PHYSIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

ROLE OF THALAMUS AND HYPOTHALAMUS

THALAMUS
The Thalamus , from the Greek word Thalamos , meaning Inner chamber , is an olive shaped
structure about one inch in length. It serves as a relay station for impulses traveling to and from
the spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum and cerebrum. It makes up the Dorsal part of the
diencephalon. It is situated near the middle of the cerebral heminspheres, immediately medial
and caudal to the basal ganglia.
The Thalamus has two lobes, connected by a bridge of gray matter called the Massa Intermedia
, which pierces the middle of the third ventricle. However , the Massa Intermedia is not an
important structure , because it is absent in brains of many people.
Most neural input to the cerebral cortex is received from the Thalamus ; indeed, much of the
cortical surface can be divided into regions that receive projections from specific parts of
Thalamus. Projection fibers are sets of axons that arise from cell bodies located in one region of
the brain and synapse on neurons located within another region .
The Thalamus is divided into several nuclei. Some Thalamic nuclei receive sensory information
from the sensory systems. The neurons in this nuclei then relay the sensory information to
specific sensory projection areas of the cerebral cortex. For example, the inputs from
the retina are sent to the Lateral Geniculate Cortex of the thalamus, which in turn projects to
the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. The thalamus is believed to both process sensory
information as well as relay iteach of the primary sensory relay areas receives strong
feedback connections from the cerebral cortex. Similarly the Medial Geniculate Nucleus acts as
a key auditory relay between the inferior colliculus of the midbrain and the Primary Auditory
Cortex, and the Ventral Posterior Nucleus is a key somatosensory relay, which sends touch
and proprioceptive information to the Primary Somatosensory Cortex. Other Thalamic nuclei
project to specific regions of the cerebral cortex , but they do not relay sensory information such
as , the Ventrolateral Nucleus receives information from the cerebellum and projects it to the
primary motor cortex.
The Thalamus also plays an important role in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness.
Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, forming thalamocortico-thalamic circuits that are believed to be involved with consciousness. The Thalamus
plays an important role in regulating arousal, the level of awareness, and activity. Damage to
the Thalamus can lead to permanent coma.

HYPOTHALAMUS

The Hypothalamus, is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a
variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link
the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus, just above the brainstem. In the terminology
of neuroanatomy, it forms the ventral part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a
hypothalamus. In humans, it is roughly the size of an almond.
The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of
the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system and organizes behaviors related to
survival of the species-the so-called four Fs : Fighting, Feeding, Fleeing, and Mating. It
synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, often called releasing hormones or
hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion
of pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, important aspects
of parenting and attachment behaviors, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
The Hypothalamus is situated on both sides of the Ventral portion of the Third ventricle. The
Hypothalamus is a complex structure, containing many nuclei and fiber tracts. The pituitary
gland is attached t the Hypothalamus via the pituitary stalk. Just in front of the pituitary stalk is
the Optic chiasm, where half of the axons in the optic nerves(from the eyes) cross from one side
of the brain to the other.
Most of the endocrine system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in the Hypothalamus.
A special system of blood vessels directly connects the Hypothalamus with the Anterior pituitary
gland. The Hypothalamic hormones are secreted by specialized neurons called neurosecretory
cells, located near the base of the pituitary stalk. These hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary
gland to secrete its hormones.
The Hypothalamus also produces hormones of the posterior pituitary gland and controls their
secretion. These hormones include oxytocin, which stimulates ejection of milk and uterine
contractions at the time of childbirth, and vasopressin, which regulates urine output by the
kidneys. They are produced by neurons in the Hypothalamus whose axons travel down the
pituitary stalk and terminate in the posterior pituitary gland. The hormones are carried in
vesicles through the axoplasm of these neurons and collect in the terminal buttons in the
posterior pituitary gland. When these axons fire, the hormone contained within their terminal
buttons is liberated and enters the circulatory system.
The hypothalamus coordinates many hormonal and behavioral circadian rhythms, complex
patterns of neuroendocrine outputs, complex homeostatic mechanisms, and important
behaviors. The hypothalamus must, therefore, respond to many different signals, some of which
generated externally and some internally. Delta wave signaling arising either in the thalamus or
in the cortex influences the secretion of releasing hormones; GHRH and prolactin are stimulated
whilst TRH is inhibited.
The hypothalamus is responsive to:

Light: daylength and photoperiod for regulating circadian and seasonal rhythms

Olfactory stimuli, including pheromones

Steroids, including gonadal steroids and corticosteroids

Neurally transmitted information arising in particular from the heart, the stomach, and the
reproductive tract
Autonomic inputs
Blood-borne stimuli, including leptin, ghrelin, angiotensin, insulin, pituitary
hormones, cytokines, plasma concentrations of glucose and osmolarity etc.
Stress
Invading microorganisms by increasing body temperature, resetting the body's
thermostat upward.

HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATIONS
The longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres,
connected by the corpus callosum. The hemispheres exhibit strong, but not complete, bilateral
symmetry in both structure and function. The two hemispheres, namely, the Left Hemisphere
and the Right Hemisphere are involved in different functions but are interdependent. The
division of the two hemispheres makes them independent in their functioning, and they may or
may not be aware of the others presence.
LEFT HEMISPHERE(verbal & analytical)
It controls movement in the right side of the
body.
It involves process which lead to production of
speech.
It receives sensations from right side of the
body.
It is involved in : Comprehension of language
Reading & Writing
Analytical thinking(breaking things into
parts , then solving)
Logical reasoning
Mathematics

RIGHT HEMISPHERE(non-verbal functions)

It controls the movement in the left side of the
body.
It is the creative side and lead to production of
new ideas.
It receives sensations from right side of the
body.
It is involved in : Recognition of faces
Spatial ability
Dance movements
Emotional decision & expression
Appreciation of art

There are Three main approaches of Hemispheric Specializations :

Brain Damage : Brain damage is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain
injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and external factors. A common category
with the greatest number of injuries is traumatic brain injury (TBI) following physical
trauma or head injury from an outside source, and the term acquired brain injury (ABI) is
used in appropriate circles to differentiate brain injuries occurring after birth from injury
due to a disorder or congenital malady.
There is evidence of localization of language skills in Brocas and Wernickes areas.
Neglect syndrome, is a disorder caused by damage to the right areas of the right
cerebral hemisphere . The patient believes that the left side of their world does not exist.

Split-Brain : Patients who have undergone a procedure called split-brain operation have
their corpus callosum surgically cut, which is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the
two hemispheres thereby disconnecting one hemisphere from the other. This procedure
was first used in 1940s to stop recurring seizures in severe cases of epilepsy.
In 1960 , Roger Sperry conducted a series of tests which involved patients viewing
visual information being presented to only one hemisphere. Information presented to the
left visual field only(to the left side of the patients vision)was sent to the right
hemisphere of the brain and information presented to the right visual field only was sent
to the left hemisphere.
Split brain studies reveal:
Ability to verbally name and identify words and objects ashed to the left hemisphere.
Inability to verbalize words or name objects visually ashed to the right hemisphere;
patients can identify these objects by touch alone using their left hand (ie. Controlled by
the right hemisphere)
Spatial puzzles are solved better using the left hands.

Intact Brains : Some of the best evidence relating to hemisphere specialization comes
from the Wada Test a procedure carried out before brain surgery.
In the Wada Test each hemisphere is put to sleep at different times injecting anesthetic
into a major artery that leads only to that hemisphere. While one hemisphere is
anesthetized , the other remains awake and conscious. Once half the brain is
anesthetized , doctors can interview the other half or give instructions to perform certain
tasks. This helps to determine what skills or abilities might be confined to one
hemisphere.

Made by:
Nishtha Gupta
Roll number: 174