PLCs

Ladder diagram (LD)

programming language

Origins of Ladder Diagram

The Ladder Diagram (LD) programming

language originated from the graphical
representation used to design an electrical
control system

OR

AND

After a while Relays were replaced by logic

circuits

Control decisions were made using relays

Logic gates used to make control decisions

Finally CPUs were added to take over the

function of the logic circuits

I/O Devices wired to buffer transistors

Control decisions accomplished through
programming

CPU

The origins of LD

Ladder Diagram (LD) was developed

from the graphical representation used
for the electrical wiring diagrams
LD language has been developed to
facilitate the creation and maintenance
of programs in an easy way

LD uses computer graphic

representation that are similar with
electric diagrams which are easy to
understand
this reduces the costs of learning the
language and technical support

What is a Rung?

A rung of ladder diagram code can contain both input and

output instructions

Input instructions perform a comparison or test and set the rung

state based on the outcome

Normally left justified on the rung

Output instructions examine the rung state and execute some

operation or function

In some cases output instructions can set the rung state

Normally right justified on the rung
Input Instruction

Output Instruction

Series Vs Parallel Operations

Ladder Diagram input instructions perform logical AND and OR

operations in and easy to understand format

If all Input Instructions in series must all be true for outputs to execute
(AND)
If any input instruction in parallel is true, the outputs will execute (OR)

Paralleling outputs allows multiple operations to occur based on the

same input criteria
A

B
OR

AND

Branches

IF ((A OR B) AND (NOT C) AND D) THEN E=1; F=1 END_IF

Writing program in LD

Writing a program involves drawing a diagram (LD diagram) similar

with electrical diagram.
LD diagram components model the operation of electrical diagrams
based on contact elements.
Interpretation of operation is similar to the interpretation of electrical
diagrams.
The basic elements used for writing a program in LD language are:

contacts,
coils,
timers,
counters and
functional blocks (functions).

Contacts

Contacts are programming elements that

model the electrical contacts of switching
devices.
As in the case of real contact, these can be
normaly open NO- (a) or normaly closed
NC (b).
IN001

a)

IN002

IN003

b)

Contacts

In a LD program, contacts may be associated with

PLC inputs, PLC outputs or internal variables.
At the input we can connect two state devices such
as:

auxiliary contacts of the contactor and relay,

NC contacts or NO contacts of the control buttons,
NC contacts or NO contacts of the limit switches,
NC contacts or NO contacts of detectors of physical
quantities,
NC contacts or NO contacts of protection elements,
digital outputs of measuring, protection or control devices,
digital outputs of PLC of other control systems etc.

Contacts

In addition to regular contacts, some manufacturers

make available to programmers other programming
elements corresponding to PLC inputs encountered,
especially in digital circuits, such as:
latched inputs
inputs active on the the rising edge
inputs active on the falling edge.

Coils

The coils are programming elements that model the

operation of the coils of contactors and
electromagnetic relays.
As with real coils, the coils of LD programs can have
two states: powered or unpowered.
Coils can be associated with PLC outputs and
internal variables modeling auxiliary contacts of
relays.
OUT 001

OUT 002

a)

OUT 003

b)

Coils

Each output is uniquely identified, in a different way from one

manufacturer to another.
Each output is associated with a single coil and one or more
contacts that can be used similarly to auxiliary contacts of
contactors and relays.
At these outputs can be connected devices that have two
operation states such as:

coils of contactors or relays,

signaling and light elements,
small power loads,
digital inputs of some meters, protection and control devices,
digital inputs of other PLCs or control systems etc.

Timers

Timers are programming elements that model the

operation of timer relays and timer contacts.
They are used to perform actions delayed or lasting
a certain interval of time.

Pump_Tmr

IN
T#200ms

PT

TON

Q
ET

178

Timers

PLC manufacturers provide both basic and complex

timing functions.
Timers used in LD programs have more flexibility
and functionality than individual timers.
Simple timers allow an action to be delayed by a
certain time that can be programmed.
Complex timers can offer a variable timing based on
certain conditions occurring at a time.

Timers

Each timer in the diagram is uniquely identified, this identification

being different from one manufacturer to another.
If the time base is the same for all the timers, specified in the
PLC programming manual, the time based is omitted.
The default value can be expressed in units of time (s).
Timers have at least one initialization input, its activation starts
timing, and an output.
In some implementations, the timers have a an enable input and
one output which is the negated of the first output.

Counters

Counters are programming elements that can receive

a series of pulses that are analyzed in the LD
program to detect the number of occurrences of
events such as:

number of steps performed by a stepper motor,

number of connection-disconnection of an appliance.
number of bottles that have been filled in a filling station, etc.
Load_Cnt
CTU
IN
ENO

200

PV

CV

Load_Cnt_DN

178

Counters

The number of events can be compared to certain default

values and the outcome of these comparisons can result in
certain appropriate given decisions and orders.
There are several types of counters among the most common
being:

unidirectional counters

up counter
down counter

bidirectional counters which can count up and down.

Each counter in the diagram is uniquely identified, how is this

done differes from one manufacturer to another.

Counters

For each counter one must specifies the default

value, this being the maximum number counted by
the counter before the ouput is activated.
The counter has at least two inputs, one for counting
and one for the initialization (following the
initialization, the counter starts to count incoming
pulses to the counting input) and an output.
Other options can also be provided such as a count
enable input and output which is the negated of the
first output.

Functional blocks

For materialization of complex functions needed to

facilitate writing programs in LD language functional
blocks (FB) are used.
FBs model various categories of the most used
functions such as:

Load functions of numerical constants,

arithmetic functions,
logic functions of 8 or 16 bits,
conversion functions of the various formats of information
(binary, BCD, Gray, etc.),
interrupt handling functions

Function blocks

edge detecting,
functions implementing complex controllers and
sequencers,
functions handling high-speed counters.

The design and operation of function blocks differ

from a PLC to another and is specific to each
manufacturer if not compying to IEC 61131 standard.

Restrictions in writing LD programs

When writing a LD program for a specific

PLC one must take into account the
limitations of the software package which
comes with the PLC:

limitations regarding the size of LD diagram

limitations on LD diagram execution

Limitations concerning the size of LD

diagram

Limitations related to:

intrinsic properties of language;

Specific implementations of various commercial
software packages

Are due to technical solutions adopted by

producers to implement various elements of
the language.

Limitations concerning the size of LD

diagram

Some of these limitations are as follows:

a coil must always be fed through a contact;

coil must always be introduced at the right end of a rung;
all contacts have to be in the horizontal direction;
number of contacts on a rung is limited by the software;

Limitations concerning the size of LD

diagram

a contact group can feed a single coil;

the achievement of loops can be carried out in one way or
may not be permitted;
the direction of flow through the circuit is from left to the
right of the diagram.

Usually the PLC programming manuals contain all

information necessary for the user to write the
program in the format accepted by the PLC.

Limitations on how the program is

executed

PLC operation is based on the repeated execution of

the program that it stores into memory. Each cycle of
execution of the program includes three separate
stages:

read entries
execution of program instructions
updating outputs

The duration of such a cycle depends on the speed

of the processor that comes with PLC and the length
of the user program.

Limitations on how the program is

executed

Reading of input stage: inputs states are and stored in memory

in the input table.
Execution of program instructions stage: input values are used
for instruction execution, the result of which is wirtten in the
output table.
Updating the output stage: information from the output table is
used to activate/deactivate PLC outputs.
The three steps mentioned above are executed separately.
PLC input changes during second stage have no effect on
input values used for the instruction execution. They will be
used only after they have will be read in the input read stage of
the next execution cycle.

Limitations on how the program is

executed

If the second stage, after the execution of one or

more instructions the value of an ouput is modified,
this change will not actually appear in the
corresponding output terminal, but only on the third
stage when the outputs are updated based on the
output table.
In writing an LD program one should consider also
the way the PLC executes the written program.

Interpretation of LD diagrams

There are two ways of interpreting LD

diagram:

line evaluation - contacts are read along the line,

from left to right, line by line, from the first line and
ending with the last;
column evaluation - read contacts in column one,
from top to bottom, column by column from the
first column on the left and ending with the last on
the right.

Interpretation of LD diagrams

In both cases one must consider the difference from the

operation of electric diagrams:

Relays: A change in the status of a contact in the power supply

circuit of the coil of a contactor can lead to immediate change of
its state whether or not there are other elements connected in
series or parallel with the contact.
LD Program: Coil state will not be changed until it will be read
the status of all elements by which it is fed.

Due to the high speed of execution of the processor, this does

not generally pose a problem. It should be considered in
cases of critical applications where it might appear a different
operation from the desired one.

Interpretation LD diagram - Reading on

line

Interpretation LD diagram - Reading

column

LD languagein IEC 61131-3

By introducing this language in IEC 61131-3

it was aimed to standardize a whole set of
languages that were declared to be of
Ladder Diagram type.

Program execution
Line program

Ladder rungs are

evaluated from left to
right and from top to
bottom
Branches within a line
are evaluated from top
left to bottom right

Phase

The

B
Branch
F
I

Null

Non Retentive Coils

The referenced bit is reset when processor power is cycled

Coil -( )

Negative coil -( / )

Sets a bit when the rung is false(0) and resets the bit when the rung is True(1)
Not commonly supported because of potential for confusion

Set (Latch) coil -(S)

Sets a bit when the rung is true(1) and resets the bit when the rung is false (0)
PLC5 calls this an OTE Output Enable

Sets a bit (1) when the rung is true and does nothing when the rung is false

Reset (Unlatch) Coil -(R)

Resets a bit (0) when the rung is true and does nothing when the rung is false

Contacts

Normally Open Contact -| |

Normally Closed Contact -|/|

Enables the rung to the right of the instruction if the rung to the left
is enabled and underlining bit is reset (0)

Positive transition contact -|P|

Enables the rung to the right of the instruction if the rung to the left
is enabled and underlining bit is set (1)

Enables the right side of the rung for one scan when the rung on
left side of the instruction is true

Negative transition contact -|N|

Enables the right side of the rung for one scan when the rung on
left side of the instruction is false

Retentive Vs Non-retentive
Operation

Definitions

Retentive values or instructions maintain their last state

during a power cycle
Non-retentive values or instructions are reset to some
default state (usually 0) after a power cycle

IEC1131 permits values to be defined as retentive

A contradiction to this is ladder diagram where 3

instructions are classified as retentive
In most PLCs only timer and coil instructions operate as
non-retentive

Retentive Coils

The referenced bit is unchanged when processor

power is cycled

Retentive coil -(M)

Set Retentive (Latch) coil -(SM)

Sets a bit when the rung is true(1) and resets the bit when the
rung is false (0)
Sets a bit (1) when the rung is true and does nothing when the
rung is false

Reset Retentive (Unlatch) Coil -(RM)

Resets a bit (0) when the rung is true and does nothing when
the rung is false

Transition Sensing Coils

Positive transition-sensing coil -(P)

Sets the bit bit (1) when rung to the left of the
instruction transitions from off(0) to on(1)
The bit is left in this state

Negative transition-sensing coil -(N)

Resets the bit (0) when rung to the left of the

instruction transitions from on(1) to off(0)
The bit is left in this state

Timers in Ladder Diagram

There three timer instructions in

IEC1131

IN

T#200ms

PT

TON

Q
ET

178

Time values

TP - Pulse timer
TON - Timer On Delay
TOF - Timer Off Delay

Pump_Tmr

Time base is 1msec (1/1000 of a sec)

Values entered using duration literal
format

Pump_Tmr
TON
IN
ENO

Two possible visualizations Depending

on use of EN/ENO

1st method requires extra programming

if timer done status needs to be
referenced on other rungs
2nd method sets a bit with Q which can
be referenced by other logic, ENO=EN

Q
T#200ms

PT

ET

Pump_Tmr_DN

178

Timer Operation

Pulse (TP) Timing

IN

IN = Rung input condition

Q = Comparison output
results

Q
ET

On-Delay (TON) Timing

Varies with timer types

PT = Preset Time
ET = Elapse Time

PT
|
0

IN

Q
ET

PT
|
0

Off-Delay (TOF) Timing

IN
Q
ET

PT
|
0

Counters in Ladder Diagram

Load_Cnt

There three counter instructions in

IEC1131

CTU - Count Up Counter

CTD - Count Down Counter
CTUD - Count Up/Down Counter

CTU
IN
ENO

200

All three count rung transitions

Two possible visualizations
Depending on use of EN/ENO

1st method requires extra

programming if timer done status
needs to be referenced on other
rungs
2nd method sets a bit with Q which
can be referenced by other logic,
ENO=EN

PV

CV

Load_Cnt_DN

178

Load_Cnt
CTU
IN

R
200

PV

CV

178

Counter Operation

Parameters

CU/CD = Count up/Down

Q/QU/QD = Comparison Output
R = Reset to Zero
LD = Load CV with PV
PV = Preset Value
CV = Count Value

Count Up (CTU) Counter

IN
Q

...

...

PV
CV |
0

Count Up/Down (CTUD) Counter

CU
QU
CD
QD
PV
|
0

CV

R
LD

...
...
Count Down (CTD) Counter
IN
Q
PV
CV |
0

LD

...

...

Execution Control Elements

Jump / Label Instructions

Jump to a label skips a block of

code without it being scanned
LBL - Named target for a jump
operation
JMP - Performs a jump when
the rung conditions are true

|
Skip_Calc |
|-| |-------------(JMP)--|
| ...
|
| Skip_Calc
|
|---[LBL]---...

CALL / RETURN Instructions

Used to encapsulate logic and call

it as a subroutine
Causes execution to change
between functions or subroutines
CAL - Passes control to another
named function

PLC5 uses JSR

RET - Exits a function and returns

control back to the calling routine

CAL
CAL
RET

RET

Different Instruction Presentations

The look and feel of IEC 1131-3 is somewhat different from the
1Million+ PLCs that Allen Bradley has running in factories
throughout the world
ADD
Source A

Tank1_In

Source B

100.000
Offsetr

78.251
Destination Tank_Level

EN
Tank1_In
100.000
Offsetr
78.251

TON
Timer

Pump_Tmr

Preset

200.000

Accum

178.251

178.251

Pump_Tmr

ENO

IN

(EN)
(DN)

TON

Tank_Level
178.251

ENO
Q

T#200ms

PT

ET

Pump_Tmr_DN

178

IEC places the input parameters on the outside of the instruction block
vs the PLC5 where they are presented inside of the block

Extending the IEC1131-3

Instruction Set

IEC1131-3 Provides a very basic set of instructions to do simple operations (81

Ladder Diagram Instructions)

Data Type Conversion - Trunc, Int_to_Sint, Dint_to_Real, Bcd_To_Int

Boolean Operations - Bit Test, Bit Set, One Shot, Semaphores
Timers / Counters - Ton, Tp, Ctu, Ctd, Ctud
Simple Math - Add, Sub, Mul, Div, Mod, Move, Expt
Misc. Math - Abs, Sqrt, Ln, Log, Exp, Sin, Cos, Tan, Asin, Acos, Atan
Bit Shift - Shl, Shr, Ror, Rol
Logic - And, Or, Xor, Not
Selection - Sel, Max, Min, Limit, Mux
Compare - GT, GE, EQ, LE, LT, NE
String - Len, Left, Right, Mid, Concat, Insert, Delete, Replace, Find
Control - JMP, LBL, JSR, RET

All complex operations are left to the user or vendor to define

File Operations, PID, Diagnostic, For/Nxt Loop, Search, Sort are not in IEC1131-3
Extensions to the instruction set are permitted so that vendors can add instructions
that their customers need
All vendors have defined their own set of extensions

Bibliography

Ron Bliss, Introduction to IEC1131-3 Ladder

Diagram, Allen-Bradley
SR EN 61131-3, PLC. Part 3. Programming
Languages
CGHaba, Sisteme de comanda a masinilor
electrice, Ed. Gh.Asachi, Iai