Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
FACULTY OF BUSINESS
DISSERTATION
MSc. Accounting with Finance
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number
1.0
2.0
Internal factors...9
2.2.1.2
External factors....12
Accounts receivable12
2.3.2
Inventory management...13
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
Defensive policy.....16
2.4.2
Aggressive policy.....16
2.4.3
Conservative policy......17
3.0
Receivable days.....24
3.3.2.2
Payable days...24
3.3.2.3
Inventory days.24
3.3.2.4
Debt ..24
3.3.2.5
Correlation analysis26
3.5.2.2
1. Introduction
Current uncertainties in the global economy and back drop of the euro crisis is putting
extreme amount of pressure on chief executives across Europe to maximise share holders
return and manage the earning effectively and efficiently. With investors more concerned
about the volatility of the economic climate, it is very important to maximise the liquidity
of the company and free cash flow.
At the economic meltdown cash has become a very expensive resource to borrow.
Therefore each and every company should not forget the fact that most of the cash are
tied in the working capital components. So it is very important to bring in a new strategy
to manage the cash flow effectively without affecting key suppliers relationship. Hence
working capital management is given higher priority by the managers.
Although overall European working capital levels are decreasing, the differences in
performance are very significant. The study of PWC shows that the difference between
the good and bad performers is getting more pronounced and this indicates that there is
huge improvement potential for those that are not in the upper quartile (top 25%
performers). Overall, the study shows that 2,307 of the largest listed European companies
had over 900bn (700bn) unnecessarily tied up in working capital in 2011, which could
have been released if all companies included in the study were to match the performance
of the upper quartile. By comparison, UK companies had over 59bn (49bn) tied up in
2011, which could have been released if they had better managed their working capital.
Comparing the cash-to-cash conversion cycle across sectors highlights the differences in
underlying business models and reveals those that operate in a cash culture. In the study,
retail was the most efficient sector in the UK in 2011, with an average of 19 days cashto-cash conversion cycle. Service companies were the second most efficient (23 days),
followed by telecommunications (26 days). At the other end of the scale, manufacturing
companies were the least efficient (104 days), followed by oil & gas (88 days) and
pharmaceuticals (85 days). (PWC 2012a)
According to Rafuse (1996) majority of the business failures are due to poor management
of working capital components and the firms success heavily depends on how frequent
they are able to generate more cash. Guthmann and Dougall (1948) defined working
capital as current assets minus current liabilities. The current refers to a time period of
one year or less than one year. (Emery and Finnerty, 1997).
The components of working capitals are inventories, trade receivables and trade
payables. Trade receivable days can be calculated as [accounts receivable*365] /sales.
Inventory days are [inventories*365] /cost of sales. Trade payable days are [accounts
payable*365]/purchases.
The proportion of the working capital components can change from time to time during
the trade cycle (Lamberson 1995). According to Van & Wachowicz (2000), the working
capital components will be based on the objective of the firm and maximisation of
profits.
Working capital can be calculated using cash conversion cycle (CCC). This is also
known as Net trade cycle (NTC) or Days of working capital (DWC). CCC simply
calculates the time difference between the cash collection and cash payments.
The shorter CCC means the less time capital is tied up in the business operation and it is
always good for the companys day to day operation (Hutchison et al., 2007). On the
other hand operating cycle (OC) captures the time from the purchase of inventories to
collection of cash from customers (Lawrence and Chad 2012).
Working capital can generate significant amount of cash within a short period of time for
firms. Therefore effective management of working capital is very important for every
organization. Shin and Soenen (1998a) emphasized that working capital management is a
key part of corporate strategy and the way it is managed can have a significant impact on
the liquidity and the profitability of the company.
According to Deloof (2003a) majority of the firms invested significant amount of cash in
working capital and using trade payable as a key source of financing. So the way its
handled can have a significant impact on the profitability of the firm. Lazaridis and
Tryfonidis (2006a) in their research concluded that operating profitability will indicate
how the management will respond in terms of managing the working capital components.
This is because they identified a negative relationship between the working capital
components and the profitability.
The profitability of the firms can be increased through efficient management of working
capital Ganeshan (2007a). Raheman and Nasr (2007a) suggested that managers can
increase the shareholders value by reducing the receivable days and inventories days to a
minimum level. Efficient working capital management is all about managing the
working capital components effectively to meet the short term obligation (Eljelly 2004a).
Vishnani (2007a) emphasized that each and every company has to be careful when
investing huge amount of funds in working capital, this is because it can reduce the
profitability of the company significantly. On the other hand Ching et al. (2011a)
identified that working capital management is equally important for both the working
capital intensive and fixed capital intensive companies.
From the above studies its very clear working capital is playing an important role in
enhancing the shareholders wealth and it is given higher priority by the finance
managers. Further it should be noted that, for listed manufacturing firms,
telecommunication firms and construction firms there are only few researches carried out
in the UK covering recent periods. Our study covering the recent periods of 2006-2011
on UK listed manufacturing firms, telecommunication firms and construction firms will
be very useful to maximise the return to the shareholders.
1.3 Hypothesis
In order to achieve our objectives we have developed the hypothesis for our research.
According to Ryan and et.al (2002, p.130), when we are evaluating the relationships
between the dependant variable and independent variables, the null hypothesis Ho will
indicate that there is no relationship between the variables and the alternative hypothesis
H1 will indicate that there is a relationship between the variables. For our study the
hypothesis is given below,
Hypothesis 1 (H1): The debtors collection period is negatively related to the
profitability. The credit policy gives the customers more flexibility to buy the goods and
services on credit terms. Further customers can assess the quality of the product and
services. However increase in the debtors days can have negative impact on companys
performance as they will find it very difficult to generate cash to manage the other
expenses. Further debtors outstanding for long period may needs to be written off. So
speeding up in the debtors collection is very vital for every organization. The collected
cash can be invested in day to day operations to expand business operation and increase
profitability.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): The inventory days are negatively related to the profitability. When a
company maintains a high level of inventory with generous trade credit policy the sales
are likely to increase, hence improving the profitability of the company. However the
increases in inventory days mean the cost for storing the inventories will increase.
Further if there arent any more demand for the products the stock needs to be written off
which can increase the obsolescence stocks. So all of these can increase the cost for the
company and reduces the profit.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): The payable days are negatively related to the profitability. Suppliers
are another key part of business success, when a supplier gives trade credit periods to the
firms it gives the flexibility to assess the quality of the material purchased. Further it
should be noted that credit period can be used as a source of finance. When a company is
7
running on loss it will fully utilize the credits periods given to them. That means increase
in loss will delay the payment to supplier. That is the logic behind this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Cash conversion cycle (CCC) is negatively related to the firms
profitability. Cash conversion cycle measures the time difference between the purchases
of inventory to payment received from customers for the finished goods sold. The higher
the times it takes more investment time is invested in working capital management. A
longer cash conversion cycle can increase the profitability. On the other hand the
profitability can also decrease if the cost of working capital management increases than
the benefit of holding more inventories and allowing generous trade credit policies.
Hypothesis 5 (H5): There is a negative relationship between the debt and the
profitability. Debt is the key source of finance for majority of the firms. But higher
gearing is not always good for the companys health. Higher gearing means increases in
the interest payments, so this can affect the profitability of the firm. Normally high
geared companies are considered to be more risky. So the suppliers will be more
considered to offer credit periods to customers. This can affect the cash flow
management and the profitability of the firms.
Hypothesis 6 (H6): There is a positive relationship between the size of the firm and the
profitability. Size of the firms can be measured in terms of sales growth. So normally an
increase in the sales can increase the profitability. This is because when the sales
volumes are increasing firms can benefit from economies of scale. An economies of scale
means the ability of the firms to exploit benefits by spreading the fixed cost over the
increased units. Further increase in the production can improve the efficiency in the
production process hence reducing the labour and materials cost. All of these can lead to
increase in the profitability.
1.4 Delimitations
Our research only focuses on 60 listed UK manufacturing firms, 20 construction firms
and 17 telecommunication firms. Our sample is limited to the manufacturing sector,
telecommunication sector and construction sector. The banking, insurance, finance and
rental businesses are omitted in this study due to its nature of business. Comparison will
be made with financial information obtained for the year ended 2006 to 2011. The
relationship between the return on equity, return on investment and return on sales and
working capital components are not being evaluated in our research.
can be used not only by manufacturing organizations but also by other organizations to
improve their financial performance and financial crisis of the country.
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Working capital measures the financial strength of the company and it is playing an
important role in maximising shareholders wealth. Every day finance managers spend
significant amount of time to strike a balance between the working capital components,
this is to meet the companys short term obligation. The purpose of this research is to
investigate the relationship between the working capital components inventories, trade
receivable and trade payable and firms profitability. In addition, we will evaluate
whether the financial debt, size of the firm and sales growth affects the profitability of
the firms.
profitability and liquidity should be carefully managed if the firm is to ensure its goingconcern. Investment in inventory is inevitable and necessary for sales to happen. Proper
buying of inventory, which is goods that have a reasonable chance for good sales to take
place will improve profitability and liquidity. Goods that are fast-moving will have a
shorter cash operating cycle. (Padachi, 2006a).
According to Rafuse (1996) a large portion off businesses fail due to not managing
working capital items well, this maybe due to high inventory days and debtors days and,
hence a long cash operating cycle. Generating cash, quickly will ensure that the company
can buy more stocks for re-sale and give credit to customers. Therefore, making the
company more successful. Guthmann and Dougall (1948) defined working capital as
current assets minus current liabilities. This is the capital that is used for day to day
operation of a business. Current is known as less than one year. . (Emery and Finnerty,
1997).
Having optimal amounts of working capital at the needful times is crucial for successful
and efficient operation of a business. Using working capital uncontrollably or lavishly on
stocks during an economic recession is not advisable, as credit will not be easily
obtainable in the event current assets have to be financed by loans. A countrys tight
monetary policy will discourage banks generally to loan in a recessionary period. One
can say that during a recessionary period the firm products will not be demanded as
earlier. However, if it the demand is inelastic for the product, demand will not wane.
The successful generation of internally funds are highly related to the working capital
management. Working Capital results from the difference between Current Assets and
Current Liabilities of the company, and is then associated to the short term financial
management. The main concern of the short term financial management is the firms
short-run operating and financing activities. Firms are eager to utilise internal generated
funds because they do not have to pay interest on these funds and there is no maturing
period. However, managers can get complacent. Also obtaining debt will increase the
debt to equity ratio and make the share price unattractive if the firm is not making profits.
There is greater flexibility for firms to utilize their own funds for investment. The same
cannot be said when firm secures a loan from a financial institution, financial institutions
provides a loan disbursement readily and cheaply only when there is a need to improve a
companys productive capacity. Therefore, internally generated funds offer flexibility for
a firm. (Brealey et al, 2006 pp 813-832)
Research findings, have shown that one of ripple effects of the of the current financial
crisis is companies unable to obtain cash credit due to stringent and unavailability of
credit. So, as a result companies have to manage their working capital more carefully as
they do not have cash readily available. UKs largest companies have failed to free up
125bn of cash in total over the last five years due to inefficient working capital
management, compared to 400bn across Europe, new PwC research shows. That very
little has been done to significantly increase working capital efficiency between 2004 and
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2008, which includes the onset of the current financial crisis (PwC 2012b). This shows
that working capital management should be taken seriously.
need to fund fixed assets and current assets. In these two scenarios, the need for working
capital is at the most. Stocks are bought in the intention of selling and trade credit is
given on generous terms. Therefore, there will be a growing need for working capital to
sustain the business in the long-run. There is also a risk of over-trading.
Companies usually carry out a credit analysis to gauge who are paying on time and who
are not. By receiving cash early, it could improve the companies life-blood that is the
working capital.. Collecting the cash too early and not providing generous credit terms
might hamper business sales in the long run as customers might turn to competitors to get
the goods. Another option to improve working capital and to get cash early is to sell and
handover the trade receivables to a factoring company. The factoring company will
discount the trade receivables to make a profit and return rest of the money to the
company. There might be slight risk when obtaining the factoring facility, as the
factoring company might treat the credit customers harshly when they dont pay-up on
time. Thereby, harming trade relations with the company that gave on credit. (Brealey et
al, 2006 pp 814-819).
mutual funds, corporate notes and mortgage-backed securities. (Brealey et al,, 2006 pp
821-822)
15
inventory sold
Inventory period
Time
Cash received
Operating cycle
Profitability means the ability of the business to make profit. It measures the success of
the business. The profitability measure is gross operating income. It can be calculated as
sales minus cost of goods sold excluding depreciation and amortization. Then this will be
divided by total assets minus financial assets. This is because for a firm which is listed on
the stock exchange the majority of the financial assets will be in the form of shares. By
removing it the link is now between working capital and profitability. In addition
financial debt can be calculated as financial debt/total assets. The equation for size is
natural logarithm of sales and for sales growth, this years sales minus previous years
sales. (Deloof 2003b)
made into sales or debtors to pay up earlier as already this has been financed by long
term funds. Therefore, profitability is reduced. Debt carries a interest cost and further
reduces profitability. Firms who do not know the demand for their goods and
merchandise would want to be shielded under the defensive policy. Under defensive
policy high level of stock and trade debtors would be present.
This policy would have a long cash conversion cycle. However, there would hardly be a
case where stocks and debtors would be funded by a bank overdraft. The company will
have to pay interest to the lender on the amount loaned. By holding large stocks, the
company runs the risk of obsolescence and incurring holding costs. This policy reduces
the need to handle working capital proactively as the current assets are already funded
with long term funding sources. The downside to this policy is that there are many cost
involved which will reduce profitability. (Arnold, 2008 p.530).
will pay on time to settle trade creditors then they will try to fit in the aggressive working
capital policy element. On the other hand, if a particular expensive type of stock has not
shown interest by customers yet but hold promise in the future, then the company would
try the conservative approach by taking a long term loan to buy and stock this item and
hope that the promise materializes. It is important that some items of current assets and
sub-categories are studied properly to see which policy will suit which item and category.
By understanding and managing the current assets, the company could maximize its
profitability and improve the liquidity. This policy will have the elements of the two
policies described above and as a result will balance the firms profitability and risk.
Generally aggressive working capital suites a company which has high sales or growth,
this is because they will be able to manage the cash flow issues funded by the sales
growth. Whereas a company with an unstable environment and with fickle sales will
have to adopt the conservative policy because it cannot be certain about the cash
materializing soon to pay the liabilities. An aggressive policy will cause the company
financial anguish. Hence, understanding the current assets and liabilities will inform the
firm the best choice of working capital policy. (Arnold, 2008 p.538).
available for expansion if they minimise the funds tied up in current assets. They found
that cash helps to keep the firm liquid. It enables the firm to pay its obligations and also
protects the firm from becoming bankrupt.
Deloof (2003c) selected a sample of 1009 Belgian non financial firms covering a period
of 1992-1996. They used correlation analysis and regression analysis in their research.
They concluded gross operating profit and working capital components are negatively
correlated.
Jose at al. (2003) in their research selected 2178 firms covering the period of 1974 to
1993 to evaluate the relationship between the return on investment and cash conversion
cycle. They used multiple regression analysis in their study. They concluded that there
exists a negative relationship between the cash conversion cycle and the profitability of
the firms. This is evident in several industries such as manufacturing, retail services,
professional services and etc.
Eljelly (2004) in his study found that there is a negative relationship between the
profitability and the liquidity indicators such as current ratio and CCC. Lazaridis and
Tryfonidis (2006b) selected 131 companies listed in the Athens Stock Exchange for the
period covering 2001-2004.They observed cash conversion cycle and payable days are
negatively related. Padachi (2006b) identified negative relationship between profitability
and working capital components.
Shah and Sana (2006) in their research used receivable days, payable days, inventory
days, current ratio, and quick ratio as the independent variable and gross operating
income as the dependant variable. They used correlation analysis and ordinary least
square method to evaluate their data. They concluded that there is a negative relationship
between the gross operating income and working capital components.
Ganeshan (2007b) used Days of Working Capital (DWC) to measure the efficiency of
working capital. They concluded that, the relationship between profitability and DWC is
not significant. Raheman and Nasr (2007b) concluded that there is a strong negative
relationship between the working capital components, debt and the profitability. Further
the relationship between the size of the firm and profitability is positively correlated.
Garcia and et.al (2007) used 8872 Spanish firms for the period covering 1996-2002. They
concluded that profitability firms take less time to collect their receivable, pay their due
early and convert the inventories into finished goods within a short period. Afza and
Nazir (2007) identified a negative relationship between the firms performance and
working capital investment policies. Samiloglo and Demirgunes (2008) examined the
relationship between working capital components and profitability. They concluded
accounts collection periods and inventory conversion periods are negatively related with
the profitability.
19
Vishnani (2007b) selected electronic industry to carry out their research. They identified
that industry as a whole there is no significant relationship between the liquidity and
profitability.
Zariyawati et al. (2009) concluded that the relationship between Cash conversion cycle
and profitability is negative. Sen and Eda (2009) studies revealed that shorter Cash
conversion cycle leads to increase in the profitability. Falope and Ajilore (2009) in their
study found a significant negative relationship between the working capital components
and net operating profitability for a sample of 50 Nigerian firms. Uyar (2009) in his study
concluded that there is a significant negative relationship between Cash conversion cycle
and return on assets. According to Rezazadeh and Heidarian (2010) companys
profitability can be improved by reducing CCC.
Mohamad and Saad (2010) studied Bloombergs database of 172 listed firms from
Malaysia for the period covering 2003-2007. They concluded that working capital
components are negatively related with firms performance. Gill et al. (2010) in his study
revealed, there is a significant relationship between the working capital components and
profitability. Mathuva (2010), in his study concluded that payable days and inventory
days are positively related with the profitability whilst receivable days negatively
associated with the profitability
Danuletiu (2010) selected 20 Alba companies to establish a relationship between the
working capital components and profitability. The selected period covers 2004 to 2008.
This gives a 80 firm years. They used net working capital as their independent variable.
On the other hand return on assets, return on sales and return on equity has been used as
the dependant variable. Pearson analysis is used to measure the relationship and they
concluded that there exists a negative relationship between the profitability of the firm
and working capital components.
Gill, Biger, and Mathur (2010) in their research selected 88 companies from Newyork.
They carried out their research on selected periods between 2005-2007. The dependant
variables are receivable days, payable days, inventory days, natural logarithm of sales,
gearing. The independent variable is gross operating income. This measured by
deducting cost of sales from sales. They used regression analysis to evaluate the
variables. They concluded that there is a negative relationship between the profitability
and receivable days. Therefore firms need to develop effective strategy to collect their
receivable on time. Further they also concluded that the relationship between the cash
conversion cycle and profitability is positive.
Dong (2010) concluded that the relationship between the profitability and the working
capital management is negative. For this research companies listed on the Vietnam stock
exchange are selected covering the period of 2006 to 2008. He mainly analysed the
relationship between the working capital components and cash conversion cycle. He
concluded that the relationship between the cash conversion cycle and profitability is
20
negative. This leads to the fact in order to increase the profitability a company needs to
reduce the receivable days and inventory days to the minimum.
Ikram ul Haq, Sohail, Zaman, and Alam (2011) selected 14 firms from cement industry
in Pakistan. The period covered for the study was 2004 to 2009. They used receivable
days, payable days, inventory days, current ratio, liquid ratio and current assets to total
assets ratio to predict the behaviour of the return on investment. Regression analysis and
correlation analysis are used to measure the relationship between the variables. Finally it
is concluded that the relationship between these variables and return on investment is
moderate.
Nobanee et.al, (2011) used 2,123 Japanese non-financial firms in their study. They
concluded managers can increase the profitability by reducing the CCC. According to
Kieschnick et al. (2011) increase in investment in working capital will decrease the value
of the firms. Ching et al. (2011b) investigated the relationship between the profitability
and working capital management. They used return on sales, return on assets and return
on equity to measure the profitability in different ways. They concluded that cash
conversion cycle and debt ratio is negatively related with the profitability.
Mobeen et.al (2011) used 65 listed companies of Karachi Stock Exchange for the period
covering 2005-2009 and revealed that there exists a strong correlation between the
working capital components with the firms profitability. Vijayakumar (2011) in his
research identified that there is a negative relationship between the CCC and the
profitability. Sharma and Satish (2011) emphasised that the relationship between the
profitability and working capital components are positive.
Mohammad Morshedur Rahman (2011) selected Textiles industry to carry out their
research. They found out that there is no significant relationship between the working
capital management and profitability. Sayeda Tahmina Quayyum (2012) selected several
industries to carry out their research. Their research main objective is to find out which
industry is significantly influenced by the working capital components. They concluded
that except for the food industry there exists a significant relationship between the
working capital components and profitability.
Sebastian Ofumbia (2012) selected Nigerian firms to identify the impact of working
capital components on profitability. They identified that the relationship between cash
conversion cycle and profitability is significant compared to other variables. Secondly
the inventory conversion period and creditors payment play a vital role. They
recommended that companies should collect the cash from the debtors on time, the
collected cash should be reinvested in short term securities, the government of Nigeria
should encourage Foreign direct investment in the country to boost the economy and
company performance as well.
Bagchi and Khamrui (2012 b), selected 10 fast moving consumer goods (FMCG)
companies covering the period from 2000 to 2010. Return on assets has been used to
measure the profitability. On the other hand CCC, interest coverage ratio, inventory days,
21
payable days, receivable days, gearing ratio has been used as independent variables. They
concluded that the working capital components are negatively related with the
profitability of the firm.
Maryam Garajafary (2012) found that the relationship between the working capital
components and profitability is negative. This means the increase in receivable days,
payable days; inventory days and cash conversion cycle can decrease the profitability of
the company. They suggest that in order to maximise the wealth of the shareholders
managers needs to focus on the effective management of working capital components.
22
between cash conversion cycle and return on assets and also a lot of investment in
inventories and accounts receivable leads to declining of profitability.
Since its more related with technologies, the way of doing business and the management
style will vary according to the rapid changes in the technologies. Frequently changing
environment might have led to insignificant relationship between days of working capital
and profitability. According to Mathuva (2010) the relationship between the payable
days, inventory days and profitability is positive; this is conflicting with other
researchers findings. Mathuva (2010) in his research only used 30 samples which are
listed in Nairobi stock exchange, further the market in Nairobi is not developed
compared with the western market. These could be the possible reasons for the different
conclusion by Mathuva (2010).
2.7Conclusion
The review of the previous studies gives us a clear link between the working capital
components and the profitability. Further it is evidenced that the total debt and size of the
firm also affecting the profitability of the firm. The above studies have been carried out
for different size of sample, time periods, countries and industries. The industries include
manufacturing, non financial firms, fast moving consumer goods and telecommunication.
All these give us a clear indication that the working capital components are given higher
priorities by the corporate world. Further it should be noted that there are only few
researches carried out for manufacturing companies listed in the UK.
In our research we will be evaluating whether the working capital components trade
receivable, inventories and trade payable are affecting the gross operating income of
manufacturing firms listed in UK. Further we will use cash conversion cycle as a
comprehensive measure of working capital management. Our study will focus on recent
periods, 2006-2011. At present financial crisis majority of the managers are finding it
very difficult to maximise the shareholder wealth, so our study covering the recent
periods will be very useful for managers to increase the wealth of the shareholders.
23
Research methodology
Research methodology chapter explains how our research will be undertaken to achieve
the objective of our research. This includes the type of our research, sample size,
variables used, data and statistical model which will be used to identify the relationship
between the profitability and the working capital management.
24
3.3 Variables
Variables for the research have been selected based on the previous studies and it is
presented below,
25
3.3.2.4 Debt
Debt is the obligation owed by one company to another company. Debt can be short term
as well as long term. The short term debt means the debt which needs to be paid within 1
year. On the other hand long term debt means the debt which needs to be paid after one
year. Higher gearing is not a good indication for company financial health. Higher
gearing can delay the potential loan opportunities for the future. So it can act as a barrier
for the potential growth opportunities of the company. Gearing can be calculated as
follows,
Gearing = (financial debt/total assets) * 100.
3.3.2.5 Size of the firm
Size of the firm can influence the firms performance in several ways. Firstly if a firm is
large player in the market it gives the bargaining power to strike good deals with
supplier. Further the lenders will be happier to provide the loans. The firm will have
strong distribution channel so they can easily reach the end customers very quickly. Size
of the firms can be calculated as logarithm of sales and the formula is given below,
Size of the firm = logarithm of sales
Hypothesis 4
26
H0: There is no relationship between the cash conversion cycle and the profitability.
H4: Cash conversion cycle (CCC) is negatively related to the firms profitability - higher
the CCC lowers the profitability.
Hypothesis 5
H0: There is no relationship between the debt and the profitability.
H5: There is a negative relationship between the debt equity ratio and the profitability.
Hypothesis 6
H0: There is no relationship between the size of the firm and the profitability.
H6: There is a positive relationship between the size of the firm and the profitability.
27
Companies without the financial information for the 5 years have been eliminated from
the sample. The key ratios for our research has been obtained from thee FAME data base.
28
This includes receivable days, payable days, inventory days, gearing. Based on the
collected ratios cash conversion cycle and logarithm of sales is calculated.
The amount of manufacturing companies initially selected for the 5 years were 240. This
gives a 1200 company years in total. Due to the time constraint only 60 companies were
selected based on their highest turnover. This gives a 300 company years for
manufacturing firms. In similar to this 20 construction firms were selected which gives
100 company years in total. At last 17 telecommunication firms also selected based their
highest sales. This gives 85 company years for telecommunication industry.
29
Standard
deviation
Gross profit
60
0.02
1.43
0.35
0.2869
Receivable days
60
0.58
116.14
53.10
22.58
Payable days
60
0.00
136.89
31.59
21.15
Inventory days
60
3.84
132.51
9.31
22.49
60
-18.93
138.45
29.81
28.06
Logarithm of sales
60
200
27387
836
5513
Gearing
60
0.00
776.6
78.0
120.30
The mean value of the gross profit is 35% and the standard deviation is 28.69%. This
means the gross profit can vary from mean to the both sides by 28.69%. The average
value of the cash conversion cycle is 29.81 days. The firms receive payment from the
customers at an average of 53.1.the standard deviation of the receivable day is 22.58
days.
The maximum value is 116.14 days, which is very significant. Manufacturing firms
making payment to the suppliers after 32 days on a average basis. It indicates one month
credit period is agreed between suppliers and firms. However the maximum value is
136.89 days. Which quite significant considering the nature of the current economic
situation. The mean value of the inventory is just 9.31 days which is more unlikely. But
the days can vary to 32 days. The gearing average is 78% which is very high; it can
squeeze the profitability of the firms through interest payments.
30
Standard
deviation
Gross profit
17
0.00
0.61
0.26
0.20
Receivable days
17
12.70
201.20
67.10
43.20
Payable days
17
4.81
126.05
45.80
30.39
Inventory days
17
0.00
871.60
92.20
214.50
17
-41.7
397.60
88.40
97.70
Logarithm of sales
17
8.22
1061.10
219.20
269
Gearing
17
0.00
295.0
86.20
100.1
The mean value of the gross profit is 26% and the standard deviation is 20%. This means
the gross profit can vary from mean to the both sides by 20%. On the other hand the
minimum value of the gross profit is nil value. The maximum value is 61%.
The firms receive payment from the customers at an average of 67.10; the standard
deviation of the receivable day is 43.2 days. The maximum value is 201.20 days, which
is very significant.
Telecommunication firms making payment to the suppliers after 45.80 days on an
average basis. However it can vary by 30.39 days by the both the sides. The maximum
value of the credit term is 126.05 days.
The mean value of the inventory is 92.2 days; the standard deviation is 214.50 days. The
maximum values of inventory days are 871.60 days which is very significant. This could
be due to the production in progress. The inventory days are very low in the
manufacturing compared to telecommunication firms. This could be due to the nature of
the business.
The average value of the cash conversion cycle is 88.41 days which is very significant
compare with the manufacturing industry cash conversion cycle 39.81 days. The
minimum value is 41.7 days which is 30 days higher than the manufacturing days. On the
other hand it can vary by 97.7 days by the both the sides.
The gearing average is 86.20% which is very high; it can squeeze the profitability of the
firms through interest payments. It can deviate by 100% from the both the side. The
maximum value of the gearing is 295%.
31
Standard deviation
Gross profit
20
0.00
0.26
0.09
0.07
Receivable days
20
3.31
106.45
39.45
30.02
Payable days
20
4.40
181.39
58.71
44.36
Inventory days
20
0.00
907.10
54.0
201.40
20
-105.0
138.80
20.20
72.60
Logarithm of sales
20
244
4153
1175
1068
Gearing
20
7.73
464.10
87.00
126.40
The mean value of the gross profit is only 9% which is the lowest percentage compared
with the other two industries. The standard deviation is 7%. So it means the maximum it
can go up to is 7%. The average value of the cash conversion cycle is 20.20 days which
is very low compared with the telecommunication industry.
The firms receive payment from the customers at an average of 39.45 .The standard
deviation of the receivable day is 30.02 days. So it can deviate to 70 days or 10 days. The
maximum value is 106.45 days.
Firms making payment to the suppliers after 58.71 days on an average basis. This means
the industry is taking two months credit period on a average basis. However it can
deviate by 44.36 days by the both the side. The maximum value of the payable day is
181.39 which is very significant.
The mean value of the inventory is 54days; the standard deviation is 201.40 days. The
maximum value of inventory days are 907.10 days which very significant. This could be
due to the nature of the business.
The gearing average is 87% which is very high; it can squeeze the profitability of the
firms through interest payments. It can deviate by 126.4% from the both the side. The
maximum value of the gearing is 464% which very significant. This is almost 200%
higher than the manufacturing industry.
To summarise the findings of the telecommunication, it can be said there are variances
between the manufacturing industry and telecommunication industry. The main reason
for this could be due to the difference in sample selected and nature of business
operations.
32
Gross
profit
0.157
0.229
Receivable Payable
days
days
Inventory
days
-0.123
0.351
-0.229
0.078
0.036
0.787
0.298
0.021
-0.234
0.072
0.393
0.002
0.162
0.216
-0.385
0.002
0.491
0.000
-0.172
0.190
0.426
0.001
-0.070
0.597
0.354
0.006
0.117
0.018
0.375
0.889
-0.246
-0.014
Gearing
0.058
0.916
Cell Contents: Pearson correlation
Sales
CCC
Sales
0.088
0.502
-0.049
0.709
0.169
0.196
P-Value
Figure 3 - Scatter plot gross profit vs. independent variables
1.6
1.2
0.8
Gross profit
0.4
0.0
0
50
100
CCC
1.6
50
100
Sales
50
100
Gearing
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0
50
100
10000
20000
400
800
33
The results of the Pearson correlation show that there is a positive coefficient of 0.157
with the p-value of 0.229. This indicates the relationship between the receivable days and
profitability is not significant. The correlation result between the payable days and
profitability also indicates the similar result with the negative coefficient of -0.123 and
0.351 p-value, so this also indicates that there is no significant relationship between the
payable days and profitability.
The coefficient result for the inventory day is -0.229 with the p-value of 0.078, so this is
also indicates that there is no significant relationship between the profitability and
inventory days. Cash conversion cycle also indicates that there is no significant
relationship between the profitability as the p-value of the cash conversion cycle is
significant than the determined p-value level of 0.05.
The results are not in line with the previous studies. It can be argued that the inventory
build up in the warehouse can encourage the smooth flow the production, so it leads to
increase of sales and profitability. But inventory build up also has negative consequences
on the profitability of the firms, for example increase in storing cost. There is a positive
relationship between the sales and profitability. The relationship between the gearing and
profitability is negative which is also in line with the view that interest payments can
reduce the profitability of the firm. But the p-value indicates the relationship is not
significant.
4.2.2 Telecommunication industry
Details
Gross
profit
0.187
0.471
Receivable Payable
days
days
Payable days
-0.149
0.567
-0.225
0.386
Inventory days
-0.098
0.707
0.212
0.414
0.642
0.005
0.953
0.000
-0.345
0.175
-0.509
0.037
0.674
0.003
-0.088
0.737
-0.476
0.054
-0.062
0.813
-0.378
0.134
-0.173
0.508
0.722
0.001
-0.129
0.621
-0.208
0.422
Receivable
days
Cash
conversion
cycle
Sales
Gearing
Inventory
days
CCC
Sales
-0.001
0.996
-0.559
0.020
-0.017
0.949
34
P-Value
Figure 4 - Scatter plot gross profit vs. independent variables
pay able
inv entory
60
45
30
Gross profit
15
0
0
100
ccc
200 0
50
100
500
gearing
150
Sales
1000
60
45
30
15
0
0
200
400 0
500
1000
300
The results of the Pearson correlation show that there is a positive coefficient of 0.187
with the p-value of 0.471. This indicates the relationship between the receivable days and
profitability is not significant. The correlation result between the payable days and
profitability indicates negative coefficient of -0.149 and 0.567 p-value, so this also
indicates that there is no significant relationship between the payable days and
profitability.
The coefficient result for the inventory day is 0.098 with the p-value of 0.707, so this also
indicates that there is no significant relationship between the profitability and inventory
days. Cash conversion cycle also indicates that there is no significant relationship
between the profitability as the p-value 0.414 is higher than the determined p-value of
0.05.
There is negative relationship between the sales and profitability. The coefficient level is
-0.088. The p-value is 0.737 which is higher than the determined p-value of 0.05. The
relationship between the gearing and profitability is negative with the p-value of 0.05, so
this indicates there is a significant negative relationship between the profitability and
gearing. This is also in line with the view that interest payments can reduce the
profitability of the firm. The similarity with the manufacturing firm study is the
relationship between payable days and profitability is negative. In addition the
relationship between the cash conversion cycle and profitability is positive. However the
relationship is not significant.
35
Details
Receivable
days
Payable days
Inventory days
Cash
conversion
cycle
Gross
profit
0.027
0.910
Receivable Payable
days
days
Inventory
days
-0.327
0.160
-0.135
0.571
-0.177
0.455
0.055
0.816
0.282
0.228
0.793
0.000
-0.052
0.829
-0.565
0.009
0.265
0.259
0.033
0.891
-0.415
0.069
0.041
0.863
-0.121
0.613
0.377
0.037
0.102
0.878
-0.157
-0.264
Gearing
0.509
0.260
Cell Contents: Pearson correlation
Sales
CCC
Sales
0.010
0.966
0.035
0.885
-0.247
0.293
P-Value
Figure 5- Scatter plot gross profit vs. independent variables
pay able
inv entory
30
20
10
profit
0
0
50
100
ccc
30
100
200 0
turnov er
500
1000
gearing
20
10
0
-100
100
2000
4000 0
200
400
36
The results of the Pearson correlation show that there is a positive coefficient of 0.027
with the p-value of 0.910. This indicates the relationship between the receivable days and
profitability is not significant. The correlation result between the payable days and
profitability indicates negative coefficient of -0.327 and 0.160 p-value, so this also
indicates that there is no significant relationship between the payable days and
profitability.
The coefficient result for the inventory day is -0.135 with the p-value of 0.571, so this
also indicates that there is no significant relationship between the profitability and
inventory days. Cash conversion cycle also indicates that there is no significant
relationship between the profitability as the p-value is higher than the 0.05 level..
The result of the construction firms study is also not as expected. There is positive
relationship between the sales and profitability.. The similarity with the
telecommunication industry study is the relationship between payable days and
profitability is negative. In addition the relationship between the cash conversion cycle,
receivable days and profitability is positive. However the relationship not significant.
Coefficient
SE Coefficient
Constant
0.3418
0.1112
3.08
0.003
Receivable days
0.0005
0.0021
0.23
0.817
Payable days
0.0013
0.0022
0.60
0.554
Inventory days
-0.0030
0.0022
-1.39
0.170
0.0017
0.0017
0.96
0.340
Sales
0.000007
0.000007
1.01
0.315
37
Gearing
-0.00052
0.000374
-1.39
0.170
Coefficient
SE Coefficient
Constant
28.51
14.60
1.95
0.07
Receivable days
0.073
0.1695
0.43
0.675
Payable days
0.1722
0.2749
0.63
0.544
Inventory days
-0.02411
0.0343
-0.70
0.498
0.0365
0.084
0.43
0.675
Sales
-0.00582
0.01952
-0.30
0.771
Gearing
-0.13260
0.08244
-1.61
0.136
The relationship between the inventory days and gross operating income is negative. The
p-value here is 0.498 which is higher than the determined p-value 0.05. So it can be
concluded that the relationship between these variables are not statistically significant.
There is a negative relationship between the gross operating income and sales. The pvalue in this context is 0.771 which is higher than the determined p-value of 0.05. So it
cannot be considered the relationship between the sales and gross operating income is
significant.
There exists a negative relationship between the gearing and the gross operating income.
The p-value in this context is 0.136 which is higher than the determined p-value of 0.05.
so it can be concluded that the relationship between the gearing and profitability is not
significant.
Conclusion
There is no significant relationship between the independent variable and gross operating
income in the telecommunication industry.
Coefficient
SE Coefficient
Constant
2.72
5.24
0.52
0.612
Receivable days
0.013
0.0605
0.22
0.832
Payable days
0.0556
0.0422
1.32
0.209
Inventory days
-0.0051
0.0087
-0.58
0.571
40
0.062
0.052
1.18
0.259
Sales
0.0026
0.0016
1.63
0.125
Gearing
0.0043
0.0158
0.28
0.786
Conclusion
There is no significant relationship between the independent variable and gross operating
income in the construction industry.
41
42
When we critically study the previous journals it is very clear that the result is not in line
with the studies of (shin and soenan 1998, Deloof 2003, Eljelly 2004, and Raheman, A;
Nasr, M (2007)), found negative relationship between the working capital components
receivable days, payable days, inventory days, cash conversion cycle and profitability.
These authors also emphasised that by improving the cash conversion cycle a company
can increase its profitability and maximise shareholders wealth.
The rejection of hypothesis could be due to the following reasons, although we have tried
to evaluate many variables as possible, our research is limited to public firms listed on
the stock exchange. Public companies will develop strategy to meet the expectation of
their shareholders. Further listed companies will be having more media pressure, so these
companies always need to demonstrate fair trade policy. On the other hand the strategy of
unlisted companies may be different due to its nature of ownership and risk taking
ability.
Gross profit is the dependant variable in our research, it is very important to consider that
it is just a one form of measuring the performance of the company. The main reason we
used gross profit in our research is to measure the operating success or failure of the firm
before any financial activity have an impact on the profitability. The profitability can
measured in terms of net profitability, return on investment, return on capital employed
and return on equity.
Even though the selected firms represent a similar industry its nature of operation could
be different. For example if we take Glaxosmithkline PLC which has a turnover of 27387
million for 2011 and Fuller Smith & Turner PLC which has a turnover of 241.9
million for 2011. The Glaxosmithkline PLC is having a strong bargaining power
compared with the Fuller Smith & Turner PLC. As result it can extend its credit period,
this will gives them the flexibility to manage other expense. They can also force the
customers to pay immediately. The source of finance available to them is also vast, for
example bank loans or right issue. So when comparing these companies to establish a
relationship between the working capital components and profitability can give
misleading result. So it may be a good idea to select these companies data for ten years
and then calculate the relationship for each company individually can give accurate
results.
Further the profitability of the firm is mainly determined by how it is able to add value to
its customer through its innovative idea. The more innovative a company is higher its
profit margin. To elaborate more we can take Apple iphone and Nokia lumia. Since apple
is able to innovate more new concepts its profit margin is high and the customers also
ready to pay premium price for their price. So it is very important for companies to add
value through its value chain. This focus will enable them to increase the profit margin
and enhance shareholders wealth.
Over last few years entire world is affected by the recession, especially European
countries. So it is also very important to identify whether the recent developments
43
amongst these nations are playing a vital role in affecting the result of our research. Since
the economy is more volatile it is very difficult to establish a pattern through our
collected data for the research.
Whatever the circumstances it can be concluded that working capital management is very
important for each and every companies as it can be used as a source of finance. The
issue here is, to what extent the important should be given to the working capital
management is a big question. Focusing on core business is very important as it will
determine how much price customers are will to pay for the goods and services.
Further research
There are several research areas identified during the progress of our study. One is to
focus on how a company can use optimal working capital policy to improve its liquidity
position. Effective and efficient management of working capital can reduce the short
term borrowing required by a company, hence saving interest payments and improving
the profitability.
However the question arises here is to what extent a company can rely on working capital
to improve its profitability. So it may be good idea to select other variables like quality,
labour, innovation and etc to carry out a research and find out how it having an impact on
profitability. Based on the findings of the relationship it can be then determined, what are
the important factors a company should give high preference when its come to
determining the profitability.
This is because there are other several factors which determine the profit margin of the
company. Throughout the value chain, this includes quality of the raw material, labour
hours, brand awareness and etc. so it is also very important for each and every company
to focus on core business principles. In the mean time these companies needs to develop
strategy to maximise the use of working capital components.
Other potential research opportunity is to select large amount of sample (for example 500
to 1000) covering a period of 10 years and doing a research on country basis. This can
include comparing western countries and Asian countries; this can bring in new
understandings. The management style in each part of the world is different so the result
will be very interesting.
The dependent variable profitability can be measured in different terms includes net
profit margin, return on asset, return on capital employed and etc. So taking each and
every profitability measures to find out which profitability measure is significantly
influenced by the working capital components can be very useful for the managers in
corporate world.
Additionally research can also be carried out to find the factors determining the working
capital policy of the company. For example sales, economic situation, political stability
of the country and etc. Assume country x is having high level of inflation, in that case the
44
interest rate will be very high. So the companies will be under pressure to use its working
capital components to finance its short term requirements.
Further research can also be carried out amongst unlisted companies to identify how the
working capital component is playing the role. This is because family business is not
facing the pressure faced by listed companies, so there may be several opportunities to
increase the profitability of the company or to identify how the private companies
utilising the working capital components. Compared with the listed companies, the
capital available to private companies are limited so better uses of working capital can
increase the profitability.
45
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