Educational Review, Vol. 54, No.

3, 2002

Using Dictionaries in Modern Language

GCSE Examinations
GRAHAM TALL & JOHN HURMAN, University of Birmingham, UK
In 1998 the GCSE examination boards permitted candidates to use
bilingual dictionaries in their Modern Language written examinations. In the run-up
period to this change several publishers updated their dictionaries and in the process
it became uncertain whether the playing eld for candidates using different
dictionaries remained level. The dictionary project described here was funded by the
Quali cations and Curriculum Authority (QCA) and studies the effects of three
groups of candidates each using a different type of dictionary. In addition to
comparing the quantitative impact, time was also spent observing how the candidates used their dictionary and the impact the dictionary had on their use of
language.
ABSTRACT

Very little published research exists on the use of bilingual modern language
dictionaries and none provides statistical information on the effect of different
dictionaries in GCSE exams. Asher et al. (1999) evaluated how teachers were
changing their policies and developing class strategies in response to the decision to
allow dictionaries in GCSE exams. Bishop (1998) found that Open University
students were as concerned with grammatical usage as they were with using their
dictionaries in expressing meaning. In their exams, Open University students said
that their dictionary reduced stress (Bishop, 2000). The QCA (1997) made a passing
reference to unpublished research stating that the use of dictionaries had not changed
the nal mark obtained.
The Quali cations and Curriculum Authority (QCA) funded this research (Hurman & Tall, 1998) when major decisions had been taken to write the rubric and
examination questions in the language being examined and to allow students to use
dictionaries in their GCSE examinations. Though not stated, the underlying reason
was the fact that new dictionaries gave far more assistance than those previously
available and it could no longer be assumed that they would have a negligible effect
on the mark nally gained. The information provided by the QCA not only
emphasised that the research design should be robust but, without using the
descriptive term, indicated the need to use the comparative agricultural-botanical
experimental design.
Research Design
The time available to design and carry out the research was very short. The QCA had
disseminated the proposal just prior to the academic year when, for the rst time,
dictionaries were to be allowed in the examination, and a report was expected by the
ISSN 0013-1911 print; 1465-3397 online/02/030205-13
DOI:10.1080/0013191022000016275

2002 Educationa l Review

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

FIG. 1. Comparative Research Design.

following Easter. In a matter of weeks, anyone wishing to submit a proposal had to

discover the types of dictionaries that schools intended to use and identify schools
that were comparable and prepared to take part in the research.
The underlying research design is illustrated in Fig. 1. All candidates took two
examination papers, the rst paper being taken without, and the second paper with,
a dictionary. In a smaller number of schools the two examination papers were
presented in reverse order to avoid order effects, i.e. to ensure that any change in
marks on the second paper was not simply the result of either test experience, or
conversely, of tedium. No noticeable effect was observed. To check the dif culty
level of the two parallel sets of papers a pilot experiment was carried out. The
underlying guideline in the pilot experiment was that all students must take both
papers under the same conditions.
Data Collection Methods
To t the project outline set up by the QCA, the research design could have limited
itself to simply comparing the scores achieved on two comparable sets of examination papers by candidates using different dictionaries in the examination. However,
the researchers felt that that would not provide suf cient explanation of the results
found. It was decided, therefore, to collect ve additional kinds of data:
Candidate Questionnaire
Candidates were given a short questionnaire to ascertain their impressions on their
level of training and expertise in dictionary use, their degree of con dence in the
availability of a dictionary in an examination and nally their qualitative assessment
on the strengths and weaknesses of the dictionary used in the test.
Candidates Circling Words
Candidates were asked to circle words both in the question rubrics and in their own
writing whenever they used the dictionary for help. This was one measure used to
discover the frequency of dictionary use.

Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

207

Observation Schedule
Because it was felt that the pupils might fail to circle all the words they had looked
up and in order to have a more reliable index of the extent and frequency of their
dictionary use, it was decided to use in vivo observation. Accordingly, a schedule
subdivided into time sectors was especially designed for the use of independent,
non-participant observers.
Qualitative Assessment
(a) Dictionary Use by Students in Different Grade Bands
To determine the amount and type of help that each kind of dictionary afforded,
the papers of students from different grade bands were analysed and compared
separately. The bands were de ned as the top 15% of candidates (those who
were expected to score A/A* in GCSE), the middle 20% (those who were
expected to score approximately grade C) and the bottom 15% (those who would
probably obtain grade E or lower).
(b) The Appropriateness of Words Looked up in the Dictionary According to Grade
Band
A separate analysis of words circled by pupils was made of 600 papers across
all grade bands in order to assess the number of effective dictionary consultations.
Teachers Opinions on the Effect of Using a Dictionary
Whenever possible, observers used the time they were in the school for the
examination to discover teachers views about modern language policy with respect
to dictionary training and the effect it might have on modern language learning.
These records were made verbatim.
Selection of Schools
It is impossible in experimental research in education to assign schools randomly,
still less candidates. However, it was considered essential to ensure that the schools
using different dictionaries were matched as far as possible. The matching process
was based on Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) performance tables
and the major criterion used for selection was the national average percentage of
pupils in those schools registering at least ve subjects in the AC grade range at
GCSE, plus or minus 15%. By selecting schools with comparable GCSE results it
was thought that differences in candidate attainment would be controlled to some
extent. Schools so identi ed were then checked against their performance in modern
foreign languages by means of the most recent OFSTED reports. Departments that
had received negative comments on teaching or on speci c dictionary use were
omitted from the sample.
Once schools had been selected by the above methods it was decided to add three
others to ensure rst, that the range of dictionaries selected for the research was
adequately represented and second, that there would not be too few pupils in the
higher mark bands taking the tests. The total number of schools used was 26, of
which six were used for the pilot experiment.
In order to increase comparability between schools using the different dictionaries

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

TABLE I. Circled and observatio n totals amongst each tier of
candidates
TIER
Foundation
Higher

Data Method
Circled
Observed
Circled
Observed

Number

Mean

110
147
136
175

7.0
10.6
9.7
14.9

Notes:
1: Foundation and Higher Circled and Observed Totals
may not be compared directly as the Foundation paper was
permitted less time than the Higher paper.
2: Candidates were observed for one minute in every two.
3: Of the total number of 17 observations , 12 were carried
out by two observer s simultaneousl y to allow an estimate of
inter-observe r agreement to ensure reliabilit y of the data.

selected for these tests, ve schools agreed to the use of two different dictionaries by
their candidates.
Examination Papers and Marking
In view of the need to take into account the full range of pupil performance with and
without a dictionary, it was necessary to create two sets of comparable papers at both
Foundation and Higher Tiers. Drafts of these papers were created by translating
Spanish and German specimen papers into French from four of the major GCSE
boards. Cultural references were altered appropriately and questions were selected
and adapted to incorporate a balanced variety of different formats. The resulting
papers included form- lling, postcard writing and letter writing at Foundation Tier,
and letter writing (overlap question) and an essay at Higher Tier.
A common mark scheme for both sets of papers was worked out with the
assistance of GCSE chief and assistant examiners. A 10% sample of each markers
work was moderated and the same markers scored both dictionary and non-dictionary tests taken in each centre.
Observation of Dictionary Use
Candidates use of their dictionaries was assessed in several ways. A quantitative
measure was gained by counting how many words were circled and by in vivo
observation of candidates when they were taking the dictionary paper. A qualitative
measure was obtained by studying the circled answers and analysing the candidates
responses to the questionnaire.
Although the strategy of asking candidates to put a circle round each word looked
up in a dictionary yielded valuable qualitative information, it was not deemed
suf ciently reliable for judging the frequency of dictionary consultation during the
examination (Tall & Hurman, 2000). In Table I it can be seen that the number of
words circled by candidates in the examination was much smaller than the number
noted by the observers, which indicates that this method underestimates the number
of times that dictionaries were consulted.
The schedule allowed 16 candidates to be observed systematically throughout the

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Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

FIG. 2: Typical examples of the dictionar y observatio n schedule .

examination. There was a one-minute lapse between observations so that the 16

candidates under observation were observed every other minute. Reliability checks
on 122 candidates showed a satisfactory level of agreement (88%).
Candidates who took the Foundation Tier paper were observed 20 times in each
examination period of 40 minutes; Higher Tier candidates were observed 30 times
because their examination took one hour. A further check on the ef ciency of the
observation schedule was made by observing how long 27 candidates, in three
different schools, actually consulted their dictionary. Table II shows that the largest
number of observation periods lasted only between 20 and 40 seconds, many taking
less than 20 seconds. Only 10% of the consultations took more than 60 seconds (two
lasted longer than 100 seconds). This indicates that the one-minute interval between
observation periods was a practical way of ensuring that instances of the same event
of dictionary use would not be recorded twice.
Taking into account the different number of observation periods in each Tier, it is
evident that according to the observed data, both Foundation Tier and Higher Tier
candidates used their dictionaries, on average, every other minute in the examination
period (see Table II).
Overall, 301 candidates were observed in 16 schools. The analysis in Table III
shows that relatively few Foundation (10%) or Higher (12%) Tier candidates used
their dictionaries to check their answers at the end of the examination. The majority
of Foundation Tier candidates (40%) tended to use them more frequently at the
beginning of the examination. Since they were the weaker candidates this was
presumably to understand the rubric. On the other hand a greater proportion of
Higher Tier candidates (45%) consulted their dictionaries more frequently in the
middle section of the examination. A two-way chi-square test applied to these data
showed a signi cant difference in practice between the two Tiers (chi-square 5 6.45;
df 5 2; sig. 5 5%).
This difference between Foundation and Higher Tier candidates was con rmed
TABLE II. Dictionary consultatio n time
Observations Time
Number of occasion s
Percentage of occasions

# 20 Seconds

2040 Seconds

4060 Seconds

32
28%

53
46%

18
16%

1 min
11
10%

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

TABLE III. Dictionary use by individual candidates by period of time*
Major period of time:
Foundation Tier candidate s
High Tier candidate s

First

Middle

Last

Other

Total

59 (40%)
47 (30%)

44 (30%)
70 (45%)

15 (10%)
18 (12%)

29 (20%)
19 (13%)

147
154

*In order to make comparisons between Foundation and Higher candidate s the number of
observation s was standardise d to a maximum of seven for each of the following periods of time:
(a) the rst 1/4 hour; (b) the last 1/4 hour; and (c) the remaining period between (a) and (b).

FIG. 3. Number of circles in rubric and answer amongst bottom-band candidates .

when the students papers were examined for circling. This showed that bottom-band
candidates (Fig. 3) used them more for understanding the rubrics than for their own
writing, while the opposite was true for the top band (Fig. 4) candidates who used
them mainly for composition.
Differences Between the Three Types of Dictionary
On the basis of an initial survey of 30 schools, three types of bilingual dictionary
were selected. They were Collins Pocket French Dictionary (1990/1995), Collins
Easy Learning French Dictionary (1996) and Your French Dictionary (Malvern
Language Guides, 1996). Collins Pocket French Dictionary is a standard type of
dictionary of 600 pages, except that the head lexical items are printed in dark red,
hence the subtitle Colour Edition. There is a very brief summary of the main
French verb forms: almost one-and-a-half pages list the chief forms of seven tenses.
A further two and two-thirds pages give numbers, fractions and time expressions.
Collins Easy Learning French Dictionary has 575 pages and is totally different in
presentation. Different fonts are used for the various types of information, thus

FIG. 4. Number of circles in rubric and answer of the top range of pupils.

Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

211

easing the task of searching for words and expressions. Different types of print and
layout are used. Translations of phrases and expressions are in small print. The
overall impression is a clear and uncluttered presentation. Snippets of information on
French cultural background are supplied (for example, that stamps are sold at a
cafe-tabac and how to recognise it), in addition advice is printed at the head of
some words pointing to possible misunderstandings (for example, a should not be
confused with the preposition a`). The middle section of this dictionary contains two
pages of notes on verbs followed by 14 pages of full verb tables. Numbers and
fractions occupy one page, while two more pages are devoted to the time of the
clock, days and months and useful time phrases.
Your French Dictionary has only 255 pages, costs less and selects content with
GCSE pupils in mind. Apart from the greater number of verbs in the tables, when
compared to the Collins Easy Learning version the chief additions in this dictionary
for examination purposes are three-fold. An asterisk against their main entry
indicates verbs conjugated with etre. There is a ve-page list of rubrics or
instructions common to listening and reading, speaking and writing tasks; and four
pages are devoted to writing letters, formal and informal, advising users how to start
and nish letters and address envelopes, with examples of language and format.
The three dictionaries demonstrably supply different levels of help. The research
question was whether that help in uenced the marks obtained.
Questionnaire Findings: students comments
Almost 90% of the students owned a French dictionary to use at home and wanted
to have use of a dictionary in the examination. Surprisingly, although the research
paper was being taken as a mock paper, only 62% of the students felt that they had
been trained to use a dictionary, and only 42% claimed to have been trained to use
the dictionary they were to use in the examination. Whilst this latter gure was very
disappointing, for research purposes it must be noted that virtually all candidates
(95%) felt able to nd the French equivalent of an English word and virtually the
same percentage (94%) stated they could do the converse. The additional information
on verb forms and the presence of phrases illustrated the differences between the
three types of dictionary; the traditional type trailing behind the other two with
respect to looking up a phrase, with the Easy Learning Dictionary emerging on top.
Similarly, the responses to nding verb forms showed candidates more positive
about the ease of doing so with Your French Dictionary (70%) and to a lesser extent
Collins Easy Learning (50%) than with Collins Pocket (40%).
The most interesting differences between the three types of dictionary came from
the two open questions concerning what candidates liked and disliked about the
dictionaries used in the examination. In interpreting the following data it must be
noted that the students are NOT comparing the three types directly, but commenting
on the dictionary they were using in the examination. The only comparison candidates could make was with any dictionaries they had used before.
In terms of usability, Collins Easy Learning was clearly favoured (40%) with Your
French Dictionary not far behind (35%); Collins Pocket was mentioned by only 26%
of candidates. One aspect for which Your French Dictionary was particularly
criticised was its limited range of vocabulary (43%).
Regarding the provision of phrases and examples, Collins Easy Learning was
deemed to be the best, at 20%, with Your French Dictionary reaching only half that

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

percentage, while just 3% of the students using Collins Pocket commented

favourably.
With respect to information on verbs, Your French Dictionary found most favour,
with just over a quarter of candidates (26%) thinking it helpful and it is perhaps
surprising that Collins Easy Learning was not better viewed in this respect (7%).
As Your French Dictionary has a speci c section on writing letters, it might have
been expected that candidates using this dictionary should mention its utility, but
only 12% of its users did so.
Fewer candidates using Your French Dictionary commented on the length of time
taken to use a dictionary in the examination (7%) than those using Collins Easy
Learning; Collins Pocket seemed to be the least favoured with respect to the time
taken to consult it (18%).
Qualitative Assessment of Dictionary Use
On a qualitative assessment of scripts where words had been circled, it was
repeatedly discovered that dictionaries were not used by the large majority of
candidates for checking genders nor for verifying the spelling of individual words.
With relatively few exceptions verbs were copied inappropriately in the in nitive
form and there was a high degree of miscopying of nouns and phrases. The main
uses of the dictionary appear to have been to nd words for completing a sentence
or idea once started, or to nd past participles or phrases, the latter two functions
being con ned largely to candidates in the top band, and to a lesser extent in the
middle band.
There was very widespread ignorance of the differences between verbs and nouns,
made worse in many cases by a lack of understanding of dictionary abbreviations for
word categories, which resulted in a great number of English expressions directly
transposed into meaningless French, for example:
Jai propre/propu la chambre
Je seteindre a` 8h.
Puis semaine
Je gauche
Je suis deborder des sur un madame
une lle abattre duvet

(cleaned)
(went out)
(next week)
(I left)
(I spilt some on a lady)
(fell down)

There were several reports of a fair number of phrases being taken directly from the
dictionary:
la semaine dernie`re
cest tellement genant
Phrases copied directly from Your French Dictionary were particularly noticeable in
the letter (overlap) question, where candidates had used, for example:
En attendant de tes nouvelles. Amities.
and
Cest tout pour aujourdhui.
A very large number of candidates, some from the top, but most from the middle
and bottom bands, used the dictionary to nd the meaning of several words in the

Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

213

FIG. 5. Use of dictionary to understand the rubric by bottom-ban d candidates.

question rubrics or in the text supplied. Some were evidently unable to nd particular
word meanings due to the inability to recognise personal forms of verbs (e.g. vous
depensez).
Considering the circling of rubric words by all candidates, the results show no
signi cant difference in the use of the three dictionaries. However, considering
bottom-band candidates (Fig. 5), it was very highly signi cant that fewer candidates
with Your French Dictionary omitted to use it for looking up rubric words than
candidates using the other two dictionaries. The percentage use of Your French
Dictionary on three or more occasions was more than double that of the other two
dictionariesa result that is very highly signi cant (two-way chi-square 5 19.6;
df 5 4; sig. 5 0.1%).
With respect to circling items in written answers by all candidates in the three
bands taken together (Fig. 6), a highly signi cant difference was found between Your
French Dictionary and the other two dictionaries, in that much more use was made
of the former (two-way chi-square 5 13.53 at 4 df).
Whilst the differences in the use of dictionaries could be a consequence of training
in schools, or of the extent to which candidates were reminded to circle words looked
up, the ndings appear to indicate a difference in the accessibility of different
dictionaries. The frequency of use of Your French Dictionary could be ascribed to
its simpler format and smaller volume of entries purposely tailored to the needs of

FIG. 6. Use of dictionaries in writing answers by all candidates .

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

TABLE IV. Band difference s in circling for rubrics and for written answers
Rubrics

Mark Range
Top
Middle
Bottom
All questionnaire s

Answers

0*

1 5 N2*

31 *

Total*

0*

66%
56%
54%
56%

26%
23%
15%
20%

8%
21%
31%
23%

65
289
239
593

32%
40%
69%
51%

15

N2*
8%
13%
13%
12%

31

60%
47%
19%
37%

Total*
65
289
239
593

*Number of words/phrases circled

GCSE candidates. For the majority of candidates, that is those in the middle band,
this nding also applied to Collins Easy Learning Dictionary.
Table V summarises the band differences in dictionary consultation for rubric
words and for help with answers. A clear progressive change in the number of
dictionary consultations is evident from the bottom to top-band candidates. While
two-thirds of the top-band candidates did not consult the dictionary for rubric words,
almost the same percentage (68%) used it at least once to write their answers. Almost
a half of the bottom-band candidates circled at least some rubric items whilst far
fewer used it to create their answers.
The Effect of Dictionary Use on Final Scores
This research was primarily designed to assess the impact of different dictionaries on
marks scored in GCSE writing examinations, but in the process it was hoped to
obtain information on the impact of dictionaries per se. However, when the results
of the two sets of papers were compared, it was evident that although great care had
been taken to make the papers equivalent in dif culty, those papers in which a
dictionary was allowed were slightly harder.
To ensure a fair assessment of the impact of dictionary use, the results of matched
candidates in the Main and Pilot experiments (Table VI) were compared. For both
Foundation and Higher Tier candidates the differences in achievement were statistically signi cant. Hence candidates using a dictionary in the study increased their
scores.
TABLE V. Matched pilot and main experiment groups at foundatio n tier
Pilot Expt.

Main

Comment

Foundation Tier
Number
Mean Score
Mean Difference*

Paper 1y Paper 2y
71
71
18.25
16.52
2 1.73

Paper 1y
181
18.42

Higher Tier
Number
Mean Score
Mean Difference*

Pilot Experiment
Paper 1y Paper 2y
69
69
25.57
21.12
2 4.45

Main Experiment
Paper 1y Paper 2y
338
338
26.01
23.77
2 2.24

Paper 2y
181
19.97
1.55

The net differenc e in

mark between the two
papers is therefore
( 1 1.55) 2 ( 2 1.73) 5 3.28
Comment
The net differenc e in
mark between the two
papers is therefore
( 2 2.24) ( 2 4.45) 5 2.21

y Paper 1 used without a dictionary, Paper 2 used with a dictionary.

*Mean Difference 5 Difference in the mean scores on the two papers.

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Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

TABLE VI. Comparison of Collins Pocket, Easy Learning and Your French Dictionary
Collins Pocket
Number
Mean Score
Mean Difference *

Paper 1
131
19.38

Paper 2y
131
20.72
1.34

Collins Easy Learning

Your French Dictionary

Paper 1
137
16.18

Paper 1
148
19.44

Paper 2y
137
17.39
1.21

Paper 2y
148
19.69
0.25

Notes: y Paper 2 was used with the named dictionary .

*Mean Difference 5 Difference in the mean scores on the two papers.

From the matched data, it is apparent that when both Higher and Foundation Tier
students use a dictionary their average nal score increased by approximately two
and three marks respectively. With better training in dictionary use the improvement
in score might well be higher.
The Effect of Different Dictionaries at Foundation Tier
Table VII gives the results for schools matched on the basis of DfEE and OFSTED
information and ignores the type of dictionary used. It is noticeable that all three of
the new dictionaries overcame the extra dif culty of Paper 2.
Although the mean difference varies by as much as a mark, it is not suf cient to
show overall superiority. However, when the marks on individual questions were
considered (Hurman & Tall, 1998) it became apparent that the effect of the
dictionaries differed. Question 1, which simply required one-word translations, was
tackled better by below average candidates using Your French Dictionary and to a
lesser extent Collins Easy Learningboth smaller and simpler dictionaries to use.
No differences were found with Question 2, which required a short postcard to be
written. On Question 3, the letter question, Your French Dictionary was as effective
as Collins Pocket; presumably the useful information on letter-writing counterbalanced the larger vocabulary of the Pocket Dictionary.
The Effect of Different Dictionaries at Higher Tier
The structure of this analysis parallels that used with the Foundation Tier. The
increased dif culty of Paper 2 (the dictionary paper) identi ed by the pilot experiment remained evident when the three dictionaries from comparable groups of
schools were considered (Table VIII). However, unlike the ndings for the Foundation Tier, the mean differences between the three dictionaries are highly
signi cant, with the Pocket Dictionary being least useful.
Hurman and Tall (1998) reported that on the individual questions, Collins Pocket
TABLE VII. Effect of three different dictionarie s at the higher tier (D-Exp)
Collins Pocket
Number
Mean
Mean Difference

Paper 1
156
23.00

Paper 2
156
19.65
2 3.35

Collins Easy Learning

Your French Dictionary

Paper 1
74
22.68

Paper 1
133
26.58

Paper 2
74
21.85
2 0.82

Paper 2
133
25.11
2 1.47

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G. Tall & J. Hurman

appeared to be a less effective dictionary in the GCSE writing paper examination.

Your French Dictionary stood out as the most helpful when candidates answered the
letter question, even more than it was for Foundation Tier candidates.
In the second question on the Higher Tier Paper, the Easy Learning and to a lesser
extent Your French Dictionary were more effective than the Pocket Dictionary.
Summary
The number of times candidates used their dictionaries was surprisingly high. Even
when candidates felt they knew the answer many seemed to feel it necessary to
check. Foundation Tier candidates, in particular, found their dictionaries necessary
for understanding the questions. The policy of writing the rubric and questions in the
target language clearly disadvantages the least able candidates. Whilst Higher Tier
candidates did use their dictionaries primarily to answer the question, it was
disappointing that they did not have the con dence to use their dictionary towards
the end of the examination. The extent of candidate dictionary use horri ed class
teachers, for example:
as I saw in the exam panic takes over and the majority of my pupils
dont think rationally and looked up ridiculous things.
Another comment echoed this disappointment:
It was interesting to see how children used their dictionariesi.e. how
many relied on them and failed to use them as a checking aid as
advised the dictionary paper took pupils far longer and wasnt always
completed, yet everyone completed the non-dictionary paper.
In the study, the availability of a dictionary in a Modern Language examination
increased mean scores on written examination papers. At Foundation Tier there
appears to be little difference as to which dictionary is used. At Higher Tier the
dictionary effect is very clear, though candidates using Collins Pocket Dictionary are
relatively disadvantaged. When the achievements of candidates on different questions were studied, the overlapping question involving writing a letter was more
effectively answered by candidates using Your French Dictionary, whilst the extended piece of writing was most effectively answered by those using Collins Easy
Learning Dictionary.
Correspondence: Dr G. E. Tall, School of Education, University of Birmingham,
Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK. E-mail: C.E.Tall@bham.ac.uk
REFERENCES
ASHER, C., CHAMBERS, G. & HALL, K. (1999) Dictionary Use in MFL Examinations in the GCSE: How
Schools are Meeting the Challenge, Language Learning Journal, 19, pp. 2832.
BISHOP, G. (1998) Research into the Use being made of Bilingual Dictionaries , Language Learning
Journal, 18, pp. 38.
BISHOP, G. (2000) Dictionaries, Examinations and Stress, Language Learning Journal, 20, pp. 5765.
COLLINS (1995) Collins Pocket French Dictionary (Glasgow, HarperCollins).
COLLINS (1996) Collins Easy Learning French Dictionary (Glasgow, HarperCollins).
DfEE (1997) DfEE Performance Tables, available at: http://www.open.gov.uk /dfee /perform.htm

Using Dictionaries in GCSE Examinations

217

HURMAN, J. & TALL, G. (1998) The Use of Dictionaries in GCSE Modern Foreign Languages Written
Examinations (French). A report for the Quali cations and Curriculum Authority.
MALVERN (1996) Your French Dictionary (Malvern, Malvern Language Guides).
OFSTED (1997) OFSTED Inspectio n Reports, available at: http://www.open.gov.uk/htm/seclea.ht m
QCA (1997) The Quali cations and Curriculum Authoritys document inviting research proposals .
Unpublished.
TALL, G. & HURMAN, J. (2000) Using a Dictionary in a Written French GCSE Examination: The
Candidates Experience , Language Learning Journal, 21, pp. 5056.