QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY 4 3 5

6-6.6 Summary
Point counting with a systematic two-dimensional grid is the optimum method for
estimating the volume fraction of constituents in a microstructure. The statistical
analysis procedure is relatively straightforward and easily performed with an
inexpensive hand calculator. For low volume fractions, a high-point-density grid,
e.g., the 100-point grid, is preferred, while for high volume fractions, a low-pointdensity grid, such as the 25-point grid, is useful. For heterogeneous structures, it is
better to spend less time measuring each field and measure more fields. Thus, the
25-point grid would be preferred in these instances. One should always count the
phase with the lowest volume fraction. It is inefficient to point-count a phase with
a volume fraction greater than 50 percent. The major phase can always be
estimated by difference after point counting the minor phase or phases. Sample
preparation must be carefully controlled, with low surface relief, sharp phase
delineation, and good contrast. Choice of magnification is always a compromise
between surface area and resolution. One should always use the lowest possible
magnification at which the location of the test points with respect to the structure
can be unambiguously discerned. Field selection should always be done without
looking at the structure in order to prevent operator bias. The fields should be
spaced systematically over the sample surface. Naturally, the sample must be
representative of the specimen.
6-7 GRAIN SIZE
Determination of the grain size of polycrystalline materials is probably the single
most important metallographic measurement because of the influence of grain
size on properties and behavior. The problem of determining the size of the threedimensional grains on the basis of planar measurements has intrigued and
perplexed researchers for decades. The determination of the spatial size of all of
the grains within a given volume is an exceedingly difficult task. Instead, one
generally determines a single value and uses it to represent the average planar
grain size. This number says nothing about the range of grain sizes present, but it is
a useful value.
6-7.1 Grain Shape
Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the shape of grains. Basically, the
grains must exhibit a shape that is space filling, and the interfaces between grains
must conform to laws governing surface tension. In 1894, Lord Kelvin showed
that the optimum space-filling shape with a minimum of surface area is the
tetrakaidecahedron (cuboctahedron or truncated octahedron). This figure is a
polyhedron with 14 faces. It fulfills the surface tension requirements described by
Plateau in 1873 that no more than three grains can meet at an edge and no more
than four edges can meet at a corner. However, it does not meet the requirement
of 120 dihedral angles between grain boundaries where three adjacent grains
meet an edge. This requirement can be satisfied by introducing a slight double