Sine:
If n is even:
If n is odd:
Cosine:
If n is even:
If n is odd:
9.11
PRODUCT TO SUM:
9.12
SUM TO PRODUCT:
9.13
HYPERBOLIC EXPRESSIONS:
Hyperbolic sine:
Hyperbolic cosine:
Hyperbolic tangent:
Hyperbolic cotangent:
Page 117 of 330
Hyperbolic secant:
Hyperbolic cosecant:
9.14
HYPERBOLIC RELATIONS:
9.15
MACHIN-LIKE FORMULAE:
Form:
Formulae:
Identities:
for
for
for
for
9.16
sin ( A B ) tan (a b )
2
=
2
1
1
sin ( A + B )
tan c
2
2
1
sin (a b ) tan ( A B )
2
=
2
1
1
sin (a + b )
cot c
2
2
1
cos ( A B ) tan (a + b )
2
2
1
1
cos ( A + B )
tan c
2
2
1
cos (a b ) tan ( A + B )
2
2
=
1
1
cos (a + b )
cot c
2
9.17
ABBREVIATIONS (9.1-9.16)
A=Angle A
Page 119 of 330
,
,
,
.
a=side a
B=Angle B
b=side b
B=Angle B
c=side c
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY:
e = 2.7182818284590452353602874713526624977572470937000
10.2
EXPONENTIAL IDENTITIES:
x a x b = x a +b
xa
= x a b
xb
a
x a y a = ( xy )
(x )
a b
( )
= x ab = x b
x b = b xa
x a =
10.3
1
xa
LOG IDENTITIES:
10.4
10.5
COMPLEX NUMBERS:
10.6
GENERAL:
Fundamental:
Standard Form:
Polar Form:
i 2 = 1
z = a + bi
z = rcis = r (cos + i sin )
Argument:
Modulus:
mod( z ) = r = z = a + bi = a 2 + b 2
b
a
Conjugate:
z = a bi
Exponential:
z = r e i
De Moivres Formula:
z = rcis
Eulers Identity:
+ 2k , k=0,1,,(n-1)
z = r cis
n
(Special Case when n=2)
e i + 1 = 0
1
n
1
n
n 1
2 ik
n
=0
(Generally)
k =0
11.2
OPERATIONS:
Addition:
Subtraction:
Multiplication:
Division:
Sum of Squares:
11.3
IDENTITIES:
Exponential:
Logarithmic:
Trigonometric:
Hyperbolic:
GENERAL RULES:
Plus Or Minus:
y = f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x ) ...
y ' = f ' ( x ) g ' ( x ) h' ( x ) ...
Product Rule:
y = uv
y ' = u ' v + uv'
Quotient Rule:
u
v
u ' v uv'
y' =
v2
y=
Power Rule:
y = ( f (x) )
y ' = n( f ( x ) )
n 1
f '(x )
Chain Rule:
dy dy du dv
=
dx du dv dx
Blob Rule:
y=e
f( x )
y ' = f '( x ) e
Base A Log:
y = log a f ( x )
y' =
Natural Log:
f( x )
f '(x )
f ( x ) ln (a )
y = a ln ( f ( x ) )
y' = a
f '(x )
f (x )
Exponential (X):
y = kx
y ' = ln k k x
First Principles:
f '(x ) =
f (x+h ) f ( x )
lim
h
h 0
f ' 2 ( x0 ) f '1 ( x0 )
1 + f ' 2 ( x0 ) f '1 ( x0 )
= tan 1
12.2
EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS:
12.3
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:
12.4
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
1
x +1
1
2
x2 1
1
x2 1
12.5
1
x2
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:
1
x 0
1
2
1
x2
x2 x4
1
x2 + x4
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION:
First Principles:
ie:
Gradient:
Total Differential:
Chain Rule:
Implicit Differentiation:
Therefore,
GENERAL RULES:
[ f( ) ]
f '( ) [ f( ) ] dx = n + 1
n +1
Power Rule:
[f ]
a f '( ) [ f ( ) ] dx = a ( )
n +1
n +1
By Parts:
+C
+C
udv = uv vdu
f ( x)
Constants:
kdt = kf ( x)
0
13.2
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:
For
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
also:
also:
also:
also:
also:
13.9
for
where
where
for
(!! is
the double factorial)
a 2 + x 2 dx
x
a
= a 2 + (a tan ) 2 a sec 2 d
= a 2 + a 2 tan 2 a sec 2 d
= a 2 + a 2 (sec 2 1) a sec 2 d
= a 2 + a 2 sec 2 a 2 a sec 2 d
= a 2 sec 2 a sec 2 d
= a sec a sec 2 d
= a 2 sec 3 d
= a 2 sec sec 2 d
u = sec , dv = sec 2 d
du = sec tan d , v = tan
a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan tan sec tan d
a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan tan 2 secd
a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan (sec 2 1) secd
a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan sec 3 secd
a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan sec 3 d + secd
2a 2 sec 3 d = sec tan + secd
1
sec tan + secd
2a 2
1
3
sec d = 2a 2 (sec tan + ln sec + tan ) + C
1 a2 + x2 s
a 2 + x 2 s
a 2 + x 2 dx = 2
+ ln
+
+C
2a
a
a
a
a
sec
d =
a 2 x 2 dx
x
a
= a 2 (a sin ) a cosd
2
= a 2 a 2 sin 2 a cosd
= a 2 a 2 1 cos 2 a cosd
= a 2 a 2 + a 2 cos 2 a cosd
= a 2 cos 2 a cosd
= a cos a cosd
= a 2 cos 2 d
= a 2 cos 2 d
= a2
a2
2
a2
=
2
=
1 + cos(2 )
d
2
1 + cos(2 )d
sin (2 )
+ 2 + C
a2
2 sin cos
=
+
+ C
2
2
a2
[ + sin cos ] + C
2
a2
a2 x2
x x
=
arcsin +
2
a
a a
=
+C
x 2 a 2 dx
x
a
= a 2 sec 2 1 secd
= a 2 sec 3 secd
= a 2 sec 3 d secd
2a
1
= (sec tan + ln sec + tan ) a 2 (ln sec + tan ) + C
2
1 x
x2 a2
x
x 2 a 2 2 x
x 2 a 2
=
+ ln +
a ln +
+C
2a
a
a
a
a
1 x x2 a2 1 x
x2 a2
x
x2 a2
+
ln
+
ln
+
+C
2
a2
2 a
a
a
a
1 x x2 a2 1
x
x2 a2
2
=
+ a ln +
+C
2
a
a2
2
a
13.26 CARTESIAN APPLICATIONS
b
A = f ( x ) dx
a
b
Volume:
V =A
a
b
[ ]
Vx = [ y ] dx = f ( x ) dx
2
V y = [x ] dy
2
dy
1 + dx
dx
L=
a
dx
1 + dy (Where the function is continually increasing)
dy
L=
c
t2
Length parametrically:
L=
dx dy
+ dt
dt dt
t1
L = f ( x , y , z ) ds = lim f ( x i , y y , z y ) s i
n
i =1
where x = x (t ), y = y (t ), z = z (t ), a t b
2
dx dy dz
ds = + + dt
dt dt dt
L = f ( x , y , z ) ds =
C
dx dy dz
f ( x , y , z ) + + dt
dt dt dt
where x = x(t ), y = y (t ), z = z (t ), a t b
C = r (t ) = x(t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k
r ' (t )
r ' (t )
T (t ) =
dx dy dz
ds = + + dt = r ' (t ) dt
dt dt dt
b
r ' (t )
W = F ( x, y, z ) T ( x, y, z )ds = F (r (t )
C
a
r ' (t )
b
r ' (t ) dt = F (r (t ) r ' (t )dt
a
Area of a Surface:
A = f ( x, y, z )dS = lim
S
m , n
f ( P
i =1 j =1
*
ij
)S ij
2
A = f ( x, y, z )dS =
S
z z
f ( x, y, g ( x, y )) + + 1dA
x y
b d
V = f ( x, y )dA = f ( x, y )dxdy
R
a c
R = {( x, y ) | a x b, g1 ( x) y g 2 ( x)}
b g2 ( x )
V = f ( x, y )dA =
R
f ( x, y)dydx
a g1 ( x )
R = {( x, y ) | g1 ( y ) x g 2 ( y ), c y d }
b h2 ( y )
V = f ( x, y ) A =
R
f ( x, y)dxdx
a h1 ( y )
R = {(r , ) | a r b, }
b
s d b
V = f ( x, y, z )dV = f ( x, y, z )dxdydz
B
r c a
B = {( x, y, z ) | ( x, y ) D, u1 ( x, y ) z u 2 ( x, y )} , then
u2 ( x , y )
V = f ( x, y, z )dV =
f ( x, y, z )dz dA
B
D u1 ( x , y )
B = {( x, y, z ) | a x b, g1 ( x) y g 2 ( x), u1 ( x, y ) z u 2 ( x, y )}
V = f ( x, y, z )dV =
B
b g 2 ( x ) u2 ( x , y )
a g1 ( x )
u1 ( x , y )
f ( x, y, z )dzdydx
B = {(r , , z ) | , h1 ( ) r h2 ( ), u1 ( x, y ) z u 2 ( x, y )}
V = f ( x, y, z )dV =
B
h2 ( ) u2 ( r cos , r sin )
h1 ( )
u1 ( r cos , r sin )
B = {( , , ) | 1 2 , h1 ( ) h2 ( ), g1 ( , ) g 2 ( , )}
f ( x, y, z ) = f ( sin cos , sin sin , cos ) = f 0 ( , , )
2
V = f ( x, y, z )dV =
B
h2 ( )
h1 ( )
g 2 ( , ))
g1 ( , )
f 0 ( , , ) 2 sin ddd
Centre of Mass:
Of a laminate:
m = ( x, y )dA
R
1
x ( x, y )dA
m R
1
y = y ( x, y )dA
m R
x=
Of a general solid:
m = ( x, y, z )dV
B
1
x ( x, y, z )dV
m B
1
y = y ( x, y, z )dV
m B
1
z = z ( x, y, z )dV
m B
x=
dA = dxdy
dA = rdrd
dV = rdzdrd
Page 153 of 330
Spherical:
dV = 2 sin ddd
Cartesian to Polar:
r 2 = x2 + y2
y (2D)
tan =
x
Polar to Cartesian:
x = r cos
(2D)
y = r sin
Cartesian to Cylindrical:
r 2 = x2 + y2
tan =
y
x
(3D)
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian:
x = r cos
y = r sin (3D)
z=z
Spherical to Cartesian:
x = sin cos
y = sin sin (3D)
z = cos
Definitions:
Even:
Odd:
f ( x ) = f (x ), x
f ( x ) = f ( x ), x
Composite Functions:
Odd Odd = Odd
Odd Even = Neither
Even Even = Even
Odd x Odd = Even
Odd / Odd = Even
Even x Even = Even
Even / Even = Even
Even of Odd = Even
Even of Even = Even
Even of Neither = Neither
Odd of Odd = Odd
Odd of Even = Even
Odd of Neither = Neither
Basic Integration:
a
f ( x)dx = 0
If f(x) is odd:
a
a
f ( x)dx = 2 f ( x)dx
If f(x) is even:
14.2
MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS:
Limit:
lim
( x , y )( 0 , 0 )
(f )=
( x, y )
lim
( x , mx ) ( 0 , 0 )
Discriminant:
D( x0 , y0 ) = z xx z yy (z xy )
Critical Points:
z = f ( x, y)
(f
( x , mx )
)=
lim ( f ( x ,mx ) )
( x )( 0 )
z x = 0
z y = 0
If the critical point (x0,y0) is a local maximum, then
Solve for:
D(x0,y0) >= 0
fxx(x0,y0) <= 0
or fyy(x0,y0) < 0
or fyy(x0,y0) > 0
If
D(x0,y0) < 0,
14.3
Separable:
dy f ( x)
=
dx g ( y )
g ( y )dy = f ( x)dx
g ( y )dy = f ( x)dx
Linear:
dy
+ P ( x ) y = Q ( x)
dx
P ( x ) dx
I ( x) = e
y=
Homogeneous:
1
I ( x)
( I ( x) Q( x)dx )
f ( x, y ) = f ( x, y )
dy
y
= f ( x, y ) = F
dx
x
y dy
dv
Let v ( x ) = ,
=v+ x
x dx
dx
v + x
dv
= F (v)
dx
dv
= F (v ) v
dx
dv
dx
=
F (v ) v x
dv
dx
F (v ) v = x
x
Exact:
dy
= f ( x, y ) M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0
dx
If:
M y = Nx
When: FX
Therefore,
= M & FY = N
F = M ( x , y ) dx = ( x , y ) + g ( y )
( + g ( y ) ) = Y + g ' ( y ) = N
y
g ( y ) = ...
FY =
So:
F ( x , y ) = ( x, y ) + g ( y ) = C
Bernoulli Form:
dy
+ P(x ) y = Q(x ) y n
dx
Let:
v = y1n
dv
dy
= (1 n ) y n
dx
dx
n
dy
y dv
=
dx 1 n dx
y n dv
+ P (x ) y = Q ( x ) y n
1 n dx
1 dv
+ P (x ) y1n = Q( x )
1 n dx
dv
+ (1 n )P( x )v = (1 n )Q( x )
dx
dv
+ P2 ( x) v = Q2 ( x)
dx
P2 ( x ) dx
I ( x) = e
14.4
v=
1
I ( x)
y=
(1 n )
( I ( x) Q ( x)dx)
2
v = (1n )
1
I ( x)
( I ( x) Q ( x)dx) = (
1 n )
(1n )P ( x )dx
d2y
dy
+ b + cy = f ( x)
2
Where dx
dx
ay ' '+by'+cy = f ( x)
a
Gregs Lemma:
(D ) p(x )ex = p' (x )ex
(
)
(D )(xe ) = e
(D ) (x e ) = 2e
(D ) (x e ) = n!e
x
2 x
n x
x
x
Homogeneous:
ay' '+by'+cy = 0
am 2 + bm + c = 0
m=
b b 2 4ac
2a
{
= ( A + Bx )e
S = {e
= e ( A cos(x ) + B sin (x )) S = {e
1)
m1 ,m2 where m1 m2
yh = Ae m1x + Be m2 x
2)
m1 ,m2 where m1 = m2
yh
3)
m1, 2 = j
yh
m1 x
Undetermined Coefficients
ay ' '+by '+cy = f ( x) , where f (x) is in the form of
1) A polynomial
2) sin (kx )
3)
e kt
f ( x) = 3 x 3 e x
yh = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
S = {y1 , y 2 }
S = e m1x , e m2 x
m1 x
, xe
m1 x
cos(x ), ex sin (x )
y p = An x n + An1 x n1 + A1 x + A0
1) A polynomial
T = x n , x n1 ,...
2)
sin (kx )
y p = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
3)
y p = Ae
T = e kt
kt
kt
{ }
f ( x) = 3 x 3 e x
( )(
= (e )(Bx
y p = Ae x Bx 3 + Cx 2 + Dx + E
yp
+ Cx 2 + Dx + E
f (x)
Then,
y = y h + y p1 + y p 2 + y p 3 + ...
If the intital values are given, go on to solve for the constants within the homogeneous part.
Variation of Parameters
d2y
dy
+ b + cy = f ( x)
Where dx 2
and the method of undetermined coefficients is not suitable.
dx
y ' '+by '+ cy = f ( x)
Step 1: Solve for the homogeneous case
ay' '+by'+cy = 0
yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2
Step 2: Assume that there is a solution of the differential equation of the form:
y = v1u1 + v2u 2
y ' = v1 ' u1 + v1u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 + v2u 2 ' = v1u1 '+v2u 2 '
y ' ' = v1u1 ' '+ v1 ' u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 '+v2u 2 ' '
Substituting into the differential equation:
f ( x) = (v1u1 ' '+ v1 ' u1 '+ v2 ' u 2 '+v2u 2 ' ') + b(v1u1 '+ v2u 2 ') + c(v1u1 + v2u 2 )
f ( x) = u1 ' ' v1 + bu1 ' v1 + cu1v1 + u 2 ' ' v2 + bu 2 ' v2 + cu 2 v2 + u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 '
f ( x) = (u1 ' '+bu1 '+cu1 )v1 + (u 2 ' '+bu 2 '+cu2 )v2 + u1 ' v1 '+u 2 ' v2 '
Step 3:
Solving the equations above by Cramers Rule.
u1 u 2 v1 ' 0
u ' u ' v ' = f ( x )
2 2
1
u2
0
f ( x ) u '
f ( x )u 2
2
v1 ' =
=
W (u1 , u 2 )
u1 u 2
u ' u '
1
2
v2 ' =
u1
u '
1
0
f ( x )
u1 u 2
u ' u '
2
1
f ( x )u1
W (u1 , u 2 )
Step 4:
v1 ( x ) = v1 ' dx =
v2 ( x ) = v2 ' dx =
0
f (x )
u1
u '
1
u2
u 2 '
f ( x )u 2
dx =
dx
W (u1 , u 2 )
u2
u 2 '
u1
u '
1
0
f ( x )
u1 u 2
u ' u '
2
1
dx =
f ( x )u1
dx
W (u1 , u 2 )
yh = c1u1 ( x) + c2u 2 ( x)
y p = v1 ( x)u1 ( x) + v2 ( x)u 2 ( x)
y = yh + y p
Euler Type
Of the form:
Characteristic Equation:
(b 1) r + c y = 0
a
r1 , r2 where r1 r2
2)
r1 , r2 where r1 = r2
3)
r1, 2 = j
yh = C1 x r1 + C 2 x r2 , x > 0
yh = C1 x r1 + C 2 x r1 ln ( x ), x > 0
Reduction of Order
Of the form:
y = v( x) g ( x)
y ' = v' ( x ) g ( x ) + v( x) g ' ( x )
Therefore, let
y ' ' = v ' ' ( x) g ( x) + v' ( x) g ' ( x ) + v ' ( x ) g ' ( x) + v ( x ) g ' ' ( x )
y ' ' = v ' ' ( x ) g ( x ) + 2v ' ( x ) g ' ( x ) + v ( x ) g ' ' ( x )
Substituting Yields:
u(x) du =
ln(u( x)) =
u( x) = e
v' (x) = e
y = e
(2 f1 (x)g' ( x) + f 2 ( x)g(x))
dx
( f1(x)g(x))
( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f 2 ( x) g ( x) )
dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
v( x) = e
( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
( 2 f1 ( x) g '( x)+ f2 ( x) g ( x) )
dx
( f1 ( x) g ( x) )
dx
dx g(x)
Assume
x0
n =0
n1
n =1
xn
Obtain a recurance relation of an in terms of a0 & a1
Page 161 of 330
n =1
n 2
Express
an in terms of a0 & a1
y = an ( x x0 ) = a0 y1 + a1 y2
n
n =0
Q( x )
2 R(x )
exists and lim ( x x0 )
exists.
P( x0 ) = 0 , lim ( x x0 )
x x0
x
x
0
P(x )
P ( x )
Where
Q(x )
= xp( x ) = pn x n
P (x )
n =0
x2
R(x )
= x 2 q ( x ) = qn x n
P(x )
n =0
This is convergent on
x<R
2
2
x y ' '+ x p0 + p1 x + p2 x + ... y '+ q0 + q1 x + q2 x 2 + ... y = 0
As near x0 = 0 , x 0 , the equation behaves like
) (
Therefore,
1) + p0 r + q 0 = 0 , Thus r = r1 , r2 | r1 r2
From the indicial equation, there are three different forms of the general solution.
Form 1: {r1
r2 } {}
y1 = x x0
r1
y 2 = x x0
r2
a (x x )
n=0
b (x x )
n=0
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Form 2:
r1 = r2
y1 = x r1 1 + a n r1 x n
n =1
y 2 = y1 ln( x ) + x r1 1 + bn r1 x n
n =1
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Where the coefficients of the series are found by substituting into the differential equation.
Form 3: {r1 r2 } {}
y1 = x r1 1 + an r1 x n
n =1
y 2 = ay1 ln ( x ) + x r2 1 + bn r2 x n
n =1
y = c1 y1 + c2 y 2
Where the coefficients of the series are found by substituting into the differential equation.
14.5
Q( x )
2 R(x )
P( x0 ) = 0 , lim ( x x0 )
does not exist or lim ( x x0 )
does not exist.
x x0
x
x
0
P(x )
P( x )
Derivation of Methods:
x 1 (t ) = a11 x1 (t ) + a12 x2 (t ) + ... + a1n xn (t )
x (t ) = A x(t ) x = A x
...
x n (t )
x = c1 x1 + c2 x 2 + ... + cn x n
[ ]
c1
c
x = [x1 | x 2 | ... | x n ] 2
...
cn
x(t ) = (t )c
Fundamental Matrix:
General Solution:
Particular Solution:
v11e1t
v e 1t
x(t ) = (t )c = 21
...
t
vn1e 1
c = 1 (t 0 ) x 0
Homogeneous Solution:
General Solution:
x = Ax
x = e At c = Pe Jt P 1 c
v12e 2t
v22e 2t
...
vn 2 e 2t
... vn1e nt
... vn 2 e nt
c
...
...
... vnn e nt
Particular Solution:
Inhomogeneous Solution:
x1 (0)
x ( 0)
c= 2
...
x n ( 0)
x (t ) = A x(t ) + u (t )
General Solution:
x(t ) = (t )c + (t ) 1 (t )u (t )dt
x(t ) = (t )c + (t ) ( t )u (t )dt
Particular Solution:
x1 (0)
x ( 0)
c= 2
...
x n ( 0)
14.6
APPLICATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Terminology:
Directional Derivatives:
For a function f ( x, y, z ) and unit vector u = u1 i + u 2 j + u3 k , u = 1 , the directional derivative of f
at the point
The function
steepest ascent direction. Thus, if we want to maximize a function, it is important to move in the
gradient direction.
The function f ( x, y , z ) decreases most rapidly at any point P in its domain in the negative direction of
f ( x, y, z ) increase most rapidly at any point P in its domain in the direction of the
gradient vector f (P) . The directional derivative in this direction is f (P ) . Therefore, the gradient
f always points in the direction of the most rapid increase of the function, which is referred to as the
14.7
antigradient f always points in the direction of the most rapid decrease of the function, which is
referred to as the steepest descent direction. Thus, if we want to minimize a function, it is important to
move in the negative gradient direction.
The rate of change is zero in the direction perpendicular to f (P)
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
If functions are analytic at a point x0:
Analytic Analytic = Analytic
Analytic x Analytic = Analytic
Analytic / Analytic = Analytic
BASIC PRINICPLES:
[ ]
15.2
BASIC OPERTAIONS:
[
A B = [a
kA = [ka ]
[A ] = A
]
b ]
A + B = aij + bij
Addition:
Subtraction:
ij
Scalar Multiple:
ij
ij
Transpose:
ij
ji
eg:
( A + B + C + ...)T = AT + B T
( ABCD...)T = ...D T C T B T AT
Scalar Product:
a b = [a1 a2
Symmetry:
AT = A
a3
+ C T + ...
b1
b
...] 2
b3
...
Cramers Rule:
Ax = B
det( Ai ) where Ai = column i replaced by B
xi =
det( A)
Least Squares Solution
Ax = b ,
x = AT A AT b
r0 + r1 x = b
r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 = b
In the form
Etc.
When columns are not Linearly Independent:
15.3
SQUARE MATRIX:
x = A+b = VS +U T b
Diagonal:
DETERMINATE:
2x2:
3x3:
det (A) = ad bc
det (A) = aei + bfg + cdh afh bdi ceg
nxn:
j =1
j =1
Rules:
15.5
INVERSE
1
2x2:
3x3:
Minor:
a b
1 d b
c d = ad bc c a
1
a b c
ei fh ch bi bf ce
1
d e f =
fg di ai cg cd af
Mij = Determinate of Sub matrix which has deleted row i and column j
a b c
A = d e f
g h i
b
M 21 =
h
c
f
Page 170 of 330
Cij = Mij ( 1)
Cofactor:
(i + j )
adj ( A) = C T
1
A1 =
adj ( A)
det( A)
Left Inverse:
CA = I
C = (AT A) AT
1
(when rows(A)>columns(A))
Right Inverse:
AC = I
C = AT (AAT )
(when rows(A)<columns(A))
Pseudo inverse:
For any matrix A, dim(A) = n x m.
A+ is the pseudo inverse. dim(A+) = m x n
A = USV T , A + = VS +U T
dim( A) = m n; dim( A + ) = n m
A A+ A = A
A+ A A+ = A+
(A A )
( A A)
+
15.6
+ T
= A A+
= A+ A
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
[Preserves Addition]
[Preserves Scalar Multiplication]
Transition Matrix:
The matrix that represents the linear transformation
T (v) = c1T (v1 ) + c2T (v2 ) + ... + cnT (vn )
T ( x) = Ax
A = [T (e1 ) | T (e 2 ) | ... | T (e 3 )] (With m columns and n rows)
( T : V W , dim(V ) = m, dim(W ) = n )
Zero Transformation:
T (v) = 0, vV
Identity Transformation:
T (v) = v, vV
15.7
Rotation (Clockwise):
Rotation (Anticlockwise):
Scaling:
Shearing (parallel to x-axis):
Shearing (parallel to y-axis):
15.8
Definitions:
Eigenvalues:
Eigenvectors:
Characteristic Polynomial:
All solutions of Ax = x
All solutions of of det(A-I)=0
General solution of [A-I][X]=0 (ie: the nullspace)
The function p ( ) = det( A I )
Algebraic Multiplicity:
Geometric Multiplicity:
Transformation:
Linearly Independence:
Digitalization:
D=0 0
... ...
0 0
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem:
Orthonormal Set:
... 0
... 0
3 ... 0
... ... 0
0 0 n
0
0
QR Factorisation:
A = [u1 | u 2 | ... | u n ] = QR
dim( A) = n k , k n
All columns are Linearly Independent
Q = [v1 | v2 | ... | vn ] by the Gram-Schmidt Process
q1
0
0
R=
0
...
0
q1
0
0
R=
0
...
15.9
u 2 v1 u3 v1
T
q2
u 3 v2
0
q3
0
0
...
...
0
0
u 2 v1 u 3 v1
q2
u3 v2
q3
0
0
0
...
...
0
0
u 4 v1
T
u 4 v2
T
u 4 v3
q4
...
0
...
...
...
...
...
...
u 4 v1
u 4 v2
u 4 v3
q4
...
0
T
u k v1
T
u k v2
T
u k v3
T
u k v4
...
q k
...
...
...
...
...
...
u k v1
u k v2
u k v3
u k v4
...
qk
JORDAN FORMS
Generalised Diagonlisation:
P 1 AP = J
A = PJP 1
Jordan Block:
Jordan Form:
Algebraic Multiplicity:
Geometric Multiplicity:
Generalised Chain:
0
JB =
...
0
0
...
0
0
0 ... 0
1 ... 0
... 0
... ... ...
0 ...
0 ... 0
0
0
0
...
1
J1 0 ... 0
0 J ... 0
2
J =
... ... ... ...
0 0 ... J n
The number of times appears on main diagonal
The number of times appears on main diagonal without
a 1 directly above it
= {u m , u m1 ,..., u 2 , u1 } , where u1 is an eigenvector
u k = ( A I )u k +1
u k +1 = [ A I | u k ]
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pm | ...] , for every eigenvector of A
Powers:
A k = PJ k P 1
J1
0
k
J =
...
JB
=0
0
...
J 1k
... 0
... 0
0
=
... ...
...
... J n
0
0
J2
...
0
k k 1
1
k
0
...
k k 2
2
k k 1
1
...
0
k
J2
...
0
... 0
... 0
... ...
k
... J n
...
...
...
...
dim( A) = m n
dim(U ) = m m
dim( S ) = m n
dim(V ) = n n
Pseudo inverse:
A+ = VS +U T
Procedure:
AT A . This has orthogonal diagonalisation.
STEP 1:
STEP 2:
STEP 3:
STEP 4:
Find i
= a, b, c, d ...
i = i
1 > 2 > 3 > ...
STEP 5:
Find S
dim(S) = m x n
S 0
S = 1 where S1 is a matrix with the diagonal equal to 1 , 2 , 3 ,... and all other
0 0
elements 0.
STEP 6:
AT A
= p1 , p2 , p3 ,...
STEP 7:
pi
pi
vi = p i =
STEP 8:
Form V
STEP 9:
V = [v1 | v2 | v3 | ...]
xi =
STEP 10:
Av
x1
x
2x = 0
... a+1
xa
(ie: xa +1 belongs to the nullspace of the matrix that is made from the found vectors of x
arranged in rows.)
STEP 11:
ui =
STEP 12:
xi
, this only needs to be done for xa +1 onwards
xi
Form U
U = [u1 | u2 | u3 | ...]
A = A
( A + B ) = A + B
(zA) = z A
( AB ) = B A
Hermitian Matrix: (Similar to Symmetric Matricis in the real case)
Skew-Hermitian:
Unitary Matrix:
(iA) = i A = ( i )( A) = iA
Normal Matrix:
Where AA = A A
These will have unitary diagonalisation
A = AA = AA )
Diagonalisation:
For a nxn matrix with n distinct eigenvalues; if and only if there are n Linearly
Independent Eigenvectors:
D = P 1 AP
Where P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ], Pn is an eigenvector.
1 0
0
2
D=0 0
... ...
0 0
... 0
... 0
3 ... 0
... ... 0
0 0 n
1
Spectral Theorem:
For a nxn Normal matrix and eigenvectors form an orthonormal set
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ]
A = 1P1 P1 + 2 P2 P2 + ... + n Pn Pn
*
Power method:
If A is a nxn matrix with Linearly Independent Eigenvectors, and distinct eigenvectors
arranged such that:
1 2 ... n
{v1 , v2 ,..., vn }
w0 = c1v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cn vn
w1 = Aw0 = c1 Av1 + c2 Av2 + ... + cn Avn = c11v1 + c2 2v2 + ... + cn n vn
s
s
n
2
1
1
s
i
As
< 1 , lim i = 0
s
1
1
s
ws c11 v1
s
w
ws = A s1
ws1
A 2 A3
Ak
e =I + A+
+
+ ... +
+ ... = Pe Jt P 1
2! 3!
k!
e 1t 0 ... 0
t
0 e2t ... 0
D 2 D3
Dk
Dt
e = I + D +
+
+ ... +
+ ... =
2!
3!
k!
0 ... ent
0
e J1t 0 ... 0
t
0 e J 2t ... 0
J2 J3
Jk
Jt
e = I + J +
+
+ ... +
+ ... =
2! 3!
k!
0 ... e J nt
0
t
t 2 t
t
e
te
e
t
2!
2
3
k
t
J
J
J
te t
e J nt = I + J n + n + n + ... + n + ... = 0 e
2!
3!
k!
0
0
e t
...
... ...
At
...
...
...
...
1
0
...
BASIC OPERATIONS:
a1 + b1
a + b = a 2 + b2
a3 + b3
a1 b1
a b = a 2 b2
a3 b3
Addition:
Subtraction:
a = b a1 = b1 , a 2 = b2 , a3 = b3
Equality:
k a + lb = a + b k = , l =
ka1
k a = ka 2
ka 3
Scalar Multiplication:
Parallel:
a = kb a b
Magnitude:
a =
^
(a1 )2 + (a 2 )2 + (a 3 )2
a
a
Unit Vector:
a=
Zero Vector:
Dot Product:
a b = a b cos
a b = a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3
cos =
cos =
Perpendicular Test:
ab
ab
a 2
1
a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3
2
2
2
2
2
+ a 2 + a 3 b1 + b 2 + b 3
a1
a cos( )
^
a
a = 2 = cos( )
a
cos( )
a
3
a
ab = 0
Page 180 of 330
Scalar Projection:
a onto b: P = a b
Vector Projection:
1
^^
a onto b: P = a b b = 2 (a b )b
Cross Product:
a b = a 2 b3 a 3 b 2 , a 3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b 2 a 2 b1
a b = a b sin n
a b = a b sin
a b = b a
a (b c ) = b (c a ) = c (a b )
j k
i
a
a b = det a1 a2 a3 = i det 2
b2
b1 b2 b3
16.2
a3
b3
a a a a
j det 1 3 + k det 1 2
b1 b3 b1 b2
Lines
r = a + b ,
x = a1 + b1
y = a 2 + b2
z = a3 + b3
=
16.3
x a1 y a 2 z a3
=
=
b1
b2
b3
Planes
Generally:
n AR = 0
nr = na
nr = k
Where: n = a, b, c & r = x, y, z : ax + by + cz = k
Tangent Plane:
We define the tangent plane at a point
P (x0, y0, z0 )
0 = f ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) PQ
= f x ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ), f y ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ), f z ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) x x0 , y y0 , z z 0
Normal Line:
The normal line to S at P is the line passing through P and perpendicular to the tangent plan. The equation of the
normal line is:
16.4
Closest Approach
Two Points:
d = PQ
d = PQ a
d = PQ n
d = PQ n = PQ (a b )
Solving for t:
16.5
[r b (t ) r a (t )] [v b v a ] = 0
[ a r b (t )] [ a v b ] = 0
Geometry
Area of a Triangle:
A=
AB AC
Area of a Parallelogram:
2
A = AB AC
Area of a Parallelepiped:
A = AD ( AB AC )
16.6
Space Curves
Where:
r (t ) = x (t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k
Page 182 of 330
Velocity:
Acceleration:
a(t ) = v' (t ) = r ' ' (t ) = x' ' (t )i + y ' ' (t ) j + z ' ' (t )k
Definition of s:
Unit Tangent:
T=
dr r ' (t )
=
ds r ' (t )
T =1
Chain Rule:
dr dr ds
=
dt ds dt
As
Normal:
dr
dr
ds
=speed
= 1,
=
ds
dt
dt
T T =1
d
(T T ) = 0
ds
dT
dT
T + T
=0
ds
ds
dT
2T
=0
ds
dT
T
=0
ds
dT
is normal
ds
dT
ds
N=
dT
ds
Curvature:
dT dT
=
N = N
ds
ds
r ' (t ) r ' ' (t ) v(t ) a (t )
dT
=
=
=
3
3
ds
r ' (t )
v(t )
Unit Binomial:
B =T N
Tortion:
dB
ds
ABBREVIATIONS
= a scalar value
= a scalar value
= the angle between the vectors
a = a vector
b = a vector
k = a scalar value
l = a scalar value
n = the normal vector
r = the resultant vector
MISCELLANEOUS
n
S n = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + an = an
General Form:
n =1
S = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... = an
Infinite Form:
n =1
Si = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + ai = an
n =1
1
9
10
1 1
1
0.999 = 9 + 9 + 9 + ... = = 1
1
10 10
10
1
10
2
0.99=1:
17.2
Geometric Series
ar
n =1
n 1
Divergent , r 1
Convergent, r < 1
P Series
1 Divergent , p 1
p
Convergent, p > 1
x
n =1
an bn cn
Hence, if
If S or
( x)
1
1
= f ( n) = = f ( x )
n
x
Eg:
an is divergent
an
<
,
then
an converges
lim
n c n
n =1
n =1
a
If there is a divergent series d n , then if lim n > 0 , then an diverges
n d n
n =1
n =1
cn , then if
an+1
<1
an
lim
Converges:
an+1
>1
an
lim
Diverges:
an+1
=1
an
lim
For
a
n =1
where an
0 , then if
lim
Converges:
an ,
lim
an < 1
lim
an > 1
lim
an = 1
Diverges:
Abels Test:
If
a
n =1
n =1
Then
a
n =1
is a convergent series.
cn converges
Negative Terms
If
a
n =1
converges, then
a
n =1
n =1
n =1
an = (1) n bn
Let
lim b
n
convergent.
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION:
a, a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d ,...
= a + d (n 1)
n
n
a=1a = 2 (2a + d (n 1))
Definition:
Nth Term:
Sum Of The First N Terms:
17.4
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION:
Definition:
a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,...
Nth Term:
= ar n1
Sn = a =
a =1
) =
a 1 rn
S = lim
n 1 r
P, A, Q,...
Sum To Infinity:
a
(given r < 1 )
1 r
A
Q
= r, = r
P
A
A Q
= A 2 = PQ A = PQ
P A
Geometric Mean:
17.5
a 1 rn
1 r
SUMMATION SERIES
n(n + 1)
2
a =1
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
a =a1 2 =
6
n
Linear:
1+2+3+4+
Quadratic:
12+22+32+42+
Cubic:
13+23+33+43+
17.6
a =
n(n + 1)
a=a1 3 = 2
n
APPROXIMATION SERIES
Taylor Series
f ( x ) = a n ( x x0 ) n =
n =0
where, a n =
n =0
(n)
f ( n) ( x0 )
( x x0 ) n = a 0 + a1 ( x x0 ) + a 2 ( x x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x x0 ) 3 + ...
n!
( x0 )
n!
Page 187 of 330
Maclaurun Series
Special case of the Taylor Series where
x0 = 0
Linear Approximation:
1
1
f ( x ) L( x ) = an ( x x0 ) n =
n =0
f (n)( x 0 )
( x x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x x0 )
n!
n =0
Quadratic Approximation:
2
2
f ( x ) Q( x ) = an ( x x0 ) n =
n =0
f (n)( x 0 )
( x x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x x0 ) + a2 ( x x0 ) 2
n!
n=0
Cubic Approximation:
3
3
f ( x ) C( x ) = an ( x x0 ) =
n
n =0
17.7
f ( n ) ( x0 )
( x x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x x0 ) + a2 ( x x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x x0 ) 3
n!
n =0
MONOTONE SERIES
Strictly Increasing:
an+1 > an
Non-Decreasing:
an+1 an
Strictly Decreasing:
an+1 < an
Non-Increasing:
Convergence:
an+1 an
17.8
an+1
>1
an
an+1
<1
an
(n ) =
1
n
k =1 k
Form:
Eulers Table:
2
1
1 1
=
1
+
+
+
...
=
2
4 9
6
k =1 k
n=2
(2) =
n=4
(4) =
n=6
1
1
1
1
6
(6) = 6 = 1 + +
+
+ ... =
64 729 4096
945
k =1 k
n=8
(8) =
1
1 1
1
4
=
1
+
+
+
+
...
=
4
16 81 256
90
k =1 k
8
9450
Page 188 of 330
n=10 (10) =
n=12
n=14
n=16
n=18
n=20
n=22
n=24
n=26
10
93555
691 12
(12) =
638512875
2 14
(14) =
18243225
3617 16
(16) =
325641566250
43867 18
(18) =
38979295480125
174611 20
(20) =
1531329465290625
155366 22
(22) =
13447856940643125
236364091 24
(24) =
201919571963756521875
1315862 26
(26) =
11094481976030578125
Alternating Series:
sin( x) = x
x3 x5 x7
+ + ...
3! 5! 7!
sin( x) = x( x )( x + )( x 2 )( x + 2 )...
Polynomial Expansion:
)(
)(
sin( x) = x x 2 2 x 2 4 2 x 2 9 2 ...
x
x
x2
sin( x) = Ax1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 ...
2 3
sin( x)
lim
=1= A
x 0
x
x3 x5 x7
x 2
x 2
x2
x
+
+ ... = x1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 ..
3! 5! 7!
2 3
1
1
1
1
1
= 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
3!
2
3
4
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 ...
6
2
3 4
2
17.9
(Harmonic number)
where
number
x 1
denotes a Bernoulli
(m < n)
where
ABBREVIATIONS
Trigonometric:
y=
x 1
x +1
Fourier Series:
a0
+ a k cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)
2 k =1
a
fW ( x) = 0 + a1 cos( x) + a2 cos(2 x) + ... + a n cos(nx) + b1 sin( x) + b2 sin(2 x) + ... + bn sin(nx)
2
fW ( x ) =
ak =
bk =
f ( x) cos(kx)dx
k = 0,1,2,..., n
0
2
f ( x) sin(kx)dx
k = 1,2,..., n
A polynomial in n(n + 1)
1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k =
(2n + 1) x A polynomial in n(n + 1)
k odd
k even
Expansions:
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n + 1)
2
1
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n 2 + n
2
2
2
1 2
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = B0 n 2 + B1n
2 0
1
1
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = (2n + 1) n(n + 1)
6
1
1
1
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n 3 + n 2 + n
3
2
6
3
3
1 3
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = B0 n 3 + B1n 2 + B2 n
3 0
1
2
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )
1
2
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = (n(n + 1) )
4
1
1
1
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = n 4 + n 3 + n 2
4
2
4
4
4
4
1 4
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = B0 n 4 + B1n 3 + B2 n 2 + B3 n
4 0
1
2
3
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = (2n + 1)
1
n(n + 1)(3n(n + 1) 1)
30
1
1
1
1
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = n 5 + n 4 + n 3 n
5
2
3
30
5
5
5
5
1 5
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = B0 n 5 + B1n 4 + B2 n 3 + B3 n 2 + B4 n
5 0
1
2
3
4
k + 1 k +11 k + 1
k + 1
k + 1
1 k + 1
B0 n k +1 +
B1n
B2 n k +12 + ... +
Bk 1n 2 +
Bk n
+
k +1 0
1
2
k 1
k
1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k =
B(n)
1
2
3
1
2
1
6
0
Page 198 of 330
1
30
1
42
1
30
10
5
66
11
12
691
2730
13
14
7
6
15
16
3617
510
17
18
43867
798
19
20
174611
330
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
Conservation of Power:
Electrical Energy:
W = P t = I 2 R t = Pdt
Charge:
Current:
Resistance:
Ohms Law:
Power:
The sum of the volt drops around a close loop is equal to zero.
The sum of the currents entering any junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
V = 0
I
= I OUT
IN
Average Current:
1
= I (t )dt
T0
I AVE
I AVE =
1
Area (under I(t))
T
RMS Current:
1
(I (t ))2 dt
T 0
to Y Conversion:
18.2
RA =
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
R1
RB =
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
R2
RC =
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
R3
COMPONENTS
Resistance in Series:
Resistance in Parallel:
Inductive Impedance:
Capacitor Impedance:
Capacitance in Series:
Capacitance in Parallel:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
RT R1 R2 R3
X L = jL = j 2fL
1
1
=j
XC = j
C
2fC
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
CT C1 C2 C3
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
18.3
THEVENINS THEOREM
Thevenins Theorem:
VTH = Open Circuit Voltage between a & b
RTH = Short Circuit any voltage source and Open Circuit any current source and calculate RTH as the resistance
V
from a & b. With dependant sources, SC terminals a & b and calculate the current in the wire ( I SC ). RTH = TH
I SC
PMAX
2
(
VTH )
, where R
=
4 RTH
18.4
18.5
18.6
VS + VR + VL + VC = 0
V R + V L + VC = V S
Ri + L
di
+ VC = V S
di
Circuit current:
dVC
dt
d 2VC
di
=C
dt
dt 2
dV
d 2VC
RC C + LC
+ VC = VS
dt
dt 2
d 2VC
dV
LC
+ RC C + VC = VS
2
dt
dt
2
d VC R dVC
1
V
VC = S
+
+
2
dt
L dt
LC
LC
Important Variables
2
Standard Format:
s 2 + 2s + 0 = 0
i = iC = C
Damping Factor:
1R
2 L
=
Page 202 of 330
= RTH
dVc
dt
Natural Frequency:
s=
0 =
Damping Frequency:
d = 0 2 2
Mode Delta:
= 2 0
LC
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT +FINAL
VC:
Solving:
s2 +
R
1
s+
=0
L
LC
s = 2 0 =
Mode 1:
If: > 0 , then :
s =
2
V C ( t ) = TRANSIENT
TRANSIENT
+ FINAL
= Ae s1t + Be s 2 t
FINAL = V C ( ) = V S
V C ( t ) = Ae s1t + Be s 2 t + V S
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 ) = V0
A + B + VS = V0 A + B = V0 VS
dVc
= As1e s1t + Bs2 e s2t
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 ) I 0
=
=
=
= = As1 + Bs2
dt
C
C
C
C
V0 VS = A + B
I0
= As1 + Bs2
C
Mode 2:
If:
= 0 , then :
s =
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = ( A + Bt )e st = ( A + Bt )e t
FINAL = VC () = VS
VC (t ) = ( A + Bt )e t + VS
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 ) = V0
A + VS = V0 A = V0 VS
dVc
= ( A + Bt )se st + Be st
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 ) I 0
=
=
=
= = As + B
dt
C
C
C
C
V0 VS = A
I0
= As + B
C
Mode 3:
If:
s = jd
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
VC (t ) = ( A cos( d t ) + B sin( d t ) )e t + VS
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 ) = V0
A + VS = V0 A = V0 VS
dVc
= ( Ad sin(d t ) + Bd cos(d t ) )e t ( A cos(d t ) + B sin(d t ) )e t
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 ) I 0
=
=
=
= = Bd A
dt
C
C
C
C
V0 VS = A
I0
= Bd A
C
Mode 4:
If:
R = 0 , then :
= 0, d = 0
s = jd = j0
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = A cos(d t ) + B sin(d t )
FINAL = VC () = VS
VC (t ) = A cos(d t ) + B sin(d t ) + VS
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 ) = V0
A + VS = V0 A = V0 VS
dVc
= Ad sin(d t ) + Bd cos(d t )
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 ) I 0
=
=
=
= = Bd
dt
C
C
C
C
V0 VS = A
I0
= Bd
C
18.7
iS =
V
dV
+ iL + C
R
dt
Node Voltage:
diL
=V
dt
dV
d 2i
= L 2L
dt
dt
L diL
d 2i
iS =
+ iL + LC 2L
R dt
dt
2
d i
L diL
LC 2L +
+ iL = iS
dt
R dt
d 2 iL
1 diL
1
1
+
+
iL =
iS
2
dt
RC dt LC
LC
VL = L
Important Variables
Standard Format:
s 2 + 2s + 0 = 0
Damping Factor:
0 =
Damping Frequency:
d = 0 2 2
Mode Delta:
= 2 0
1 1
2 RC
1
LC
Solving:
s2 +
1
1
s+
=0
RC
LC
s = 2 0 =
2
18.8
LAPLANCE TRANSFORMATIONS
Identities:
Properties:
18.9
THREE PHASE Y
I PHASE = I LINE
Power:
S = 3 VLINE I LINE
S = 3 VPHASE I PHASE
VPHASE = VLINE
Line Current:
I LINE = I PHASE 3
I
I PHASE = LINE
3
Phase Current:
Power:
S = 3 VLINE I LINE
S = 3 VPHASE I PHASE
18.11 POWER
Instantaneous:
P(t ) = V (t ) I (t )
Page 209 of 330
Average:
1
1
= P (t )dt = VMAX I MAX cos(V I ) = VRMS I RMS cos(V I )
T 0
2
2
V
= TH where Z L = ZTH
8RTH
Maximum Power:
PMAX
Total Power:
Complex Power:
= I RMS R
2
S = VRMS I RMS
S = I RMS Z
2
S = P + jQ
where P = Average or Active Power (W) [positive = load, negative = generator]
where Q = Reactive Power (VAr) [positive = inductive, negative = capacitive]
18.12 Electromagnetics
Definitions:
Magnetic Flux
Reluctance
Permeability
Magnetomotive Force
Flux density
B
Magnetic Field Intensity H
Wb
A-t/Wb
H/m
A-t
Wb/m2 or T
A-t/m
0 = 4 10 7 Hm 1
NI
=
l
l
1
=
A
=
OR = NI
F = BIl
1
EMF = N 2
t
EMF = Bvl
= BA
F V
E= =
q d
F = qvB
H=
FUNDAMENTAL EXPLANATIONS:
List of vertices:
V = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,...}
List of edges:
E = {e1 , e2 , e3 ,...}
Subgaphs:
Any subgraph H such that
V ( H ) V (G ) & E ( H ) E (G )
Tree:
Any subgraph H where
verticis are connected.
Degree of vertex:
Number of edges leaving a vertex
d (v) = 2 E (G )
vV ( G )
Distance:
Diameter:
E (G ) =
V ( X ) V (Y )
2
d ( x) = d ( y )
x X
E (G ) =
19.2
yY
k (k 1)
2
FACTORISATION:
1 Factorisation:
A spanning union of 1 Factors and only exists if there are an even
number of vertices.
1 Factors of a K 2 n graph:
19.3
VERTEX COLOURING:
Page 211 of 330
Chromatic Number:
Union/Intersection:
G = G1 G2 and G1 G2 = K m , then
P(G1 , ) P(G2 , )
P(G, ) =
P( K m , )
If
Edge Contraction:
P(Tn , ) = ( 1) n1
P(C n , ) = ( 1) n + (1) n ( 1)
P( K n , ) = ( 1)( 2)...( n + 1)
19.4
EDGE COLOURING:
' (G ) (G )
' ( K n ,n ) = n
' (C2 n ) = 2
' (C2 n+1 ) = 3
' ( K 2 n ) = 2n 1
' ( K 2 n +1 ) = 2n + 1