Neral Capítulo.6 PDF

6
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Weight and Balance Theory

405
Locating the Balance Point, or Center of Gravity (CG)
Shifting the CG
410
Solution by Chart
41 1
Solution by Formula
412
Study Questions: Weight and Balance Theory
Weight and Balance Documentation
FAA-Furnished Information
415
414
415
Manufacturer-Furnished Inforn1ation
416
Study Questions: Weight and Balance Documentation
Weighing the Aircraft
Equipment for Weighing
407
417
417
417
Preparation for Weighing
418
Study Questions: Weighing an Aircraft
Locating the Center of Gravity

Location with Respect to the Datum
419
419
419
Tail Wheel Airplane with the Datum Ahead of the Main Wheels
Tail Wheel Airplane with the Datum Behind the Main Wheels
Nosewheel Airplane with the Datum Ahead of the Main Wheels
Nosewheel Airplane with the Datum Behind the Main Wheels
Location with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord
424
Study Questions: Finding the Center of Gravity
420
421
422
423
426
Single-Engine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations
The Loadi ng Graph

427
CG Moment Index Envelope
427
429
Continued
W EIGHT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
403
Twin-Engine Airplane Weight and Balance Computations

Finding the Empty Weight and Empty Weight Center of Gravity
429
431
The Chart Method

431
The Formula Method
431
Finding the Operational CG
432
The Chart Method
433
CG in Percent of MAC
433
Adverse-Loaded CG Checks
Forward CG Check
434
434
435
Study Questions: Adverse-Loaded CG Checks
Aft CG Check
436
Center of Gravity Change After Repair or Alteration
437
Study Questions: CG Change After Repair or Alteration

Determination of Needed Ballast
Study Questions: Ballast
436
438
439
Large Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations

Finding the Maximum Payload
439
Determining Minutes of Fuel Dump Time

440
Study Question: Large Aircraft Weight and Balance
439
441
Weight and Balance Computations with an Electronic Computer

Answers to Chapter 6 Study Questions
404
442
447
AVIATION M AI:\TE:\ANCE T ECIINICIA:\ St:RII:S
GE:\ERAL
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Weight and balance is of such a critical nature that standard preflight operation requires the pilot to determine that his or her aircraft is loaded in such a
way that its gross weight is not beyond the allowable limit and that the center of gravity is located within the prescribed limits for the actual weight of
the aircraft.
For the pilot to know the actual weight and center of gravity location,
the mai ntenance technician must provide accurate information on the empty
weight of the aircraft and the location of the empty-weight center of gravity.
In this chapter of the A viation Maintenance Technician Series- General,
we will consider the theory of weight and balance and study the application
of these principles to aircraft from small single-engine general aviation airplanes through large multiengine jet transport aircraft.
Weight and Balance Theory

Regardless of how well an aircraft is designed and how well it is built, it is not
safe to fly if it is loaded in such a way that its gross weight exceeds the limit
allowed by its manufacturer, or if its center of gravity (CG) falls outside its
allowable limits. If the weight is too great, too high a structural load can be
placed on the aircraft during certain maneuvers or during flight through rough
weather. If the CG is outside the allowable limits, the aircraft can become
difficult or even impossible to control in certain flight conditions.
When the aircraft was first certificated, its empty weight, EW, and its empty
weight center of gravity, EWCG, were determined by either actually weighing it or by using the average weight of aircraft of exactly the same configuration coming off the assembly line.
Private aircraft are not required to be weighed on any schedule, but it is
the responsibility of the technician approving the aircraft for return to service
after an inspection or maintenance to determine that the aircraft' s empty
weight and the empty weightCG are correctly recorded in the aircraft records.
empty weight. The weight of the airframe,

engines, and all items of operating
equipme nt that have fixed locations and
are permanently installed in the aircraft. It
includes optional and special equipment,
fi xed ballast, full reservoi rs of hydraulic
fluid, and engine lubricating oil. It includes
only unusable, or residual, fuel.
empty-weight center of gravity. The
The empty weight of an aircraft includes the weight of the airframe, engines
and all items of operating equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the aircraft. It includes optional and special equipment,
fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, and unusable (residual) fuel. The empty weight
of aircraft certificated under 14 CFR Parts 23 and 25 also includes all of the
oil in the supply tank, but some aircraft include only the undrainable, or
residual oil.
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
center of gravity of the aircraft as it is

weighed. It includes all of the items
required in aircraft empty weight.
""
Chapter 6
405
useful load. The difference between the

empty weight of an aircraft and its
maximum allowable gross weight. Useful
load is the weight of the pilot. copilot.
passengers. baggage. fuel, and oi l.
zero fuel weight. The weight of an aircraft

without fuel. It is the basic operating
weight of the aircraft plus the payload.
a rm. The distance. in inches. between the

center of graYity of an object and the
reference datum. An arm ahead of the
datum is negative. and an arm behind the
datum is positi,e.
datum. An imaginary vertical reference

plane or line chosen by the aircraft
manufacturer from which all arms used for
weight and balance computation are
measured.
The useful load of an aircraft is the difference between its empty weight and
the maximum allowable gross weight. It includes the weight of the crew.
passengers, fuel, and cargo.
The empty weight is recorded in the weight and balance information that
must be carried in the aircraft, while the maximum allowable gross weight is
found in the Type Certificate Data Sheets for the aircraft.
The zero fuel weight of an aircraft is the maximum allowable weight of
the loaded aircraft without fuel. It includes the weight of the cargo, passengers, and crew.
The arm (lever arm) of a weight is the distance between the CG of the weight
and the fulcrum. In aircraft weight and balance, the fulcrum is considered to
be the datum, an imaginary vertical plane that can be located anywhere the
manufacturer chooses.
The datum is often the center of the rotor mast of a helicopter, the leading
edge of the wing of an airplane, or a specified number of inches ahead of some
easily located point on the aircraft.
The arms of weights located behind the datum are positive. and those
ahead of the datum are negative. When the datum is located ahead of the
aircraft, all of the arms are positive and computational errors are minimized.
In aircraft weight and balance practice, weights are normally specified in
pounds; arms, in inches from the datum: and moments, in pound-inches.
When a weight is removed from the aircraft, the weight removed is
negative(-), and when weight is added. the weight added is positive(+).
An arm ahead of the datum is negative(-), and an arm behind the datum
is positive (+).
A positive weight and a positive arm produce a positive moment.
moment. A force that tries to cause

rotation. In weight and balance, a moment
is found by multiplying a weight by its
arm. Moments are expressed in poundinches. A moment that causes a nose-down
condition is a negati ,.e moment, and o ne
that causes a nose-up condition is a
positi,e moment.
center of gra vity (C G). The point in an

aircraft at which all of the weight is
considered to be concentrated. The
algebraic sum of the moments about the
center of gra,ity is zero. The center of
gra,ity may be expressed in inches from
the datum or in percent of the mean
aerod) namic chord. The symbol for the
location of the CG on an aircraft is ~ .
406
A positive weight and a negative arm produce a negative moment.

A negative weight and a positive arm produce a negative moment.
A negative weight and a negative arm produce a positive moment.
A positive moment produces a nose-up pitch, and a negative moment
produces a nose-down pitch.
An aircraft is considered to be in balance if the average moment arm of the
loaded aircraft falls within the approved CG range.
Specifications for some aircraft contain an empty-weight center of
gravity range. If the CG for the empty weight of the aircraft falls within this
range. it is not possible to legally load the aircraft in such a way that its loaded
CG will fall outside its loaded CG range or limits.
Weight and balance of a helicopter are computed in the same way as for an
airplane, but because of its limited control effectiveness, weight and balance
of a helicopter are more critical and the CG range is more restricted than it is
for an airplane.
G E:\ERAL
Locating the Balance Point,

or Center of Gravity (CGJ
empty-weight center of gravity range.
One of the easiest ways of understanding weight and balance is to consider a

board with weights located at various locations. We can find the CG of the
board and observe the way the CG changes as the weights are moved.
The CG of a board such as the one in Figure 6-1 on which three weights
are located may be found by using these three steps:
The distance between the allowable

forward and aft empty-weight CG limits.
When EWCG limits are given for an
aircraft, and the empty-weight CG falls
within these limits, you cannot legally load
the aircraft in such a way that its operational CG will fall outside its operational
CG limits.
1. Measure the arm of each weight from a datum point.

2. Multiply each arm by its weight to find the moment of each weight.
3. Add all the weights and all the moments. In this example, we will disregard the weight of the board.
4. Divide the total moment by the total weight to find the CG in inches from
the datum point.
Datum
1 - C - - - - - - -- - - - - 150" - - - - - - --
---Joo-1
Figure 6-1. Locating the balance point from a datum located off the board
In Figure 6-1, we have the board with the three weights, and the datum located
50 inches to the left of the CG of Weight A. The first step in finding the CG
of this board is to make a chart such as the one in Figure 6-2.
Weight A weighs 100 pounds and is 50 inches from the datum. Weight
B weighs 100 pounds and is 90 inches from the datum. Weight C weighs 200
pounds and is 150 inches from the datum.
Weight
Arm
Moment
Weight A
100
50
5,000
Weight B
100
90
9,000
150
30,000
Item
Weight C
200
400
44,000
Figure 6-2. Chart for finding the CG ofa board with three weights with the datum
located off the board
W EIGHT AND BALAI\JCE
Chapter 6
407
Find the CG by dividing the total mome nt by the total weight.

CG
= total moment
total weight
44,000
400
II 0 inches from the datum

We can prove that this is the correct CG by finding the arm of each weight
from this CG and making a new chart such as the one in Figure 6-3. lfthe CG
is correct, the sum of the moments will be zero.
The new arm of Weight A is 110 -50 =60 inches. Since this weight is to
the left of the CG, its arm is considered to be negative, or- 60 inches.
The new arm of Weight B is 110 -90 = -20 inches.
The new arm of Weight Cis ISO- II 0 =40 inches. Since it is to the right
of the CG, this arm is positive.
Weight
Item
100
Weight A
Weight 8
100
Weight C
200
Arm
Moment
-60
-6,000
-20
-2,000
40
8,000
0
Figure 6-3. Proof that the board balances at a poillt 110 inches to the right of the datum.
The board is balanced when the sum of the moments is -::,ero.
The location of the datum used for finding the arms of the weights is not
important; it can be a nyw here. However, all of the measurements must be
made from the same datum. In F igure 6-4 the datum is located at the center
of gravity of Weight A.
.,
Datum
100"
40"
I
B
c
~~Fulcrum
60"
Figure 6-4. Locating the balance point from a datum located allhe CG of Weight A
408
A VIATION M Al TENAXCE TECHN!ClA SERIES
GENERAL
The chart in Fig ure 6-5 shows all of the arms measured from the CG of
Weight A.
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Weight A
100
Weight B
100
40
4,000
Weight C
200
100
20,000
400
60
24,000
Figure 6-5. Chart for finding the CG of a board with three weights with the datum located
at the CG of Weight A
You wi II notice that the CG is in exactly the same location as it is in Figure

6-1; it is 20 inches to the right of Weight B.
Move the datum to the center of gravity of Weight C, and the arms will
be as they are shown in Figure 6-6. The CG will be 40 inches to the left of this
datum, but the CG is still located where it was before.
Datum
100"
60"
"'
~
J~F u lcrum
40"
Figure 6-6. Locating the balance point from a datum located at the CG of Weight C
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Weight A
100
-100
-10,000
Weight B
100
-60
-6,000
Weight C
200
400
-40
-16,000
F igure 6-7. Chart for finding the CG of a board with three weights with the datum Located
at the CG of Weight C
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Chapter 6
409
ta re weight. The weight of the chocks or

other devices used to hold an aircraft on
the scales for weighing. Tare weight is
subtracted from the scale reading to find
the weight of the aircraft.
An airplane's center of gravity may be found in the same way as locating the
CG of a board. The airplane is prepared for weighing and placed on three
scales. Any tare weight is subtracted from the scale reading, and the net weight
of the wheels is entered into a chart like the one in Figure 6-9. The arms of
the weighing points are specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets for the
airplane in terms of fuselage stations, which are distances in inches from
the datum. See Figure 6-8.
The empty weight of this aircraft is 5.862 pounds, and its empty-weight
CG is located at fu selage station 151 .1 .
~-- 151.1 --~
~--- 195.5 ---~
Figure 6-8. Locating the CC of an airplane H-lwse datum is ahead of the airplane
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Main wheels
3,540
195.5
692,070
Nose wheel
2,322
83.5
193,887
5,862
151.1
885,957
Figure 6-9. Chart for finding the CC of an airplane whose datum is ahead of the airplane
Shifting the CG
One common weight and balance problem involves shifting cargo from one
cargo bin to another to move the CG to a desired location. We will begin to
study this type of problem by using a board with three weights and will then
see the way it is actually done on an airplane.
4 10
A VIATIO:-: MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAI' S ERIES
G E:-<ERAL
Solution by Chart
The CG of a board can be moved by shifting the weights. Consider Figure
6-10: as the board is loaded, it balances at a point 56 inches from the CG of
Weight A.
Datum
100"
40"
- I
Fulcrum
--I
56"
Figure 6-10. Moving the CG of a board by shifting the weights
Weight
Arm
Moment
Weight A
100
Weight B
200
40
8,000
Weight C
200
100
20,000
500
56
28,000
Item
Figure 6-11. Chart for shifting the CG ofa board by moving one of the weights. This is the
original condition of the board.
To shift Weight B so the board will balance at its center, 50 inches from the
CG of Weight A, we must find the arm of Weight B that will produce a
moment causing the total moment of all three weights about this point to be
zero. The moment of Weight B will have to be -5,000 pound-inches for the
board to balance. See Figure 6-12.
Item
Weight A
Weight
Arm
Moment
100
-50
-5,000
200
50
10,000
Weight B
Weight C
5,000
Figure 6-12. Finding the moment of Weight B needed to cause the board to balance
about its center
W EIGHT A:-ID B ALANCE
Chapter 6
411
The arm of Weight B is found by dividing its moment, -5,000 pound inches,
by its weight of 200 pounds. Its arm is -25 inches.
To balance the board at its center, Weight B will have to be placed so its
CG i 25 inches to the left of the center of the board, as seen in F igure 6-1 3.
50"
SO"
~ 25"-----.
~~
Fulcrum
Figure 6-13. Placement of Weight B ro cause rhe board to balance at its center
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Weight A
100
-50
-5,000
Weight B
200
-25
-5,000
Weight C
200
50
10,000
0
Figure 6-14. Proof that the board balances at its cenrer. The board is balanced when the
swn of the moments is zero.
Solution by Formula
This problem can also be worked by using a formula. We want to find the
new location of weight B that will shift the CG from 56 inches to 50 inches.
The basic formula is:
weight to be shifted
total weight
change in CG
distance weight is shifted
We can rearrange this formula to find the distance the weight is to be hifted:
di tance weight is shifted
total weight x change in CG

weight shifted
500 X 6
200
15 inches
412
A H-HIO\
M AI'\TE:\ASCE T ECIINICIA:'\ SERIES
G E\ERAL
The 200-pound Weight B must be shifted 15 inches to the left for the board
to balance about a point 50 inches to the right of the datum. Its original arm
was 40 inches, and its new arm will be 40-15 = 25 inches. The sum of the
moments about the new CG will be zero. See Figure 6-13.
If we know the distance the weight is to be shifted, we can easily find the
amount of weight to be shifted to move the CG to any location. To find the
amount of weight that will have to be shifted from station 40 to station 25, to
move the CG from station 56 to station 50, we can use this arrangement for
a basic formula:
weight shifted
total weight x change in CG

distance weight is shifted
500 X 6
15
200 pounds
If we shift 200 pounds from station 40 to station 25, the CG wi II move from
station 56 to station 50.
Using the same information, we can find the distance the CG will be shifted
when we move a 200-pound weight from station 40 to station 25 by using this
rearrangement of the basic formula:
CG
= amount of weight shifted distance weight is shifted

total weight
200 X 15
500
= 6 inches
By shifting 200 pounds from station 40 to station 25, the CG of the board
will shift 6 inches to the left.
Chapter 6
41 3
STUDY QUESTIONS: WEIGHT AND BALANCE THEORY
Answers are on Page 447. Page numbers refer to chapter text.

1. The distance between the center of gravity of an object and the fulcrum is called the lever
_ _ _ _ _ _ .Page 406
2. A force that tends to cause an object to rotate is called a/an
3. Moments are expressed in units of
. Page 406
. Page 406
4. When a weight is removed from a negative arm, the moment is _ __ __ _ _ __

(positive or negative). Page 406
5. When a weight is added at a negative arm, the moment is _ _ __ _ _ ___ (positive or negative).
Page 406
6. When a weight is removed from a positive arm, the moment is _ __ _ _ __ __
(positive or negative). Page 406
7. When a weight is added to a positive arm, the moment is _ _ __ __ _ _ _ (positive or negative).
Page 406
8. The difference between the maximum allowable gross weight of an aircraft and its empty weight is called
its
. Page 406
9. If a 40-pound generator has a moment of +1,400 pound-inches, its arm is _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ inches
from the datum. Page 407
414
AVIATIO~ M AIXTEXA:-.ICE TECHNICIA~ SERIES
GE:o-;ERAL
Weight and Balance Documentation

FAA-Furnished Information
Before an aircraft can be properly weighed and its empty weight center of
gravity computed, certain information must be known. This information is
furnished by the Federal Aviation Administration for every certificated aircraft in a form that is available to all technicians.
When the design of an aircraft is approved by the FAA, an Approved Type
Certificate (ATC) and Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) are issued. The
TCDS includes all of the pertinent specifications for the aircraft, and at each
annual or 100-hour inspection, it is the responsibility of the inspecting
technician to ensure that the aircraft adheres to these specifications.
The weight and balance information on a Type Certificate Data Sheet
includes the following:
Datum: The location of the datum is described in such terms as "Located 100
in. forward of front pressure bulkhead." All arms are measured from the
datum, and when it is located ahead of the airplane all of the arms are positive.
Leveling means: A typical method is "Drop plumb line between leveling
screws in cabin door frame rear edge." Other methods require a spirit level
to be placed across leveling screws or leveling lugs in the primary aircraft
structure.
CG range: This is given with the landing gear extended, and the moment
change caused by retracting the landing gear is specified.
An example of the CG range is:
spir it level. An instrument used to

determine when an object is level, or
perpendicular to a line pointing directly
toward the center of the earth. A curved
glass tube partially filled with a liquid
is mounted in a long, straight metal or
wood bar. When the bar is perfectly
level, the bubble in the liquid is in the
center of the curve in the tube.
(+135.2) to (+139.2) at 6725 lb.

(+128.0) to (+139.2) at 5360 lb. or less
Straight line variation between points given
When this information is given, there will be a chart similar to the one in
Figure 6-15 on the TCDS. This chart allows you to visualize the CG range.
6800
6400
6000
Pounds
It:
5600
/ "
v
v
Fon ~ard
Jllml
RE ar
5200
'"' I"
5000
128
Figure 6-15
130
132
134
136
138
140
Inches
W EIGHT AND BALANCE
Chapter 6
415
Empty weight CG range: When the EWCG is within this EWCG range. it is
not possible to legally load the aircraft in such a way that its operational CG
will fall outside the acceptable limits. If the aircraft has seats and baggage
area extend ing over a significant distance, the EWCG range will be listed
as " one."
Maximum weight: T he maximum allowable takeoff and landing weight and
the maximum allowable ramp weight are given. This basic information may
be altered by a note such as:
NOTE 5. A landing weight of 6435 lb. must be observed if 10 PR tires
are installed o n aircraft not equipped with 60-8 10012-15 (LH) or
60-810012- 16 (RH) shock struts.
No. of seats: The number of seats and their arms are given in such terms as
"4 (2 at +141 , 2 at + 173)."
Maximum baggage (structural limit): This is given as:
500 lb. at+75 (nose compartment)
655 lb. at +212 (aft area of cabin)
Fuel capacity: This important information is given in such terms as:
142 gal. (+ 138) comprising two interconnected cells in each wing. or
204 gal. (+ 139) comprising three cells in each wing and one cell in each
nacelle (four cells interconnected)
See NOTE 1 for data o n fuel system.
OTE 1 will read something like:
OTE 1. Current weight and balance data including list of equipment
included in certificated empty weight and loading instructions when
necessary must be provided for each aircraft at the ti me of original
certification.
T he certificated empty weight and correspondi ng center of gravity
locations must include unusable fuel of 24 lb. at (+ 135).
Oil capacity (wet sump): The quan tity of the ful l oil supply and its arm are
given in such terms as "26 qt. (+88)."
Type Certificate Data S heets are issued for aircraft that were certificated after
January I , 1958. Basically the same data on aircraft certificated before this
date is included in Airc raft, E ngine, or P ropeller Specification Sheets.
W eight and balance information on aircraft of which there are less than
50 listed as being certificated i inc luded in a book of Aircraft Listing .
Manufacturer-Furnished Information
When an aircraft is initially certificated, its empty weight and EWCG are
determined and record ed in the weight and balance record. An equipment
li tis furn ished with the aircraft that specifie all of the required equipment
and all equipmen t that is approved for installation in the aircraft. The weight
416
AVIATIO:-< M AINTENANCE T ECHNICIAN SERIES
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and arm of each item is included on the list, and all equipment installed when
the aircraft left the factory is checked.
When a technician adds or removes any item that is on the equipment list,
the weight and balance record is changed to indicate the new empty weight
and EWCG, and the equipment list is changed to show what equipment is
actually installed.
STUDY QUESTIONS: WEIGHT AND BALANCE DOCUMENTATION

10. The maximum certificated weight of an aircraft may be found in the _ _ _ __ _ __
Page415
for the aircraft.
11. Required equipment that must be carried in an aircraft for it to maintain validity of its Airworthiness
for the aircraft. Page 416
Certificate is found in the
12. The leveling means of an aircraft that must be used when weighing an aircraft may be found in the aircraft
_______________ . Page415
Weighing the Aircraft

The manufacturer does not weigh every aircraft that comes off its assembly
line, but one out of ten aircraft of the same configuration is weighed and its
CG is computed. The average weight and CG of these aircraft are considered
to be the basic we ight and CG of that design, and this information is included
in the initial weight and balance record.
When an aircraft has undergone extensive repair or maj or alteration, it
should be weighed and a new weight and balance record started, using the
current data specific to that particular aircraft.
Equipment for Weighing

There are two basic types of scales used to weigh aircraft; mechanical and
electronic.
Most small general aviation aircraft are weighed with mechanical scales
of the low profile type. The scales are placed under the wheels, and the aircraft
is leveled both laterally and longitudinally. The weights of any devices such
as chocks or tail wheel stands are considered tare weight and must be
subtracted from the scale reading to get the actual weight of the aircraft.
A plumb bob is dropped from the datum, and the distances between the
datum and the main wheels and the nosewheel or tail wheel weighing points
are carefully measured to determine the arms of the weighing points.
Chapter 6
4 17
load cell. A weighing device placed

between a jad. and jack pad when
weighing an aircraft. Load cells contain
s train gages that change their resistance
proportional to the amount of weight the
load cell support .
jack pad. A fixture that attaches to the
structure of an aircraft to fit the jack used
to raise the aircraft for weighing or for
service.
hydrometer . An inqrument used to

determine the density o f the fuel in a ta nk.
pota ble wate r. Water carried in a n aircraft

for the purpose of d rinki ng.
418
Mechanical scales should be protected w hen they are not in use. and their
accuracy should be c hecked periodicall y.
Large aircraft are all weighed with electronic weighing syste ms . The e
can be either in the form of a ramp-type wheel weig her onto which the aircraft
wheel is rolled, or a load cell which is placed between the jack and the jack
pad on the aircraft.
The measuring ele ment in an electronic weighing system is a strain gage
who e electrical resistance changes as a function of the weight applied to it.
This c hange in resistance is mea ured with a sensitive bridge-type instrument
which can provide a visual indication and/or a printout of the weight.
Preparation for Weighing

When an aircraft is prepared for weighing. it should be as free as possible of
all mud and dirt. lt should be c hecked to be sure that all of the required
equipment is properly installed. and that no equipment is installed that is not
included in the equipment list. Be sure that all required permanent ballast is
in place and all temporary balla tis removed. The airc raft should be weighed
in a closed hangar where wind cannot blow over the surface and produce a
false scale reading.
Fuel should be drained from the tanks in the manner specified by the
airc raft manufacturer. If the re are no specific instructions, drain the fue l until the fuel quantity gauges read empty whe n the aircraft is in level-flight
atti tude. Any fuel remaini ng in the system is called resid ual, or unusable. fuel
and is part of the aircraft empty weight.
If it is not feasible to drain the fuel. the tanks can be topped off to be ure
of the quantity of fuel they contain and the aircraft weighed with full fuel.
After the weighing is complete, the weight o f the fuel and its moment are
subtracted from those of the aircraft. To find the actual e mpty weight. the
re idual fuel as specified in the TCDS and its moment must be added. Whe n
computing the weight of the fuel. its specific g ravity should be measured with
a hydrometer because the weight of the fuel. especially jet fuel. varies
appreciably with its te mperature.
At one time. e ng ine lubricating oi l was not considered to be pat1 of the
empty weight. a nd it had to be drained before the aircraft was weighed. ow.
14 CFR Parts 23 and 25 both specify full oi I as pat1 of the empty weight. If
the aircraft is certificated unde r any part of the regulations o ther than 23 or
25. be sure to check whether or not the oil sho uld be drained.
The hydraulic fluid reservoir and all othe r reservoirs containing fluids
required for normal operation of the aircraft should be full. Fluids not
con ide red to be part of the empty weight of the aircraft a re potable (drinkable) water, lavatory precharge water, and water for injection into the e ngines.
Consult the airc raft service manual regarding the position of the control
surfaces for weighing. T he main rotor of a hel icopter must be in its cotTect
po ition (as identified in its service manual) or it will cause an e rroneous CG.
A VI.-\TIO:--' M .-\.INTENANCE TECHNICIAN S ERIES
G E\"ER\L
Before some ai rcraft are j acked for weighing, stress panels or plates must be
installed to distribute the weight of the aircraft over the jack pad. Be sure
that anytime an ai rcraft is jacked, the recommendations of the aircraft manufacturer are followed in detail.
STUDY QUESTIONS: WEIGHING AN AIRCRAFT

13. Which, if any, of these items is not considered to be part of the empty weight of an airplane certificated
under 14 CFR Part 23: unusable fuel, engine oil, permanent ballast, lavatory water?
____________________________ .Page418
14. When preparing an aircraft certificated under 14 CFR Part 23 for weighing, the engine o il reservoir should
be
(full or empty). Page 418
15. The weight of all the chocks used to prevent an aircraft rolling off the scales is called
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ weight, and it must be subtracted from the scale reading to get the actual
weight of the aircraft. Page 417
16. Before some aircraft are jacked for weighing, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ must be installed to distribute
the aircraft weight over the j ack pads. Page 419
Locating the Center of Gravity

We have seen the way to locate the CG of a board, and in this section, we will
apply this knowledge to an airplane and locate the CG with respect to the
datum and to the mean aerodynamic chord.
Location with Respect to the Datum

When all of the scales have been read a..nd the tare weight subtracted, you are
ready to find the center of gravity. There are four possible conditions for
determining the CG. For tai l wheel airplanes, the datum may be either ahead
of the main wheels or behind them, and for nosewheel airplanes the same two
conditions apply.
Chapter 6
419
Tail Wheel Airplane with Datum Ahead of Main Wheels

Refer to Figure 6- 16. If the datum is ahead of the main wheels, use the
formu la:
CG =Center of gravity in inches aft of the datum

D =Distance between the datum and the main wheel weighing point
R =Tail wheel net weight
L = Distance between main wheel and tail wheel weighing points
W =Total weight of the aircraft (main wheels + tai l wheel)
Example:
Main wheels arm (D)
Tail wheel to main wheels (L)
Net weight main wheels
Net weight tail wheel (R)
Total weight of aircraft (W)
17.5
245.5
2,233.0
2 17.0
2,450.0
inches
inches
pounds
pounds
pounds
CG =D + (~L)
= 17.5+ ( 2 17245.5 )
2,450
= 39.24 inches aft of the datum
~y subtracting the arm of the main wheels from the ann of the CG, we find
rhat the CG is 21.74 inches aft of the main wheels.
39.24- 17.5 = 2 1.74
E
::J
iii
Figure 6-16. Locating the CC of a tail wheel airplane with the datum ahead
of the main wheel~
,.
420
AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN S ERIES
GE:-<ERAL
Tail Wheel Airplane with Datum Behind Main Wheels
Refer to Figure 6-17. If the datum is behind the main wheels, use the formula:
CG =
-D+ (R~L)
CG =Center of g ravity in inches aft of the datum

D = Distance between the datum and the main wheel weighing point
R =Tail whee l ne t weight
L =Distance between main wheel and tail wheel weig hing points
W = Total weight of the aircraft (m ain wheels + tail wheel)
Example:
Main wheels arm (D)
Tail wheel to main wheels (L)
Net weight tail wheel (R)
CG =
30.5
245.5
2,233.0
217.0
2,450.0
inches
inches
pounds
pounds
pounds
-D + (R~L)
= -30.5 + (217 . 245.5)

2,450
= -8 .76 or 8.76 inches ahead of the datum

By subtracting the arm of the CG fro m the arm of the main wheels, we find
that the main wheels are 21.74 inches ahead of the CG.
-30.5- ( -8.76) = -2 1.74

This is exactly the same location we fou nd when we used the datum ahead of
the main wheels.
Figure 6-17. Locating the CG of a rail wheel airplane with the datum
behind the main wheels
Chapter 6
421
Nosewheel Airplane w ith Dat um Ahead of Main Wheels

Refer to Figure 6- 18. If the datum is ahead of the main wheels, use the
formula:
CG=D-(F~L)
CG =Center of gravity in inches aft of the datum
D =Distance between the datum and the main wheel weighing point
F = Nosewheel net weight
L = Distance between main wheel and nosewheel weighing points
W =Total weight of the aircraft (main wheels + nosewheel)
Example:
Main gear arm (D)
osewheel to main wheels (L )
et weight main wheels
Net weight nose wheel (F)
Total weight of ai rcraft (W)
97.38
87.50
1.506.00
122.00
1.628.00
inches
inches
pounds
pounds
pounds
CG = D- (F~L)
= 97.38- ( 122 . 87.5)

1,628
Datum
Figure 6-18. Locating the CG of a nosewheel airplane 11irh the datum ahead of the
main wheels
422
AVIATION MAI'>TEI\ANCE T ECIINICIAN S ER IES
G E:'\ERAL
Nosewheel Airplane with Datum Behind Main Wheels

Refer to Figure 6-19 . If the datum is behind the main wheels, use the
formula:
CG=-(D+ F~L)
CG = Center of gravity in inches aft of the datum
D = Distance between the datum and the main wheel weighing point
F = Nosewheel net weight
L = Distance between main wheel and nosewheel weighing points
W =Total weight of the aircraft (main wheels + nosewheel)
Example:
Main gear arm (D)
Nosewheel to main wheels (L)
Net weight nose wheel (F)
CG = -
12.5
87.5
1,506.0
122.0
I ,628.0
inches
inches
pounds
pounds
pounds
(D+ F~L)
= - (12.5
+ 122. 87.5)
1,628
= 19.06 inches ahead of the datum

Datum
Figure 6-19. Locating the CG of a nosewheel airplane with the datum behind the
main wheels
WEIGHT MD BALANCE
Chapter 6
423
Location with Respect to the

Mean Aerodynamic Chord
------1
I
I
I
I
Figure 6-20. The mean aerodynamic

chord (MAC) may be thought of as the
chord drawn through the geographic
center of the plan area of the wing.
mean aerodynamic chord. The chord of
an imaginary airfoil that has the same
aerodynamic characteristics of the actual
airfoil. The length of the MAC is given for
many aircraft, and the CG is expressed in
percent of the mean aerodynamic chord
(% MAC).
It means much more to a pilot, flight engineer, or d ispatcher to know the

location of the CG with respect to the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) than
it does to know its location relative to an arbitrary datum.
The MAC is the chord of an imaginary airfoil that has all of the aerodynamic characteristics of the actual airfoil. It can also be thought of as the chord
drawn through the geographic center of the plan area of the wing.
It is important for reasons of stability that the CG of an aircraft be located
within a certain percentage of the MAC, and the allowable CG ranges are
expressed in terms of the % MAC.
In order to relate the % MAC to the datum, all weight and balance information includes two items: the length of MAC, in inches, and the location of
the leading edge of MAC (LEMAC), in inches from the datum.
It is often necessary to shift cargo to move the CG to the proper location
relative to the MAC. An example of such a move is given here.
Before the cargo change is made, the following information is known
about the airplane:
Aircraft weig ht
CG position
MAC
175,000 pounds
29.5 % MAC
Stations ~ 60.2 to I 040.9
If 6,500 pounds of cargo is removed f rom an average location of station

I , 170.0, what is the new CG position relative to MAC?
Work this problem by following these steps:

1. Find the CG in inches from the datum:
Length of MAC = ( I ,040.9 - 860.2) = 180.7 inches
CG = 29.5% MAC
= LEMAC + 29.5% MAC
= 860.2 + (180.7 X .295)
= 913.5 inches aft of the datum.
plan area. The area of a surface as viewed

from the top.
LEMA C. Leading edge of the mean

aerodynamic chord. When the CG of an
airplane is given in % MAC, LEMAC is
specified in inches from the datum to
allow weight and balance computations to
relate % MAC to the datum.
2.
Construct a chart suc h as the one in Figure 6-2 1 to locate the new CG in
inches from the datum after the weight has been removed.
3. Divide the new total amount by the new total weight, and find that the
new CG is 903.6 inches aft of the datum:
152,257,500..;. 168,500 = 903.6 inches aft of the datum
4.
Find the CG location in inches aft of LEMAC:

903.6 - 860.2
=43.4 inches aft of LEMAC
424
AVIATION M A INTENANCE T ECHNICIAN S ERIES
GENERAL
5. Find the CG in % MAC by using this form ula:

CG in % MAC
=
=
CG from LEMAC x 100

MAC
43.4. 100
180.7
= 24.0% MAC
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Ai rcraft
175,000
913.5
159,862,500
-6,500
1,170.0
-7,605,000
168,500
903.6
152,257,500
Weight removed
-----------.,...---.----....---- Datum
860.2
903.6
1,040.9
Figure 6-21. Locating the new CG in inches aft of the datum after 6,500 pounds of cargo
has been removed.
Chapter 6
425
STUDY QUESTIONS: FINDING THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

17. An airplane is considered to be in balance when the average moment arm of the loaded aircraft falls within
. Page 406
its center of gravity
18. The fuel used when computing the empty weight CG of an airplane is the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ fuel.
Page 418
19. Hydraulic fluid _ _ _ _ _ (is or is not) part of the airplane empty weight. Page 418
20. An empty aircraft is weighed with a combined net weight at the main gear of 4,251 pounds w ith an arm of
190.3 inches. The nose gear has a weight of 2,446 pounds with an arm of 80.2 inches. The datum is forpounds, and the empty
ward of the nose of the aircraft. The empty weight of the aircraft is
weight CG is
inches from the datum. Page 422
21. Find the empty weight and empty weight CG of this ai rplane:
Datum is 30.24 inches forward of the main gear center point.
Actual distance between tail gear and main gear center points, 320.26 inches.
et weight at right main gear ...................... 9,980 pounds
Net weight at left main gear ......... ................ 9,770 pounds
Net weight at tai l gear .................................. 1,970 pounds
These items were in the aircraft when it was weighed:
Lavatory water tank ful l .................... (34 pounds at +352)
Hydraulic fluid ....................................... (22 pounds at -8)
Removable ballast.. ......................... ( 146 pounds at +380)
The airplane empty weight is _ _ _ _ __
the datum. Page 420
426
pounds, and the EWCG is _ _ _ _ _ __
A\ lA TIO' M .-\1'\TE:"ANCE TEC HNICIA'\ SERIES
GE:"ERAL
inches aft of
Single-Engine Aircraft
Weight and Balance Computations
The Pilot' s Operating Handbook (POH) for many light single-engine airplanes
includes a loading graph and a CG mo ment index e nvelope like those in Figures 6-22 and 6-24. These help the pilot determine whether or not the aircraft is loaded in such a way that its operating weight and operating CG fall
within the allowable limits.
The Loading Graph

An airplane has an empty weight of 1,340 pounds and an EWCG of +38.5.
It carries 40 gallons (240 pounds) of fuel, and the combined weight of the
pilot and front seat passenger is 320 pounds. T he total weight of two rear
seat passengers is 300 pounds, and there is 60 pounds of baggage.
Begin by making a chart such as the one in F igure 6-22 to record the weight
and moment index of each of the ite ms. The moment index of the airplane is
found by multiplying its weight by its ann and dividing this by the reduction
factor of 1,000. Enter this in the c hart.
Item
Aircraft
Weight
Arm
Moment/1 ,000
1,340
38.5
51.6
Front seat
320
11.2
Rear seat
300
21.0
Fuel
240
11.5
60
6.7
2,260
102.0
Baggage
Figure 6-22. Chart made by using the loading graph of Figure 6-23 on Page 428
Find the moment index for the occupants, fuel, and baggage by using the
graph in Figure 6-23 on Page 428.
1.
For the pilot and front seat occupant, follow a horizontal line for 320
pounds to the right until it intersects the pilot and front seat diagonal.
From this inte rsection, draw a line vertically downward to the mome nt/
1,000 index. It touches this index at 11 .2, which is 1,120 pound-inches.
Record this in the chart.
Continued
W EIGHT A D B AL ANCE
Chapter 6
427
360
280
,rf, 'I
"f
240
'/ '
~;
.~ 'I
.......
~
:::--;
6 120
/,
I'/ -
40
0
-2
IP
0
.c>t~
t>~ ~~
l?..c:; /
-<;~"': /
"'k"
v .c\<
.............~
~'l).
v
~\:}
::) ~
/. /
"Q)
I
/
I 1/
:E
80
Cl
b~
:!'ow l
"'0
.....J
:!low
(i) 160
"'0
ctl
0
F:'"'
200
!!:
320
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
26
28
Moment/1000 (pound inches)
Figure 6-23. Chan made by using the loading graph of Figure 6-22
2 . Follow a horizontal line for 300 pounds to the right unti l it intersects the
rear seat diagonal. From this intersection, draw a line vertically downward to the moment/ I ,000 index. It touches this index at 21 .0. Record
this in the chart.
3. Follow a horizontal line for 240 pounds to the right until it intersects
the fuel diagonal. From this intersection, draw a line vertically downward to the moment/1 ,000 index . It touches this index at 11.5. Record
this in the chart.
4 . Follow a horizontal line for 60 pounds to the right until it intersects the
baggage diagonal. From this intersection, draw a line vertically downward to the moment/1 ,000 index. It touches this index at 6.7. Record this
in the chart.
Add the weights and the moment indexes and refer to the CG moment index
envelope chart of Figure 6-24. The total weight is 2,260 pounds, and the total
moment index is I 02.0 (1 02,000 pound-inches).
428
AVIATION M AINTENA:\CE T ECH !ClAN SERIES
G !:.:\ERAL
CG Moment Index Envelope

On the CO moment index envelope chart, Figure 6-24, draw a line horizontally to the left from 2,260 pounds on the weight index, and a line vertically
upward from the 102 pound-inch/1,000 loaded aircraft moment index. These
lines cross inside the Normal Category envelope, showing that the airplane,
as loaded, is within the allowable weight and balance limits.
2400
2300
Ul 2200
"0
c
::'I
2100
E 2000
0'>
a;
~
1900
.t::
(.)
'(ii
<I>
1700
1600
_J
_\
v rf' /
I l..\.CJ'b' vI
~;. J
1500
50
55
/
60
65
Jv
~~
....& "/
.A
~v/
""" /
_(l
1800
"0
"0
1
/
70
75
80
85
90
95 100 105 110 115
Loaded aircraft moment /1,000 (pound inches)
Figure 6-24. CG moment envelope from Pilot's Operating Handbook
Twin-Engine Airplane
Datum: Forward face of fuselage bu lkhead forward of rudder pedals
Location of main gear: +69.2
Location of nose gear: -28.0
MAC: 61.48 inches
LEMAC: +22.26
Seats
Front seat, pilot plus 1: +37.0
Rear seat, 3 occupants: +71.0
Fuel
2 Main tanks, 5 J gallons each: +35.0
2 Auxiliary tanks, 20.5 gallons each: +47.0
Unusable fuel (not in fuel capacity) 12 pounds at +44.0
Oil
24 quarts ( 12 quarts in each engine): -3.3
Continued
WEIGHT AND B ALA!\ICE
Chapter 6
429
Baggage
Forward J 00# limit: -15
Aft 150# limit: +90
CG Range
(+38) to (+43.1) at 5,200 pounds
(+43.6) at 4,800 pounds
( +32) to (+43.6) at 4,300 pounds or less.
Straight line variation between points given.

We ighing conditions:
Fuel: drained
Oil: full
Right wheel: 1,084 pounds. tare 8 pounds
Left wheel: 1,148 pounds, tare 8 pounds
Nosewheel: 1,196 pounds, tare 8 pounds
5200
/
4600
(il
-o
:J
4400
.3:
.:cOl
_\
4800
1\
5000
a:;
3:
4200
'
~
'iii
-o
Q)
-o
4000
<0
...J
32.0
34.0
36.0
38.0
CG inches from the datum
Figure 6-25. Twin-engine airplane CG range emelope
430
AVIATION M AINTENANCE T ECIINICIAN S ERIES
G ENERAL
40.0
42.0
44.0
Finding the Empty Weight and

Empty Weight Center of Gravity
There are two ways of finding the EW and EWCG: the chart method and the
formula.
The Chart Method
Construct a chart such as in Figure 6-26.
Divide the total moment by the total weight to find the CG in inches from the
datum: CG = 120,611.2-:- 3,416 = 35.3 inches aft of the datum.
Weight
Arm
Moment
Right wheel
1,076
69.2
74,459.2
Left wheel
1,140
69.2
78,888.0
Nosewheel
1' 188
-28.0
-33,264.0
12
44.0
528.0
3,416
35.3
120,611.2
Item
Unusable fuel
Figure 6-26. Chart for finding the EWCG of a light twin-engine airplane
The Formula Method

The information we are given states that the datum is the forward face of the
fuselage bulkhead forward of the rudder pedals. With the datum in this location, we will use this formula:
CG
=D
- F. L
= 69.2
= 69.2-
11 88 . (69.2 + 28.0)
3,416
11 88.97.2
3,416
WEIGHT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
43 1
Finding the Operational CG

We want to con ider loading the airplane in this way:
Pilot ................................................................................... .. 170
Front seat passenger ............................................................ 120
Rear seat passengers
1 at 120 pounds ............................................................. 120
1 at 60 pounds ...................... ........................................... 60
Fuel
Full mains, 102gallons ................................................. 612
Full auxiliaries, 41 gallons ........................................... 246
Baggage
Forward compartment .................. ................................ 100
Aft compartment ............................................................. 40
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
Datum
[[]
-15
- 3.5
35
37
47
71
90
Figure 6-27. Tll'in-engine airplane weight and balance diagram
432
AVIATION MAINTENANCE T ECHNICI AN SERIES
GENERAL
The Chart Method

Item
Airplane
Weight
Arm
Moment
3,416
35.3
120,585
Front seat
290
37.0
10,730
Rear seat
180
71.0
12,780
Main fuel
612
35.0
21,420
Auxiliary fuel
246
47.0
11,562
Forward baggage
100
-15.0
-1 ,500
40
90.0
3,600
36.7
179,177
Aft baggage
4,884
Figure 6-28. Char/ for finding the operalional center gravity of the airplane in Figure 6-27
The operational weight under these conditions is 4,884 pounds, and the CG
is located at 36.7 inches aft of the datum.
Plot these values on the CG range chart of Figure 6-25, and note that the
weight and the CG are within the allowable limits.
CG in Percent of MAC
The operational CG is 36.7 inches aft of the datum.

The MAC is 61.48 inches long.
The LEMAC is located at station 22.26.
The CG is 36.7-22.26 = 14.44 aft of LEMAC.
CGin %MAC
CG in inches from LEMAC x 100

MAC
14.44. 100
=----
61.48
= 23.49% MAC
Figure 6-29. Loca1ing !he EWCG

relalive to MAC
WEIGIIT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
433
Adverse-Loaded CG Checks
When an alteration has been made on an aircraft whose specifications do not
list an empty-weight center of gravity range. it is wise to make an adverseloaded CG check to determine whether or not it is possible to load the aircraft
in such a way that its operational CG will fall outside of its allowable limits.
For an example of adverse-loaded CG checks, we wil l use this information:
Airplane E W and EWCG .......... .... ... ... ............... I ,340 pounds at +37.0
Engine METO horsepower .............................................................. 165
Maximum allowable gross weight ................................... 2,400 pounds
CG limits ........................................................................ +35.6 to +47.5
Pilot ....................................................................... 170 pounds at +34.5
Front seat passenger .............................................. 170 pounds at +34.5
Rear seat passengers (2) ........................................ 340 pounds at + 7 1.5
Fuel
Full tanks (40 gallons) ....................................... 240 pounds at +48
Minimum fue l (METO HP-:- 2) .......... .. .... ....... 82.5 pounds at +48
Baggage (maximum) .................................................. 60 pounds at +92
Forward CG Check
To conduct a forward CG check, make a chart that includes the EW and
EWCG of the aircraft after the alteration. the pilot, and all passengers and
equipment that wou ld move the CG ahead of the forward CG limit. Do not
include any passengers or equipment located behind the forward limit.
Include full fue l in all tanks located ahead of the forward limit and minimum
fuel in al l tanks located behind the forward limit. M inimum fuel is no more
than the quantity needed for one-half hour of operatio n at rated maximum
continuous power, and is considered for this purpose as being 'In gallon for
each maxim um except takeoff (METO) horsepower. Minimum fuel. in
pounds. is found by dividing the METO horsepower by 2.
Under these conditions the most forward CG of +37.0 is behind the forward
limit of +35.6, and is therefore an acceptable condition.
434
A VI ATIO:'-i M AINTENAi\CE T ECHNICIAN SERIES
G E~ERAL
Datum
Fwd CG
limit
Aft CG
limit
Figure 6-30. Load conditions for adverse loaded CG checks
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Airplane
1,340.0
37.0
49,580
Pilot
170.0
34.5
5,865
Front seat passenger
170.0
34.5
5,865
82.5
48.0
3,960
1,762.5
37.0
65,270
Minimum fuel
Figure 6-31. Chart for finding the most

forward center of gravity
Aft CG Check
To conduct an aft, or rearward, CG check, make a chart that includes the EW
and EWCG of the aircraft after the alteration, the pilot, and all passengers and
equipment that would move the CG behind the aft CG limit. Do not include
any passengers or equip ment located ahead the aft limit. Include full fuel in
all tanks located behind the aft limit, and minimum fuel in all tanks located
ahead of the aft limit.
Under these conditions the most rearward CG of +45.0 is ahead the rearward
limit of +47.5, and is therefore an acceptable condition.
Weight
Arm
Moment
1,340
37.0
49,580
Pilot
170
34.5
5,865
Full fuel
240
48.0
11 ,5~0
Rear seat passengers
340
71.5
24,310
60
92.0
5,520
2, 150
45.0
96,795
Item
Airplane
Baggage
Figure 6-32. Chart for finding the most

rearward center of gravity
Chapter 6
435
STUDY QUESTIONS: ADVERSE-LOADED CG CHECKS

22. No adverse-loaded CG checks are required if the empty-weight CG falls within the empty-weight
_ __ _ _ _ . Page 434
23. When computing the maximum forward-loaded CG of an aircraft, minimum weights, anns, and moments
should be used for items of useful load that are located aft of the
(forward or aft)
CG limit. Page 434
24. When computing the maximum rearward-loaded CG of an aircraft, minimum weights, arms, and moments
(forward or
should be used for items of useful load that are located forward of the
aft) CG limit. Page 435
Center of Gravity Change After

Repair or Alteration
There is no requirement for periodic reweighing of a general aviation aircraft operated under 14 CFR Part 9 1. but it is the responsibility of any technician perfo rming a repair or alteration that changes the empty weight
and/or balance conditions to update the weight and balance information to
reflect this change.
We want to find the new EW and EWCG after this alteration has been made.
1. Replace a 30-pound seat at+72 inches with a 20-pound seat whose arm
is + 73.5 inches.
2. Install a 30-pound radio at +30 inches
We start with the aircraft EW and EWCG found in the current weight and
balance information; then construct a chart to compute the total moment and
total weight after the alterations have been made. When the total moment
and total weight have been found , divide the total moment by the total weight
to find the new EWCG. See Figure 6-33.
The weight and balance information must be updated to change the EW from
1.800 pounds to 1,820 pounds. and the EWCG from 3 1.5 inches aft of the
datum to 3 1.3 inches aft of the datum .
436
AH-\TIO:O.. MAI'\TE'\A:\CE TECIINICIA:O.. SERIES
GE:\ERAL
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
1,800
31.5
56,700
-30
72.0
-2,160
Seat (install)
20
73.5
1,470
Radio
30
30.0
900
1,820
31.3
56,910
Aircraft
Seat (remove)
Figure 6-33. Chart for locating the center of gravity after a repair
STUDY QUESTIONS: CG CHANGE AFTER REPAIR OR ALTERATION

25. An aircraft with an empty weight of 1,500 pounds and an empty weight CG of +28.4 was altered as
follows:
a. Two seats weighing 12 pounds each, located at +65.5, were removed.
b. A structural modification increasing the weight by 28 pounds was made at+73.
c. A seat and safety belt weighing 30 pounds were installed at+70.5.
d. Radio equipment weighing 25 pounds was installed at +85.
The new empty weight is
pounds, and the new empty weight CG is located
_ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ inches aft of the datum.
Page 436
26. An aircraft with an empty weight of 2,100 pounds and an empty weight CG of +32.5 was altered as
follows:
a. A generator weighing 18 pounds, located at -8.0, was removed.
b. A new propeller which weighs 17 pounds more than the old one was installed at -27.0.
c. Radio equipment weighing 35 pounds was removed from +30.0.
The new empty weight is
pounds, and the new empty weight CG is located
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ inches aft of the datum.
Page 436
W EJGHT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
437
Determination of Needed Ballast

It sometimes becomes necessary to adjust the balance of an aircraft by adding ballast. This can be temporary ballast needed for certain night conditions.
or it can be permanent ballast needed to bring the EWCG into the allowable
range after a repair or alteration has moved it outside its allowable limit.
Temporary ballast, in the form of bags of lead shot or lead bars, is often carried in the baggage compartments to adjust the balance for certain flight
conditions. The bags are marked "BALLAST XX POUNDS- REMOY AL
REQUIRES WEIGHT AND BALANCE CHECK." Temporary ballast must
be secured so it cannot shift its location in flight, and the structural limits of
the baggage compartment must not be exceeded.
An airplane whose empty weight is I ,205 pounds has been altered in such a
way that its EWCG is +41.0. The forward EWCG limit is +43.2. In order to
bring the EWCG into its allowable range. permanent ballast can be attached
to a bulkhead at tation 260.5. We can find the weight needed for permanent
ballast by using this formula:
ballast weight =
aircraft weight x distance out of limits

di stance between ballast and desired CG
------=----------
1,205 . (43 .2 - 41)

=-----(260.5 - 43.2)
] ,205 . 2.2
2 17.3
= 12.2 pounds
A lead weight weighing 12.2 pounds should be prepared, painted red. and
marked as 'PERMANENT BALLAST -DO NOT REMOVE." It should
be attached to the structure in such a way that it does not interfere with any
control action, and attached rigidly enough that it cannot be dislodged by any
flight maneuvers or rough landing.
438
AV!ATIO;\" MAI;\TEi\A:--CE TECHNICIA~ SERIES
GE:--ERAL
STUDY QUESTIONS: BALLAST

27. The weight of any installed permanent ballast _ _ _ _ (is or is not) considered to be part of the empty
28. An aircraft has a loaded weight of 4,954 pounds, its forward CG limit is at fuselage station 32.0, and its
CG is located at +30.5.
To move the CG into the allowable range, _ _ _ _ _ pounds of ballast will have to be attached at
fuselage station 162. Page 438
Large Aircraft Weight and Balance

Computations
Finding the Maximum Payload
To determine the maximum amount of payload that can be carried, use
these values:
Basic operating weight.. .............................................. 150,000
Max. zero fuel weight ................................................. 230,000
Max. landing weight ................................................... 245,000
Max. takeoff weight .................................................... 320,000
Fuel tank load ................................................................ 94,500
Estimated fuel burn en route ......................................... 71,500
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
Basic Operating Weight (BOW). The

weight of the aircraft, including the crew,
ready for flight, but without payload and
fuel. This term applies only to transport
category aircraft.
zero fuel weight. The weight of an aircraft
without fuel.
Solve this problem by using these steps:

1. Compute the maximum takeoff (T/0) weight for this trip:
a. Start with the maximum landing weight of 245,000 pounds, and add
the estimated fuel that will be burned en route. This will give therequired trip takeoff weight.
b. Compare the trip takeoff weight with the maximum takeoff weight
and use the smaller value for the next step.
Maximum Limit
245,000
320,000
Trip Limit
landing weight
+trip fuel
T/0 weight
245,000
+ 71,500
316,500
Continued
W EIGHT Al\'D B ALM\CE
Chapter 6
439
2.
Our trip takeoff weight is smaller than the maximum allowed, so we will
use it to find the zero fuel weight:
a. Subtract the fuel load from the trip takeoff weight to find the zero fuel
weight.
Maximum Limit
Trip Limit
320,000
T/0 weight
-fuel load
3 16,500
- 94,500
230,000
zero fuel weight
222,000
b. Our trip zero fuel weight is smaller than the maximum zero fuel weight,
so we will use it.
3. S ubtract the basic o perating weight from the trip zero fuel weight to find
the maximum payload it is possible to carry.
Maximum Limit
245,000
Trip Limit
zero fuel weight
- B.O.W.
222,000
- 150,000
payload
72,000
We can carry 72,000 pounds of payload and a fuel load of 94,500 pounds
without exceeding our maximum takeoff weight, landing weight, or zero
fuel weight.
Determining Minutes of Fuel Dump Time

We will use thi information to determine the number of mi nutes of dump time
needed to reduce the airplane weight to its maximum allowable landing weight:
Three operating engines
171.000 pound cru ise weight
142.500 pound maximum landing weight
3.170 lb/hr/engine average fuel flow during dumping and descent
19 minutes from start of dump to landing
2.300 lb/min fue l dump rate
440
A VIATIO'i MAI~TENANCE T ECHNICIAN SERIES
G EI':ERAL
Solve this problem by using these steps:

1. Find the needed weight reduction by subtracting the maximum landing
weight from the cruise weight:
171,000
- 142,500
28,500
lb cruise weight
lb maximum landing weight
lb needed weight reduction
2. Find the total amount of fuel burned from beginning of dump to touchdown by multiplying the fuel flow per engine by the number of engines:
3,170
x3
9,510
lb/hr/engine fuel flow

number of engines
lb/hr (total fuel flow per hour)
Find the total fuel flow per minute by dividing the total fuel flow by 60:
9,510 lb/hr-:- 60 = 158.5lb/min
Multiply the fuel burned per minute by the number of minutes from start
of dump to landing:
158.5lb/rnin. x 19 min= 3,011.5lb fuel burned after dumping started
3. Find the amount of fuel needed to dump by subtracting the amount of
fuel burned after the dumping started from the needed weight reduction:
28,500.0
-3,011.5
25,488.5
lb needed weight reduction

lb fuel burned after dumping started
lb = amount of fuel to dump
4. Find the time required to dump the fuel by dividing the amount of fuel to
dump by the dump rate:
25,488.5 lb-:- 2,300 lb/min = 11.08 minutes
STUDY QUESTION: LARGE AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Answer is on Page 447. Page number refers to chapter text.

29. The maximum allowable weight of a loaded aircraft without the fuel is called the _ _ __ _ _ __
Chapter 6
441

with an Electronic Computer
Weight and balance computations for large aircraft can be quite complex. and
have for years been computed with slide rule-type devices called load
adjusters. Modem electronic flight computers have weight and balance
programs written into them that make computing weight and balance easy.
Consider these conditions:
Basic Operating Weight (BOW) = 70.500 pounds
BOW CG = 25.0% MAC
Length of MAC = 164.5 inches
LEMAC = 527.0-39.6 =Station 487.4
Cargo
Compartment A Station 227.5-1 ,000 pounds
Compartment B Station 3 17- 2,000 pounds
Compartment C Station 407 - 3,500 pounds
Compartment D Station 497 - 3.500 pounds
Compartment E Station 587 -2.500 pounds
Compartment F Station 677 - 2.500 pounds
Compartment G Station 766.5-1,000 pounds
Fuel - Average location 555.0-30,000 pounds
Finding the CG in inches from the datum:
1. Length of MAC = 164.5
CG = 25% MAC = 487.4 + (1 64.5 x .25) = 528.5 inches aft of
the datum.
2. Construct a chart such as the one in Figure 6-34.

3.
Find the CG in inches from the datum by dividing the total moment by
the total weight:
61.861.250 ..;- 116,500 = 531 inches aft of the datum

4.
Find the CG location in inches aft of LEMAC:
531 - 487.4 = 43.6 inches aft ofLEMAC
442
A \ "IATIO' M AI"\TE"\A."\CE T ECIINICIA:-.. S ERIES
GE"\ERAL
Item
Weight
Arm
Moment
Aircraft
70,500
528.5
37,259,250
Fuel
30,000
555.0
16,650,000
Cargo A
1,000
227.5
227,500
Cargo 8
2,000
317.0
634,000
Cargo C
3,500
407.0
1,424,500
Cargo D
3,500
497.0
1,739,500
Cargo E
2,500
587.0
1,467,500
Cargo F
2,500
677.0
1,692,500
Cargo G
1,000
766.5
766,500
116,500
531 .0
61,861 ,250
Figure 6-34. Charr showing rhe effect of cargo and fuel on rhe cenrer of gravity of a large
aircrafr using arms and moments
Find the CG in % MAC:

CG in % MAC
= CG from LEMAC J00

MAC
= (53 1 =
487.4) 100
164.5
43.6. 100
164.5
= 26.5 % MAC
W EIGl IT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
443
T he CX- J a Pathfinder electronic flight computer produced by ASA, Inc. (see

Figure 6-35), handles this type o r problem quickly and accurately by using the
steps shown in Figure 6-36.
Figurer -35. CX-Ja elect ronicfli.~ht

comput. can solve most complex ~teight
and balance problems quickly and
accurately.
1. Press the [ON) button and the [left

arrow] one time to enter the WT/
Arm program.
2. Press [ENTER] and enter the
aircraft weight of 70,500 pounds.
3. Press [ENTER] and enter the arm
of the aircraft. This is 528.5
inches.
4. This problem uses very large
numbers for the moment, and it
would be convenient to use a
reduction factor of 1,000. Press
[ENTER] and enter the reduction
factor of 1 ,000.
5. Press [ENTER) and enter the
weight of the fuel. This is 30,000
pounds.
6. Press [ENTER) and enter the arm
of the fuel. This is 555.0 inches.
weight of the cargo in compartment A. This is 1,000 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment A.
This is 227.5 inches.
weight of the cargo in compartment B. This is 2,000 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment B.
weight of the cargo in compartment C. This is 3,500 pounds.
12. Press [ENTER) and enter the arm
of the cargo in compartment C.

weight of the cargo in compartment D. This is 3,500 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment D.
weight of the cargo in compartment E. This is 2,500 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment E.
weight of the cargo in compartment F. This is 2,500 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment F.
weight of the cargo in compartment G. This is 1,000 pounds.
of the cargo in compartment G.
21. Press [ENTER] and the CG of
531.0 appears on the display. This
is 531.0 inches aft of the datum.
22. Press [left arrow) to return to the
menu and then press [right arrow]
to enter the % MAC program.
length of MAC. This is 164.5
inches.
24. Press [ENTER] twice and enter
LEMAC. This is 487.4 inches aft
of the datum.
25. Press [ENTER] and 26.5% MAC
appears on the display. The CG is
located at 26.5% MAC.
Figure 6-36. Step-by-step .wlution.for finding the center of gravity of a large aircraft in
% MA C using an electronic flight computer
444
AVIATION MAii\TE:-IAI':Cl: T ECH:-.ICi t\N Sl:RIES
GE~ERAL
The electronic flight computer can also be used if the information is given in
terms of weight and moment index.
If the weight and balance information is furnished by charts or tables that list
the weight and a moment index, use the steps on the CX-la computer shown
in Fig ure 6-38 on Page 446.
Item
Weight
Moment/1 ,000
Aircraft
70,500
37,259
Fuel
30,000
16,650
Cargo A
1,000
227
Cargo 8
2,000
634
Cargo C
3,500
1,424
Cargo 0
3,500
1,739
Cargo E
2,500
1,467
Cargo F
2,500
1,692
Cargo G
1,000
766
116,500
61,861
Figure 6-37. Char/ showing the effect of cargo and fuel on the center of waviry o(a larJ!.e
aircraft using weights and moment indices
WEIGHT AND B ALANCE
Chapter 6
445
1. Press the [ON] button and the [left

arrow] one time and the [right
arrow] twice to enter the WT/Mom
program.
aircraft weight of 70,500 pounds.
moment index of the aircraft. This
is 37,259 pound-inches/1 ,000.
4. The reduction factor used to get
the moment index is 1,000. Press
[ENTER] and enter the reduction
factor of 1,000.
weight of the fuel. This is 30,000
pounds.
moment index of the fuel. This is
16,650.
weight of the cargo in compartment A. This is 1,000 pounds.
moment index of the cargo in
compartment A. This is 227.
weight of the cargo in compartment B. This is 2,000 pounds.
compartment B. This is 634.
weight of the cargo in compartment C. This is 3,500 pounds.
compartment C. This is 1,424.

weight of the cargo in compartment D. This is 3,500 pounds.
compartment D. This is 1,739.
weight of the cargo in compartment E. This is 2,500 pounds.
compartment E. This is 1,467.
weight of the cargo in compartment F. This is 2,500 pounds.
compartment F. This is 1,692.
weight of the cargo in compartment G. This is 1,000 pounds.
compartment G. This is 766.
21. Press [ENTER] and the CG of
531.0 appears on the display. This
is 531.0 inches aft of the datum.
22. Press [left arrow] to return to the
menu and then press [left arrow]
to enter the% MAC program.
length of MAC. This is 164.5
inches.
24. Press [ENTER] twice and enter
LEMAC. This is 487.4 inches aft
of the datum.
25. Press [ENTER] and 26.5 % MAC
appears on the display. The CG is
located at 26.5% MAC.
Figu re 6-38. Step-by-step solution for finding 1he celller of grmily of a large aircraft in
% MAC ll'ith an eleclronic .flight compUTer using momelll indices
446
A VIATION M Au\JTE ANCE T ECHNIC!At--: SERIES
Gt:\ERAL
Answers to Chapter 6 Study Questions
I. arm
11. equipment list
21. 21,540, +56.7
2. moment
12. Type Certificate Data Sheet
22. CG range
3. pound-inches
13. lavatory water
23. forward
4. positive
14. full
24. aft
5. negative
15. tare
25. 1,559, +30.35
6. negative
16. stress plates
26. 2,064, + 32.4
7. positive
17. range
27. is
8. useful load
18. unusable
28. 57.16
9. +35
19. is
29. zero fuel
10. Type Certificate Data Sheet
20. 6,697, 150.1
W EIGHT AND B A LA NCE
Chapter 6
447

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6

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

Weight and Balance Theory

Locating the Center of Gravity

Study Questions: Finding the Center of Gravity

Single-Engine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations

The Loadi ng Graph

W EIGHT AND B ALANCE

Twin-Engine Airplane Weight and Balance Computations

The Chart Method

Center of Gravity Change After Repair or Alteration

Study Questions: CG Change After Repair or Alteration

Study Questions: Ballast

Large Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations

Determining Minutes of Fuel Dump Time

Weight and Balance Computations with an Electronic Computer

AVIATION M AI:\TE:\ANCE T ECIINICIA:\ St:RII:S

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

Weight and Balance Theory

empty weight. The weight of the airframe,

empty-weight center of gravity. The

center of gravity of the aircraft as it is

useful load. The difference between the

zero fuel weight. The weight of an aircraft

a rm. The distance. in inches. between the

datum. An imaginary vertical reference

moment. A force that tries to cause

center of gra vity (C G). The point in an

A positive weight and a negative arm produce a negative moment.

Locating the Balance Point,

empty-weight center of gravity range.

One of the easiest ways of understanding weight and balance is to consider a

The distance between the allowable

1. Measure the arm of each weight from a datum point.

W EIGHT AND BALAI\JCE

Find the CG by dividing the total mome nt by the total weight.

II 0 inches from the datum

A VIATION M Al TENAXCE TECHN!ClA SERIES

You wi II notice that the CG is in exactly the same location as it is in Figure

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

ta re weight. The weight of the chocks or

~-- 151.1 --~

~--- 195.5 ---~

A VIATIO:-: MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAI' S ERIES

Figure 6-10. Moving the CG of a board by shifting the weights

W EIGHT A:-ID B ALANCE

total weight x change in CG

M AI'\TE:\ASCE T ECIINICIA:'\ SERIES

total weight x change in CG

= amount of weight shifted distance weight is shifted

W EIGHT AND B ALANCE

STUDY QUESTIONS: WEIGHT AND BALANCE THEORY

Answers are on Page 447. Page numbers refer to chapter text.

4. When a weight is removed from a negative arm, the moment is _ __ __ _ _ __

AVIATIO~ M AIXTEXA:-.ICE TECHNICIA~ SERIES

Weight and Balance Documentation

spir it level. An instrument used to

(+135.2) to (+139.2) at 6725 lb.

W EIGHT AND BALANCE

AVIATIO:-< M AINTENANCE T ECHNICIAN SERIES

Answers are on Page 447. Page numbers refer to chapter text.

for the aircraft.

4. When a weight is removed from a negative arm, the moment is _ _ _ __