IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO.

1, MARCH 2012

559

Autonomous Distributed V2G (Vehicle-to-Grid)

Satisfying Scheduled Charging
Yutaka Ota, Member, IEEE, Haruhito Taniguchi, Tatsuhito Nakajima, Member, IEEE,
Kithsiri M. Liyanage, Senior Member, IEEE, Jumpei Baba, Member, IEEE, and Akihiko Yokoyama, Member, IEEE

AbstractTo integrate large scale renewable energy sources in

the power grid, the battery energy storage performs an important
role for smoothing their natural intermittency and ensuring gridwide frequency stability. Electric vehicles have not only large introduction potential but also much available time for control because
they are almost plugged in the home outlets as distributed battery
energy storages. Therefore, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is expected to be
one of the key technologies in smart grid strategies. This paper proposes an autonomous distributed V2G control scheme. A grid-connected electric vehicle supplies a distributed spinning reserve according to the frequency deviation at the plug-in terminal, which
is a signal of supply and demand imbalance in the power grid. As
a style of EV utilization, it is assumed that vehicle use set next
plug-out timing in advance. In such assumption, user convenience
is satisfied by performing a scheduled charging for the plug-out,
and plug-in idle time is available for the V2G control. Therefore
a smart charging control is considered in the proposed scheme.
Satisfaction of vehicle user convenience and effect to the load frequency control is evaluated through a simulation by using a typical two area interconnected power grid model and an automotive
lithium-ion battery model.
Index TermsElectric vehicle, load frequency control, smart
charging, smart grid, state-of-charge, vehicle-to-grid.

Large scale integration of electric vehicles (EV) and plug-in

hybrid vehicles (PHV) for the transportation electrification
brings large potential of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) [5][7]. Aggregated V2G pool consisted by huge EVs contributes greatly to
the supply and demand dispatch, and each EV user may obtain
the incentive cost [8], [9]. V2G control strategies in the LFC
and the regional EMS have been proposed in the ubiquitous
power grid concept [10], [11].
This paper proposes an autonomous distributed V2G control
scheme providing a distributed spinning reserve for the unexpected intermittency of the RESs. A droop control based on the
frequency deviation at plug-in terminal realizes a fast and synchronized response among multiple vehicles. Battery state-ofcharge (SOC) is managed by using a balance control. And a
smart charging control is applied for satisfying the scheduled
charging request by the vehicle user.
Proposed V2G control scheme is explained in Section II,
then verified by a simulation using a two area interconnected
power grid model and an automotive lithium-ion battery model
in Sections III and IV.
II. V2G CONTROL SCHEME

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Autonomous Distributed V2G

NTERMITTENT renewable energy sources (RES) require

additional dispatching resources such as thermal power
generations, adjustable speed pumped storages, and battery
energy storages. Smart grid strategies are expected to utilize
distributed generations and controllable loads in the demand
side. Authors have proposed the ubiquitous power grid concept
in Fig. 1. Controllable RESs, heat pump water heaters, and
battery energy storages are integrated in the load frequency
control (LFC) of the grid and the regional energy management
system (EMS) of the distribution grid [1][4].
Manuscript received April 02, 2011; revised August 06, 2011; accepted
August 30, 2011. Date of publication October 28, 2011; date of current version
February 23, 2012. This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (B), Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) form Japan Society for
the Promotion of Science, Specially Promoted Research Grant from Power
Academy of Japan, and Ubiquitous Power Grid Endowed Chair of Center for
Advanced Power & Environmental Technology (APET) of the University of
Tokyo. Paper no. TSG-00133-2011.
Y. Ota, H. Taniguchi, and T. Nakajima are with the University of Tokyo,
Tokyo 113-8656, Japan (e-mail: yota@upn.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp; taniharu@upn.t.utokyo.ac.jp; nakajima@p-front.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp).
K. M. Liyanage is with the University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 20400, Sri
Lanka (e-mail: liya@ee.pdn.ac.lk).
J. Baba and A. Yokoyama are with the University of Tokyo, Chiba 277-8568,
Japan (e-mail: baba@asc.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp, yokoyama@syl.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2011.2167993

Supply and demand imbalance of the power grid can be

observed from the frequency deviation detected at home outlet
[12][14]. Therefore V2G power
is controlled with
droop characteristics against the frequency deviation
as
follows and shown in Fig. 2 [15]:
(1)
where maximum V2G power
is limited by the specifications of the home outlet, and V2G gain
is decided
considering a tradeoff between effect for the LFC and the fluctuation range of the battery SOC.
When the SOC is near to full (empty), a high-power charging
(discharging) should not be implemented for preventing overcharge (overdischarge). During long-term V2G cycles, the SOC
is concerned to be full or empty because a mean value of the
frequency deviation is not always zero and there is a loss of the
battery. Considering these features, a balance control is installed
as the following equation on the premise that the accurate SOC
estimation is realized [15]:

1949-3053/$26.00 2011 IEEE

(2)

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2012

Fig. 1. V2G in ubiquitous power grid.

Fig. 3. Battery SOC balance control.

Fig. 2. V2G control with droop against frequency deviation.

where

is maximum V2G gain.

,
,
,
, and are designed as the SOC is balanced
around 50% as shown in Fig. 3.
B. Smart Charging
For satisfying the scheduled charging, the V2G control is
switched to a smart charging control with a charging offset of
half the maximum V2G power
and a half droop gain
against the frequency deviation as follows and shown in Fig. 2:

(3)

If the frequency deviation falls below a minimum threshold

value
, the maximum discharge is instantly supplied for
the grid.
Necessary energy for charging to the destination SOC
is estimated by using the battery model as (6) explained in the
next chapter. Considering the mean value of the frequency deviation would be zero, the duration for the smart charging
is estimated by taking the charging offset into account as the
following equation:
(4)
When the estimated duration for the smart charging
is
longer than the actual duration to the plug-out time, the V2G
control is switched to the smart charging control.

OTA et al.: AUTONOMOUS DISTRIBUTED V2G (VEHICLE-TO-GRID) SATISFYING SCHEDULED CHARGING

561

TABLE II
PARAMETERS OF V2G CONTROL

TABLE III
SPECIFICATIONS OF BATTERY MODEL

Fig. 4. Power grid model for calculating frequency of Japanese 50 Hz systems.

TABLE I
PARAMETERS OF POWER GRID MODEL

III. V2G AND POWER GRID MODEL

A. Power Grid Model
Fig. 4 shows the power grid model for calculating the frequency of Japanese 50 Hz systems [16]. IEEJ East 10-machine
systems [17] are aggregated to a two area interconnected power
grid by using two inertia constants of thermal, hydro, and nuclear power generation, two damping coefficients consisted by
frequency dependent characteristics of an aggregated load, and
a synchronized power coefficient between two grids.
Regarding the thermal power generator, 5 [%] of its rated
output is reserved for the governor-free control, and 1.5 [%]
of the grid load capacity is reserved for the LFC. The load
dispatching center allocates area requirements (AR) to each
thermal power generator, flat frequency control (FFC) for the
grid-A and tie-line bias control (TBC) for the grid-B. Delays
of the frequency detection and the AR calculation are modeled
as first-order lags. Communication delay from the load dispatching center is modeled as a dead time. The parameters are
summarized in Table I.

Power fluctuations of the RES are generated by the normal

distributions. Their frequency bands are limited by the low pass
filter (LPF) considering smoothing effect of the RESs.
B. V2G Model
Parameters of the V2G control are summarized in Table II.
The maximum V2G power
is 5[kW] assuming
200[V]/25[A] home outlet, and maximum V2G gain
is 200[kW/Hz], that is, the maximum V2G power is supplied
when the frequency deviation is 0.025[Hz]. The SOC balance
control is same as in Fig. 3. Ten minutes margin is considered
for estimating the duration for the smart charging
because there is uncertainty such as a current dependent loss by
the internal resistance.
In this paper, 20 000 vehicles are aggregated to a V2G pool
for simplicity of analysis. In the grid-A, there are two V2G
pools. First pool consists of EVs with middle size battery (EV1),
and second one consists of EVs with large size battery (EV2).
On the other hands, the grid-B has a V2G pool consists of PHVs
(PHV1) with small size battery assuming the grid-B locates in
the countryside.
C. Battery Model
In this paper, a simplified battery model consists of voltage
source expressing open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance
is assumed [15].
The battery OCV is defined as the following Nernst equation:

(5)
and
are nominal voltage and capacity, respecwhere
tively.
is gas constant, Faraday constant, and battery
temperature, respectively. is a sensitivity parameter between

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2012

Fig. 5. Simulation results of V2G control under satisfying charging request. (a) Frequency deviation in grid-A. (b) Frequency deviation in grid-B. (c) Tie line
power flow deviation from grid-A to grid-B. (d) Power outputs of thermal power generation and RES in grid-A. (e) Power outputs of thermal power generation
and RES in grid-B. (f) V2G power output of EV1. (g) V2G power output of EV2. (h) V2G power output of PHV1. (i) Battery SOCs of EV1, EV2, and PHV1.

the SOC and the OCV. Necessary energy

SOC
to the destination SOC
integrating the OCV as follows:

from the present

is calculated by

During charge or discharge with current , battery CCV

(Closed Circuit Voltage) and the V2G power
are
calculated as follows:
(7)
(8)
After all, the battery SOC is updated by the V2G power as
the following differential equation:
(9)

(6)

where

is current efficiency of the battery.

OTA et al.: AUTONOMOUS DISTRIBUTED V2G (VEHICLE-TO-GRID) SATISFYING SCHEDULED CHARGING

TABLE IV
QUALITY OF FREQUENCY DEVIATION IN GRID-A

TABLE V
FLUCTUATION RANGE OF BATTERY SOC

Three types of automotive lithium-ion battery, Mitsubishi

i-MiEV [18] (EV1), Nissan Leaf [19] (EV2), Toyota Prius PHV
[20] (PHV1), are assumed as Table III. Internal resistances do
not necessarily clear, and common value is assumed.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
As an assumption of EV utilization, EV1 is plugged into the
grid-A at 2 h with initial SOC as 20[%]. Then EV1 is scheduled
to be plugged out with destination SOC as 90[%] after eight
hours. On the other hands, EV2 and PHV1 work as the V2G
pool maintaining 50% SOC during the simulation.
Simulation results are summarized in Fig. 5. From two hours,
frequency fluctuations caused by the RES fluctuations are compensated by the V2G control in both grids. Battery SOC of the
EV1 is firstly lifted up to the balanced SOC (50%) by the smart
charging. Then the EV1 supplies charge and discharge cycles
for the grid by the V2G control from 3.8 hours to 7.2 hours. Finally, the battery SOC achieves the destination SOC (90[%]) by
the second smart charging from 7.2 h to 9.9 h. Quality of the frequency is found to be not so degraded because of half droop gain
against the frequency deviation even during the smart charging
of EV1. The smart charging control of the EV1 does not remarkably affect the thermal power generation because the amount of
the charging offset (50[MW]) is relatively smaller than the fluctuation components of the thermal power generation. After EV1
is done for charging at 9.9 h, EV1 cannot supply any spinning
reserve for the grid. However, quality of the frequency is maintained by the rest of the vehicles plugged-into the grid, PHV1
and EV2.
Table IV summarizes maximum values, minimum values,
and root mean square (RMS) values of the frequency deviation
in the grid-A. Advantage of the proposed V2G control having
faster response than the governor-free control of the thermal
power generation is numerically confirmed. Table V shows
fluctuation ranges of each battery SOC. Fluctuation range of the
PHV1 with the small size battery is within 6% or 7%. Therefore
the capacity of the PHV battery is found to be enough for the
application as the distributed spinning reserve through the home
outlet. When the medium speed or quick charger in which high
power charge and discharge is assumed, the capacity of the
battery would be more critical for the fluctuation range of the
battery SOC.

563

V. CONCLUSION
The proposed V2G control is effective for a distributed spinning reserve without system-wide information exchange and interfering the conventional LFC by the thermal power generations. And the proposed smart charging control satisfies the
scheduled charging by the vehicle user. The combined control
scheme of the V2G and smart charging contribute to move toward low carbon energy systems through the large-scale integration of intermittent renewable energy sources.
A centralized control scheme allocating the LFC signals to
the thermal power generations and EVs have been proposed
[10]. It is expected to coordinate the autonomous distributed
V2G as a primary control and the centralized V2G as a secondary control. The EVs have a potential for vehicle-to-home
(V2H) dispatching rooftop photovoltaic generations and
vehicle-to-building (V2B). There is further challenge in managing the V2G, V2H, and V2B and then creating synergy effect
throughout the power grids.
The proposed control scheme could be easily embedded into
automotive power electronics circuits or household charging
units to facilitate plug-and-play operation. However, there are
research subjects on efficiency of the proposed V2G control,
impact to the battery life, secure interconnection method to the
grid, and so on.

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Yutaka Ota (M04) was born in Nagano, Japan. He
received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.Eng. degrees from
Nagoya Institute of Technology, Japan, in 1998, 2000
and 2003, respectively.
He is currently a Project Assistant Professor of
Ubiquitous Power Grid Endowed Chair in the Center
for Advanced Power and Environmental Technology
(APET) of the University of Tokyo, Japan. His research interests include vehicle-to-grid technology,
modeling of batteries, and application of phasor
measurement unit based wide area measurement
system to power system monitoring, protection, and control.
Prof. Ota is a member of CIGRE.

Haruhito Taniguchi was born in Japan. He received

the B.S, M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, in
1973, 1975 and 1994, respectively.
In 1975, he joined the Central Research Institute of
Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI). He was Director
of Power System Department, Director of System
Engineering Research Laboratory, CRIEPI. He is
currently a Project Professor, Ubiquitous Power Grid
Endowed Chair, Center for Advanced Power and
Environmental Technology (APET), the University
of Tokyo, Japan, since 2008. He has been engaged in research mainly on

planning, operation, and control of power systems as well as new technology

development.
Prof. Taniguchi is a distinguished member of CIGRE.

Tatsuhito Nakajima (M87) was born in Tokyo,

Japan. He received the B.S., M.S., and Dr.Eng.
degrees from the University of Tokyo, Japan, in
1985, 1987, and 1990, respectively.
He joined Tokyo Electric Power Company
(TEPCO) in 1990. He has been with Power Engineering R&D Center of TEPCO. He is currently
a Project Associate Professor in the Center for
Advanced Power and Environmental Technology
(APET) of the University of Tokyo. His research
interests include application of power electronics for
power systems.
Prof. Nakajima is a member of CIGRE.

Kithsiri M. Liyanage (M93SM10) was born

in Sri Lanka. He obtained B.Sc.Eng (Hons) from
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, in 1983 and the
M.Eng. and Dr.Eng. degrees from the University of
Tokyo, Japan, in 1988 and 1991, respectively.
He has held positions at the University of Tokyo,
Japan, the University of Washington, and the Universities of Ruhuna and Peradeniya in Sri Lanka.
From September 2008 to August 2010, he was with
the Center for Advanced Power and Environmental
Technology (APET) of the University of Tokyo,
Japan, as a Visiting Research Fellow on sabbatical leave from the University
of Peradeniya, where he is a Professor currently. His current research interests
include making use of ICT to create an environmental friendly energy sector.

Jumpei Baba (S00M01) was born in Japan. He

received the B.Eng., M.Eng., and Ph.D.Eng degrees
from the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan in 1996,
1998, and 2001, respectively.
He has been with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, since
2001, and with the Department of Advanced Energy,
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, University of
Tokyo, since 2003. He is currently an Associate Professor of Department of Advanced Energy, Graduate
School of Frontier Sciences, University of Tokyo.

Akihiko Yokoyama (M78) was born in Osaka,

Japan. He received the B.Eng., M.Eng., and Dr.Eng.
degrees from the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan,
in1979, 1981, and 1984, respectively.
He has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Tokyo, since 1984 and is currently a Professor in charge of power system engineering. He was a Visiting Research Fellow at the
University of Texas, Arlington, and the University
of California, Berkeley, from February 1987 to February 1989.