Sulphuric acid

Manufacture of sulphuric acid

o

Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid.

Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :(i) sulphur
(ii) air
(iii) water.

Contact process consists of 3 stages:

~ Production of sulphur dioxide

~ Conversion of sulphur dioxide is sulphur trioxide.
~ Production of sulphuric acid

Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide

(a)Sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

(b)Burning of metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide and lead sulphide also produces sulphur dioxide.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2ZnO(s)
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2PbO(s)

(c)The sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air.The mixture is dried and purified to remove
impurities such as arsenic compounds.

(d)Arsenic compounds found in sulphur will poison the catalyst in the converter, making the catalyst
ineffective.

Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur

trioxide
(a)The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is passed through a converter.The sulphur dioxide is
oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

2SO2(g) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

(b)Optimum conditions used are as follows.

(i) Temperature : 450C
(ii) Pressure : 1 atmosphere

(iii) Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide,V2O5

(c)About 97% conversion occurs under these optimum conditions.

Stage III : Production of sulphuric acid

(a) The sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product
called oleum, H2S2O7
SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(l)
(b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid.This is because reaction
between sulphur trioxide and water is very vigorous and produces a large amount of
heat.The reaction causes the production of a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist.The mist is
corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.
(c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid of about
98%.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Flow chart of Contact process.

Sulphur

burns in air
Sulphur dioxide, SO2

O2V2O5,450C, 1 atm
Sulphur trioxide, SO3

concentrated H2SO4
Oleum,H
2S2O7
water

water
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Figure 1 : The manufacture of sulphuric acid through the Contact process

4
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Sulphur dioxide,SO2

Oleum, H2S2O7

The manufacture of sulphuric

acid in the Contact Process

Sulphuric Acid Flow Chart

Oily
liquid

Chemic
al
Formul
a:
H2SO4

Molar
mass 98
g mol-1

Melting
point
10oC

Highly
corrosi
ve

Boiling

Propertie
s of
sulphuric
acid

Nonvolatile
acid

point
340oC

Viscous
colourless
liquid

Diproti
c acid

Dense

Solubl
e in
water
7

Density
1.83g
cm-3

Uses of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric
acid is used
as:
to
manufactu
re
fertilisers
to
manufactur
e paint
pigment
to
manufacture
detergents
to
manufacture
synthetic fibre
to clean
metals
to
manufacture
plastics
as an
electrolyte in
car batteries
to manufacture
other chemicals

There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:
a)

Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

2 H2SO4(aq) + Ca3(PO4) 2(s) Ca(H2 PO4) 2 (aq)+ 2CaSO4 (s)

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium hydrogen

b)

Ammonium sulphate
H2SO4(aq) +2NH3(aq) (NH4) 2SO4(aq)

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

c)

Potassium sulphate
H2SO4(aq) +2KOH (aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

1) To manufacture paint pigments

The white
pigment
in paint ishydroxide
usually barium
sulphate,
BaSO4. The
neutralization of
sulphuric
acid
+ potassium
solution
Potassium
sulphate
sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.

H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

sulphuric acid + barium hydroxide solution Barium sulphate +

2) To manufacture detergents
Sulphuric acid reacts with by-products of oil refining to form sulphonic acid.
Neutralising the sulphonic acid with an alkali produces detergents.
3) To manufacture synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a synthetic
fibre that is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid eith cellulose threads soaked in
alkaline solution.
4) Cleaning metals
Before electroplating,sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove the surface
oxides.
5) Other chemicals
Sulphuric acid is used as other chemicals like pharmaceuticals,insectides, tartaric acid
and explosive.
9

6) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:

a. As a strong acid
b. As a drying or dehydrating agent
c. As an oxidizing agent
d. As a sulphonating agent
e. As a catalyst

Metallurgy

Fertilisers

Paint pigment

Synthetic Fibre

Plastics

Electrolytes

10

Detergents

Figure 2 : Uses of sulphuric acid

Sulphur dioxide and environmental

pollution
1) Sulphur dioxide is released through:(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process
(b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores
(c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content
2) Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid,sulphuric acid and nitric acid in
the rain.
These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0

11

3) Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems.

(a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed
SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3(aq)
(b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid
2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Ways to control and reduce the

effects of acid rain:

Use low-sulphur fuels

Add calcium oxide(lime), CaO; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2 and powdered llimestone
CaCO3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present
CaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) +H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Environmental problems cause by

acid rain
corrodes buildings,monuments and statues
calcium carbonate in the marble reacts with H 2SO4 from the rain to form calcium sulphate.
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

corrodes metallic structure

12

The iron from the steel bridges reacts with sulphuric acid to form iron(II) sulphate.
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

increase the acidity of water

Acid rain disturbs the ecosystem

Fish and other aquatic organisms which cannot live in acidic water may die.

increase the acidity of the soil

plants cannot grow well in acidic soil

reaction of sulphuric acid with aluminium compounds in the soil forms aluminium sulphate which
can damage the roots of trees.

leaches minerals and nutrients in the soil.

acid react with minerals in the soil to form double salts.

dissolved salts carried by the rainwater to river.
plants lack of essential nutrients for growth.

13

Ammonia and its

salts

14

Manufacture of ammonia in industry

Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.

Raw materials for the Haber process are

(i)hydrogen
(ii)nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.

Hydrogen gas is obtained by:

(i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam
CH4(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H2(g) + CO2(g)
(ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam
C(s) + H2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)

Diagram Show The Haber Process

15

The manufacture of ammonia through the

Haber Process.

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2.

The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450C

The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is
produced.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The high pressure
and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction.

The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield.

The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor together
with the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen are
converted into ammonia.

Ammonium fertilisers

Plants need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium to grow.

Nitrogen-make proteins in stalks and leaves

Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO3-

Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ions.In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted
to nitrate ions by bacteria

Examples of ammonium fertilisers:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4
Urea,CO(NH2)2

Fertilisers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective.

Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and acids.

16

Properties of ammonia

colourle
ss gas

alkaline
gas

Physical
properti
es of
ammoni
a

very
soluble
in water

pungen
t smell

less
dense
than air

Chemical reaction of ammonia:

(a) Reacting as a base
Ammonia ionises partially in water and therefore is a weak base.
NH3(g) + H2O(l)

NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)

Ammonia undergoes neutralisation with acids to form ammonium salts.

Ammonia + acid ammonium salt
(b) Reacting with aqueous metal ions
17

Ammonia solution can precipitate some metal hydroxides from their aqueous salt
solutions.The metal ions combine with the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia to
produce insoluble metal hydroxides : Mn (aq) + nOH (aq) M(OH)n(s)

Uses of ammonia

To make fertilisers
- provide plants the nitrogen they need to grow
- these fertilisers are ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of ammonia with
different acids. Examples:
(a) Ammonium phosphate
- reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphates
NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) NH4H2PO4(aq)
2 NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) (NH4)2HPO4(aq)
- good fertilisers because they provide two important nutrients,phosphorus and
nitrogen.
(b) Ammonium nitrate
- ammonia is neutralised by nitric acid,ammonium nitrate is formed
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
(c) Ammonium sulphate
- ammonia is neutralised by sulphuric acid
2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
(d) Urea
- At a temperature of 200C and a high pressure of 200 atm, ammonia reacts with
carbon dioxide to produce urea.
2NH3(g) + CO2(g) CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(l)
-

used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwad process.
Liquid ammonia used as cooling agent
used as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex
Ammonia salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted

Preparation of ammonia
-The chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by the Haber-Bosch process, which
involves the direct reaction of elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen.N2 + 3H2 2NH3 This
reaction requires the use of a catalyst, high pressure (1001,000 atmospheres), and elevated
temperature (400550 C [7501020 F]). Actually, the equilibrium between the elements and
ammonia favours the formation of ammonia at low temperature, but high temperature is required
to achieve a satisfactory rate of ammonia formation. Several different catalysts can be utilized.
Normally the catalyst is iron containing iron oxide. However, both magnesium oxide on
18

aluminum oxide that has been activated by alkali metal oxides and ruthenium on carbon have
been employed as catalysts. In the laboratory, ammonia is best synthesized by the hydrolysis of a
metal nitride.Mg3N2 + 6H2O 2NH3 + 3Mg(OH)2

Alloys

19

Arrangement of atoms in metals

Pure metals

High density

Physical
properti
es of
pure
metals

Ductile

Good
conductors of
heat and
electricity

Malleable

High melting
& boiling
points

Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms,thus all atoms are of the same size.
In solid state ,the atoms in a pure metal are orderly arranged
and closely packed together.Thus,pure metals have high
densities.

20

Although the forces of attraction between the metal atoms are strong,they are not
rigid.Therefore when a force is applied,the layers of atoms can slide over one another.Thus
metals are ductile or can be stretched.
Force
Layers
slide

of atoms
over one another

Figure 3 : Metals are ductile

The arrangement of atoms in pure metals are not perfect.There are some empty spaces in
between the atoms.When a metal is knocked or pressed,groups of atoms may slide and then
settle into new position.So,metals are malleable.

Force

Figure 4 : Metals are malleable

Pure metals are weak and soft due to their ductility and malleability

What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the
major component is a metal.

Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidised.This is the reason why monuments or
statues are made of bronze(an alloy) and not copper(a pure metal).

Alloy are stronger,harder,resistant to corrosion,have a better finish and lustrous.

21

Why make alloys?

The aim of making alloy is:
(a) to increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal
(b) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal
(c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

Figure 5 :

Making alloy

Composition, properties and uses of

alloys
Alloy
Bronze
Brass

Cupro-nickel
Steel
Stainless steel

Duralumin

Composition
90% copper,
10% tin
70% copper
30% zinc

Properties
Hard,strong,does not
corrode easily,shiny surface
Harder than copper

75% copper
25% nickel
99% iron
1% carbon
74% iron,
8% carbon
18%chronium
93%aluminium

Beautifulsurface,shiny,
hard,does not corrode easily
Hard,strong
Shiny,strong,does not rust

Light,strong
22

Uses
Medals,statues,monuments,art
objects
Musical instruments,
kitchenware, door knobs,bullet
cases,electric parts,ornaments
Coins
Buildings,bridges,body of cars,
railway tracks
Cutlery,surgical
instruments,sinks,
pipes
Body of aircraft and bullet trains

Pewter

9-carat gold

3% copper
3%magnesium
1%manganese
96% tin
3% copper
1% antimony
37.5% gold
11% silver
51.5 % copper

Shiny, strong,does not

corrode

Art objects,souvenirs

Shiny, strong,does not

corrode

Jewellery

23

Synthetic Polymer

24

What are polymers?

Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating
sub-units called monomers.

Polymerisation is a process by which the monomers are joined together into chain-like
molecule called polymer.

Formation of polymer

Polymers can be divided into 2 types.

Polymers
Natural Polymers
Exist in living things in
nature
Ex:Protein,cellulose,wool,si
lk,
starch,natural
rubber & DNA

Synthetic Polymers
They are man-made in
laboratory through
chemical processes.
Ex: Plastics, nylon

25

Natural Polymers
NATURAL POLYMER
MONOMER
Rubber
Isoprene
Cellulose
Glucose
Starch
Glucose
Protein
Amino acid
Fat
Fatty acid and glycerol
Nucleic acid
Nucleotides
Examples of natural polymers and their monomers

i) Natural polymers and their uses

NATURAL POLYMER
Rubber
Cellulose
Starch
Protein
Fat

USE
Tyres, eraser, condom, electric insulation, elastic bands
and belts.
Paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and explosives
To stiffen cloth (as in laundering), used in cooking to
thicken foods, manufactured of adhesives, paper, textiles
and as a mold in the manufacture of sweets.
Essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair
of tissue,
Maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs
against shock, promoting healthy cell function and serve
as energy stores for the body

Synthetic Polymer

Synthetic polymers are prepared through 2 types of polymerisation processes:

(a)Addition polymerisation
(b)Condensation polymerisation

Addition polymerisation
- involves monomers with double bonds between the carbon atoms.

26

During addition polymerisation, the double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms break
and the carbon atoms pf adjacent ethene molecules join together to form a molecule of
poly or polythene.

Condensation polymerisation
- involves the joining up of monomers with the formation of other smaller and simple
molecules.

Plastics

Plastics are the largest group of synthethic polymers with the following properties:
(a)Can be easily moulded
(b)Low density
(c)Strong
(d)Inert to chemicals
(e)Insulator of heat and electricity
(f)Can be coloured

Name of polymer
Polyethylene
(polythene)

Polypropylene
(polypropene)

Equation for
polymerisation
H H

n C=C

H H
n
Ethene
Polythene
H CH3
CH3

n C=C

H H
n
Propene
Polypropene

H H

CC

H H

CC

H H

Properties

Uses

Durable,light,impermeable,
Inert to chemicals,easily
melted,insulator

Shopping bags,
Plastic cups and
plates,toys

Durable,light,impermeable,
Inert to chemicals,easily
melted,insulator,can be
moulded and coloured

Bottles,furniture,
battery casing,
pipes,toys

27

F F

n C=C

F F
n
Tetrafluoroethene

Teflon

F F

CC

F F

Durable,non-stick,
Chemically inert,strong,
impermeable

Coating for nonstick pans,

electrical
insulators

Teflon

Synthetic fibre

Synthetic fibre are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have high strength.

Polynamides and polyester are two groups of synthetic polymers used as fibres for making
tekstil.

Example of polynamide polymers is nylon.

Example of polyester polymers is terylene.

Nylon and terylene are produced through condensation polymerization

TYPE OF POLYMER
Polythene

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polypropene

Perspex

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
b)

USE
Make buckets
Make plastic bags
Make raincoats
Make films
Make rubbish bins
Make water pipes
Make electric cables
Make mats
Make vinyl records
Make clothes hangers
Make ropes
Make bottles
Make chairs
Make drink cans
Make carpets
Make car windows
Make plane windows
28

Nylon

Polystyrene
Terylene

c)
a)
b)
c)
d)
a)
b)
c)
a)

Make spectacle lenses (optical instruments)

Make ropes
Make curtains
Make stockings
Make clothes
Make packing boxes
Make buttons
Make noticeboards
Make textile items such as clothes and cloths

Disposal of synthetic polymers has caused environmental pollution problems:

(a) Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable,thus their waste will block or clog up the
drainage system,thereby causing flash flood.
(b) Waste plastics pollute the lake and river,making the water not suitable for aquatic
organisms to live in

Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers:

(a) Reuse
(b) Recycle
(c) Use biodegradable synthetic polymer
(d) Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner.

29

Glass and ceramics

30

Glass

The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO2 which can be found in sand.

Glass can made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to a temperature
above 1500C.

Figure 6 : Structure of silicon dioxide

Type of glass
Fused glass

Composition
Silicon dioxide

Soda-lime glass

silicon dioxide
Sodium oxide
Calcium oxide

Properties
High melting
point
High temperature
and chemical
durability
Resistant to
thermal shock
transparent to
ultraviolet and
infrared light
Low melting
point
High thermal
expansion
coefficient
Does not
withstand heat
Cracks easily with
sudden change in
temperature
Good chemical
durability
31

Uses
Laboratory
glassware
Arc tubes in
lamps
Lenses
Telescope mirrors
Optical fibres

Containers such
as bottles,jars.
Flat glass
Windowpanes
Mirrors
Light bulbs
Industrial and art
objects.

Borosilicate glass

Silicon dioxide
Boron oxide
Sodium oxide
Calcium oxide

Lead crystal glass

Silicon dioxide
Lead(II) oxide
Sodium oxide

32

Easy to mould
and shape
Transparent to
visible light
Transparent to
visible light
resistant to
chemicals
Lower thermal
expansion
coefficient
Resistant to
thermal shock
Can withstand
wide range of
temperature
changes
Soft,easy to melt
Transparent to
visible light
High density
High reactive
index

Cookware
Laboratory
glassware
Automobile
headlights
glass pipelines
Electrical tubes

Tableware
Art objects
Crystals
Prisms
Lenses

Ceramics

Ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin.Kaolin is rich in kaolinite(hydrated

aluminosilicate,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)

Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.

33

Very hard
and strong

Resist
compressio
n

Brittle

Properti
es of
ceramic
s
Chemically
inert and
does not
corrode

Very high
melting
point
Good
insulator of
electricity
and heat

Property
Hard and strong

Uses
Building materials

Attractive,easily moulded and

glazed

Decorative pieces and

household items
34

Examples
Tiles,bricks,roofs,cement,
abrasive for grinding
Vases,porcelain ware,sinks,
bathtubs

Chemically inert and noncorrosive

Very high melting point and
good insulator of heat
Electrical insulators
Inert and non-compressible

Kitchenware

Cooking pots,plates,bowls

Insulation

Lining of furnace, engine

parts
Spark plugs,insulators in
ovens and electrical cables
Artificial teeth and bones

Insulating parts in electrical

appliances
Medical and dental apparatus

Hard and
do not
bend
strong
under
compressi
on

Do not
corrode

Inert to
chemicals

Common
propertie
s of glass
and
ceramics

Good heat
insulators

Brittle

Good
electrical
insulators

3 main differences between glass and ceramic:

Glass can be heated until molten repeatedly but not ceramics
Glass is usually transparent whereas ceramics are not

Glass has a lower melting point than ceramics.

35

Composite
materials

36

A composite material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more

different materials such as metals,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.

Some common composite materials are:

a. Reinforced concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is formed when concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steel
rods.

Essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings,bridges and oil
platforms.

Has a greater strength than ordinary concrete and has higher resistance to impact.

Superconductors

capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to an
extremely low temperature.

most of them are alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides

Superconductors also used in :

(a) magnetic energy-storage system
(b) magnetically levitated train
(c) generators
(d) transformers
(e) computer parts
(f) very sensitive devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltage or current.

Fibre Optic

consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding.

used to replace copper wire in long distance telephones lines,in mobile phones,video cameras
and to link computers within local area networks.

37

used in instruments for examining internal parts of the body or inspecting the interior of
manufactured structural products.

Fibre glass

produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass fibre reinforced
plastics.

has high tensile strength,can be easily coloured,moulded and shaped,inert to chemicals and is
low in density.

Photochromic glass

changes from transparent to coloured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, and reverts to
transparency when the light is dimmed or blocked.

can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like fine silver chloride.

photochromic glass helps to:

(a) protect our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays and glare from the sun
(b) control the amount of light that passes through it automatically
(c) reduce refraction of light

38

Conculsion

39

40

Acknowledgements

41

First of all,I would like to thank the God for giving me blessings to complete this
folio just in time.Even I faced a lot of difficulties when doing this project,I managed to
overcome it by the Gods blessing .
Then, thanks to my chemistry teacher Puan Noorlida AB Kadir for being such a
good guider while doing this project.She had given us appropriate information about this
project in order to make us understand more about this project.

Also a great thanks to my friends and family members who tried their best to give
their support for me, either by giving me a lot of encouragement while doing this project
or helping me to gather the data required for the project.

42

References

43

Eng Nguan Hong,Lim Eng Wah,Lim Yean Ching., 2009. Focus Ace SPM Chemistry.,
Penerbitan Pelnagi Sdn. Bhd., (page 261 287)

http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htm

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-ofammonia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php

44