TheUniquenessofAnarchisminArgentina

YAACOVOVEDTelAvivUniversity

Anarchismisanideologythathasshownaremarkabletalentforsurvivalithasbeenwithusforsome200years,sinceitsideaswerefirstpropoundedbyWilliamGodwinattheendofthe18th
century.TheprincipalfocalpointsofanarchisminmodemhistorywereinItaly,whereananarchistmovementfirstappeared,ledbyBakunin,andinSpainandFrance,where,fromthe1880stothe
1930s,itamassedmanyadherents.InNorthandSouthAmerica,itgainedastrongfootholdintheUnitedStatesandArgentina,andmorelimitedsupportinBrazil,Uruguay,CubaandMexico.
Asanactivemovement,withitsowninstitutionsandpublications,anarchismexisteduninterruptedinArgentinaforaboutfiftyyears,between1880and1930.Astudyofthesourceofthesurvivalof
this movement, whose ideological component was such an outstanding feature, will nonetheless find it difficult to explain its survival in Argentina based solely on its ideological force. The
explanationliesinanumberoffactors:themassiveflowofEuropeanimmigrants(manyofwhomhadananarchistpast)thesocialferment that beset Argentina at the turn of the century the
internaldevelopmentswithinanarchismwhichbroughtaboutastrengtheningofthe`proorganization'factionthatsupportedactivismintheworkers'organizationstheformationofafaithfulgroup
ofanarchistactivistswhoinspiredtrustamongthecosmopolitasimmigrantworkersthatcrowdedthebigcitiesthemarginalpoliticalstandingoftheworkingclassthathadrisenfromthewavesof
immigrationandfailedtogainaccesstothepoliticalorganizationsthefreedomofexpression,bothwrittenandoral,andthefreedomoforganizationofallkindsofanarchistcells.[ 1 ]Itshouldbe
notedherethatthesourceofanarchism'ssuccessisnottobefoundinanygivenoseofthesefactors,sorintheirsumtotal,butratherintheiruniqueintegrationwithinthehistoricalprocess.Each
playedaroleandhadaneffectaccordingtoitsplaceinthehistoricalcourse,farbeyonditsownspecificcontent.Hence,themostappropriatewaytounderstandtheuniquenessofArgentinian
anarchism,andhowitstruckroots,istobeginwithabriefhistoricalreviewofthelandmarksinitsdevelopmentanddecline.
Argentinian anarchism was from the outset, in the 1880s and up until the 1930s, predominantly a workers' movement, based on the urban proletariat. The first anarchists in Argentina were
immigrantsfromItalyandSpain,witharecordofanarchistactivitiesinthosecountries.Somehadfledtoescapepolicepersecutionand,upontheirarrivalintheircountryofasylum,theysuddenly
enjoyedcompletefreedomofaction,buthadalimitedsphereofinfluence.[ 2 ]AnarchismwasbroughtclosertolifeinArgentinathroughtheactivitiesofErricoMalatesta,aleadingfigureinworld
anarchism,withanarchocommunistviews,wholivedtherebetween1885and1889.Duringthisstay,hehelpedtobridgethegapbetweentheanarchocommunistcircles,whoopposedrelations
withthelabororganizations,andtheanarchistswhowereinfavorofactivitieswithinthetradeunions.ThebridgecollapsedwhenMalatestaleftArgentina.[ 3 ]
Fromtheearly'90s,workers'organizationswerefoundedmainlybysocialists.Aroundtheturnofthecentury,anarchistsagainapproachedtheworkers'unionsandadebateeruptedbetweentwo
streamsofanarchistideology:thosewhofavoredorganizingwithintheunionsversusthe`purists',whoopposedit.Thefirstregardedtheworkers'organizationsasanaturalweaponinthesocial
struggle. The antiorganizers, on the other hand, argued that, once inside the unions, the anarchists would cease to be revolutionaries for they would be involved in reformist activities. The
influenceoftheorganizersincreasedwiththepublicationofthenewspaper,LaProtestaHumana,in1897.[ 4 ]
In 1898, with the arrival of Dr. Pietro Gori in Argentina, the pro organization trend gained great impetus. Gori was an Italian anarchist of international renown an eminent propounder of the
anarchistcause,aswellaspoet,lawyerandcriminologist,heencouragedanarchistparticipationinthefledglinglaborfederationandplayedaprominentroleinfoundingafederationwithapro
organizationbias.[ 5 ]
ThestrengtheningoftheproorganizationstreamwithintheanarchistmovementalsoowedmuchtotheinfluenceofPellicerParaire,aSpanishprinterwhohadbeenactiveinthefirstInternational

andhadimmigratedtoArgentinain1891.In1900hepublishedaseriesofarticleson"LaborOrganization"inLaProtestaHumana,inwhichheputforwardthebasicprinciplesforalaborfederation.
Heposedtheneedforadual,thoughinterrelated,organizationalstructure,withoneeconomicandtradebasedarmrepresentedbythelaborfederation,andanotherwhichwouldberevolutionary
andspecificallyanarchist.[ 6 ]
TheseprincipleslaterguidedthefoundingdocumentsandpracticesoftheFOA(FederacinObreraArgentina),formedin1901asajointendeavorwiththesocialists.Withinayear,theFOAsplit
upandthesocialistunionsescinded.Thegroupthatremainedwithinthefederationcomprised8000members,whilethosewholeftnumberedabout2000,thusestablishinganarchisthegemonyin
theworkers'unions.Thishegemonywasmaintainedforthenexttenyears.[ 7 ]
The first decade of the 20th century was of singular importance in the formation process of the Argentine working class. The politics of the labor movement during these ten years were
characterizedbytheriseofanarchism,defined,particularlyintheFOA,asanarchocommunism.Fromthebeginning,theFOAorganizeditselfoutsideanykindofpoliticallylegitimizingframework
itresortedtostrikes,boycotts,sabotageandthegeneralstrike.Fortheanarchists,thelatterhadaninsurrectionalcharacterandwasconsideredaninstrumentinthestruggletoabolishthestate
andformanewsociety.
In1902thefirstgeneralstriketookplaceinArgentinaandsawthefullforceofthestatedescendupontheworkersthroughoutrightrepressionanddeportation.Thedeteriorationinlaborrelations
in1902inducedtheauthoritiestolegislatethe"LeydeResidencia".Thelawwasusedagainstallegedanarchistringleadersandledtotheexpulsionofhundredsofanarchistmilitantsandforeign
bornworkersfromArgentina.Fromthispointon,thesewasanescalationinthesocialstrugglebetweentheanarchists,entrenchedintheFOAunions,andtheauthorities.[ 8 ]
Thistensionpromptedtheradicalizationthatculminatedintheincorporationoftheanarchocommunistideologyintothefederation'splatformatthefifth FORA (formerly FOA) congress. The
resolutionreadasfollows:'ThefifthArgentineWorkers'RegionalConference,declares:`Thatitadvisesandrecommendsthewidestpossiblestudyandpropagandatoallitsadherentewiththe
objectofteachingtheworkerstheeconomicandphilosophicalprinciplesofanarchistcommunism.Thiseducation,bypreventingthemfromconcentratingmerelyonachievingtheeighthourday,
willemancipatethemcompletelyandconsequentlyleadtothehopedforsocialrevolution'."[ 9 ]Thisdeclarationwasadoptedasbasicpolicyformanyyears,andthemovement,orientedasitwas
towardsanarchistends,rejectedanyotherconceptoftradeunionism.
After1905,aperiodofsocialconflictsensued,withsuccessivewavesofstrikesinstigatedbytheanarchists.In1906,asyndicalistgroupsplitfromthesocialistpartytobecomeanindependent
sectorwithintheworkers'unionsandbegantochallengeanarchisthegemony,promotingtheconvergenceofallanarchisttradeunions.Themilitantanarchistsopposedthistrendandrejectedall
attemptsatrapprochement,allthewhiletryingtomaintainthemovement'ssingularity.[ 10 ]
OnthefirstofMay,1909,thepoliceopenedfireontheparticipantsinademonstrationorganizedbytheFORA,andseveralwerekilled.TheChiefofPolice,ColonelRamnFalcn,wasblamedfor
the bloodshed. On November 13, a young anarchist Jew, named Simn Radowitzki, threw a bomb at his car and killed both Falcn and his secretary. A period of unprecedented repression
followed. Thousands were arrested many were sent to jail foreigners were deported martial law was declared and lasted until January 1910.[ 11 ] That year had been designated for the
celebrationofthecentenaryofArgentina'sindependence,andtheauthoritiesdideverythingpossibletoensurethatthefestivitiestakeplaceinacalmatmosphere.InFebruary,thestateofsiege
wasliftedandanarchistactivitiesresumed.
Fortheanarchists,1910wastoproveacriticalyearitsevents,awatershedintheinfluenceoftheanarchistmovement.TheFORAleadershipplanneddemonstrationsandactsofprotestagainst
the"LawofResidence"andthepolicyofoppression,but,despitetheseoutwardmanifestations,theproletariatdidnotdisplayaparticularlymilitantattitudeinthesocialstruggle.Asaresult,the
FORAleadershipbecamehesitant,andtherewereeventhosewhoventuredthat"itshouldnotbeassumedthatvictoryinthisconfrontationispossible".[ 12 ]
ItwasthesyndicalistCORA(ConfederacinObreraRegionalArgentina)thatpushed,then,fordirectconfrontation,inordertogaintheupperhandinthecompetitionforinfluenceintheworkers'
unions.Attheirinstigation,ageneralstrikewascalledforMay18theFORAleadershiphadnochoicebuttofollowsuit.Theuntimelyannouncementoftheproposedgeneralstrikeallowedthe
authoritiestimetoorganize,[ 13 ]onlynownotjustthepolicewasentrustedwithenforcingtherepressivemeasures,butanewforcegangsofthesocalled"patrioticautonomistyouths"was
givenpermissiontoraid"points of agitatoon". Those gangs launched a pogrom on the workers' clubs andoffices,aswellasinsomeworkers'andJewishneighborhoods.Thiskindof "white

terror",togetherwiththereimplementationofthestateofsiegeandthemassivearrestanddeportationofallegedagitators,succeededinquashingthestrike.[ 14 ]
Theseactsofrepressionwerecombinedwiththelegislationofthe"SocialDefenceLaw",whichprohibitedtheentrytoArgentinaofthosesuspectedofanarchismandforbadetheassociationof
anarchistgroups,threateningstrikeagitatorswithseverepenaltiesandotherrestrictions.Repressivemeasuresofsuchscopewereunheardofandinflictedaharshblowtotheactivitiesofthe
anarchists.[ 15 ]Theanarchisthistorianandpublicist,DiegoAbaddeSantilln,wouldlaterwrite:"Thus,inawaveofprison,terrorandmassdeportationsandaspateoffiresatthelibertarian
printingofficesendswhatwewouldcallheroicanarchisminArgentina...Itwasunderstoodthatithadreachedtheendoftheroadandthatimportantchapterofsocialhistorywascomingtoa
close".[ 16 ]
Itisclearthat,bytheendof1910,anarchismhadstartedtoshowclearsignsoffatigue.Politicalrepression,combinedwithsteepobstaclestoorganization,acreepingeconomicslowdown,and
thecontinuingflowofimmigrants,hadconspiredtocheckthegrowthofthemovement.After1910,thesyndicalistfederationLORA,whichadvocatedarbitrationandnegotiationattheexpenseof
directaction,gainednewfollowers.Inaccordancewithsyndicalisttheory,thisfederationstrovetowardsoverallunificationandfeltthataweakenedTORAwouldanswerthecall.[ 17 ]Thus,in
1914,theCORAproposedtotheTORAthattheymerge,onthebasisoftheTORAorganizationalcovenant.Accordingly,aLORAcongresswasconvenedforthatyearthatdecidedtodismantle
thefederationandrecommendedthatalltheunionsjointheseasonedTORA.Underthesecircumstances,theTORAleadershiptookuptheinitiativeandcalledaunificationcongress.
InApril,1915,theTORAheldits9thcongressandthesyndicalists,whohaddissolvedtheirfederation,joinedtheTORA.Duringthecongress,theygainedcontroloftheleadershipand,beforethe
oldguardrealizedwhatwashappening,theyabolishedthecommitmenttoanarchocommunismwhichwasacceptedin1905.Afterthecongress,theanarchists,bynowawareofthesubstantial
change, created a breakaway anarchist federation which was named the "TORA del Quinto Congreso". The syndicalists were left in control of the "TORA del noveno", and their influence
increased.Thebackgroundtothepoliticalamalgamationofanarchistsandsyndicalistsin1915wasdeterminedbythefundamentalchangesthathadtakenplaceinthestructureoftheworking
class,andalsoreflectedtheeffectsoftheprocessofnaturalization,asnativebornworkersbegantooutnumbertheforeignborn.[ 18 ]
Theyear1919markedanotherstageintheconfrontationbetweentheauthoritiesandtheworkers."LaSemanaTrgica,"asitcametobeknown,beganonJanuary7,whenpolicelauncheda
fierceattackontheVasenametallurgicalplantworkers,whohadbeenstrikingforseveraldays,andkilledsomeofthem.Inretaliationforthisbloodshed,ageneralstrikewascalledforJanuary10
and11,withthebackingofanarchistsandsyndicalists.Thewaveofstrikessoonsubsided,buttherepressionworsened.Thepolice,thearmyandgroupsofrightwingciviliansagainlauncheda
pogromontheworkers'quarters.Thepeculiarthingwasthatitwasnotdirectedagainstthestrikers,butagainsttheRussianJewishcommunitythatlivedinacentralzone of the city, in Villa
Crespo.Accordingtothesocialistpress,the"SemanaTrgica"leftatollof700deadand4000injured.Thegovernmentandtheconservativemediadenouncedthestrikesofearly1919asthe
workofforeignagitators,proofofthegeneralsenseofapprehensionthathadbeenunleashedbythehugeanarchistshowofforce.[ 19 ]
Afterthe"SemanaTrgica",thedeclineofanarchismcontinued.Anarchismsplayedamarginalroleintheeventsofmid1919andwereunabletotakemuchadvantageofthecontinuedspreadof
tradeunionismupuntiltheendof1920.Fromthattimeon,themovementlargelysubsistedasgroupsofindividualswithonlyaslightinfluenceamongthetradeunions.Therewasoneexception.In
Patagonia,in1920,anuprisingofagriculturallaborerswasledbyanarchistactivists.Thearmypromptlyintervened,andtheresultwasanefariousmilitarycampaignofrepressionthatsent1500
strikeleadersandordinaryworkerstothefiringsquads.TheremotenessoftheregionandpoorcommunicationpreventedthefullstoryfrombecomingknowninBuenosAiresuntilmuchlater.The
armywasunderthecommandofColonelHctorVarela.WhenthedetailsofVarela'smethodsbecameknown,theanarchistpresslaunchedacampaignagainstthe"killerofPatagonia"which
culminatedintheassassinationofVarelabyaTolstoyananarchist,KurtWilkens.[ 20 ]
From1922,theanarchistmovementexperiencedasteadydescenttowardsmarginality.Thisdeclinewascompoundedbyschisms,banditryandterror,epitomizedbytheSeverinodeGiovanni
affair.Eventually,internalstrifeandpersecutionledtoitsdemise,justbeforetheUriburucoupin1930.[ 21 ]
SomeRemarksAbouttheContributionofArgentinianAnarchism
AnarchisminArgentinawasauniquephenomenon.Itcreatedanamalgamofsyndicalistorganizationandanarchocommunistideologythatwasunlikeanythingpreviouslyacceptedinanarchist
movements. This fusion was characterized by the integration of theories imported from Europe with practical Argentinian experience. From an ideological and organizational standpoint, the

anarchistmovementmaybeviewedassyncretist,anditwaspreciselythisfactthatenabledthecoexistenceofEuropeanandlocalelementswithinit.Thissyncretismwasbroadenedduringthe
first decade of the 20th century, when the main thrust of the movement's activities was directed at the trade unions, while at the same time radical anarchist groups continued to coexist
independently. These groups published journals and newspapers, organized assemblies and meetings, and engaged in education and propa ganda activities. This coexistence of ideological
groupsactedascatalystfortheradicalisminheritedbytheanarchistsactiveinthetradeunions.
Anarchism was a central factor in the development of the Argentinian workers' consciousness during its formative years it placed an important role in the creation of the labor federations it
promotedagitationamongtheworkersduringthewavesofstrikes,andintroducedthegeneralstrikeasaprotestweapon.
The anarchist activists at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century succeeded in understanding the uniqueness of the relationship between an ideological elite and the
heterogeneousworkingclassinwhichitwasactive,andtheyadaptedtheirleadershiptomatchtheexpectationsoftheurbanproletariatthatconstituteditstargetaudience.[ 22 ]Inthehistorical
context of the early 20th century, the answers provided by the anarchists to the situations that arose in the class struggle obtained positive results among broad sectors of the population.
Anarchistpropagandaachievedbetterresultsthanthatofthesocialistsbecauseitwassimplerandmoredirect,anddidnotattempttoobtainsupportforapoliticalpartyitwasgearedtothe
mentalityoftheproletarianmassesinArgentina,deprivedoftheelementarypoliticalrightofparticipationinelectionsbytherulingoligarchy.Theblockedconduitstopoliticalrepresentationpushed
theimmigrantsintoseekingsimilarwaysoforganization.Theseorganizationsactedassubstitutesforpoliticalpartiesandcompensatedtheworkersfortheirfrustrationattheabsenceofmobilityin
thepoliticalsphere.ThefactthatthemajorityofimmigrantshadgonetoArgentinawiththesoleobjectiveoffindingeconomicsecurity,andthereforehadnostrongbondstoArgentinaastheir
countryorhomeland,madethetaskofanarchistpropagandistsinattractingthemthatmucheasier.Theyexploitedtheculturalisolationoftheimmigrants,aswellasthedeepdisparitieswithin
Argentiniansociety.[ 23 ]
Theanarchistleadershipplacedgreatvalueonpropagandaandculturalactivities.Thisresultedinanabundanceofpropagandistandliterarypublicationsin1910,Argentinawastheonlycountry
intheworldthatboastedtwoanarchistdailies.Atthebeginningofthecentury,BuenosAiresinArgentinaandPatersonintheUnitedStateswerethetwomostimportantpublishing centres of
anarchistliterature.ArgentinaconstitutedthebiggestmarketforanarchistliteratureinSpanish,whichdulybecamethemainsourceofpopulareducationinEuropeanculture.Afterthearrivalin
ArgentinaofJewishactivistswhohadfledtheHomelandKishinevpogromsinRussiain1908,anarchistliteratureinSpanishwasjoinedbypublicationsinYiddish.Curiously,thesepublications
outlivedthegeneralanarchistmovementandlasteduntilthe1940s.[ 24 ]
Fromthebeginningofthecentury,anarchistinfluencewasfeltinArgentinianbohemiancircles,particularlyamongplaywrights,poets,andpublicists.DiegoAbaddeSantillnnoted,inretrospect:
"NohaypasdondeelanarquismohayatenidotantainfluenciaenlaliteraturacomoenlaArgentina,siexceptuamosunciertoperodoenFrancia...Sepuededecirquelagran
mayoradelosjvenesescritoresenlaArgentinasehanensayadodede1900...comosimpatizantesdelanarquismo,comocolaboradoresdelaprensa anarquista y algunos
comomilitantes..."[ 25 ]
Althoughthisseemssomewhatexaggeratedtome,itdoescontainanindicationoftheforceofanarchism'sinfluenceonyoungbohemiancirclesinBuenosAiresatthebeginningofthecentury.
OneofthemostnotableintellectualsactiveinanarchistcirclesatthetimewastheplaywrightandpoetAlbertoGhiraldo.HewasatfirstclosetotheyoungpeoplewhoformedRubenDaro'scoterie
attheendofthel9thcenturyandjoinedanarchistcircles in 1900, when he took up editing the anarchist literary magazines Martn Fierro and El Sol from 1904, he was editor of La Protesta.
AnotherexamplewastheUruguayanFlorencioSnchez,aleadingplaywrightintheearlyyearsofthecenturywhowroteM'hijoeldotor,aplaythatgavefullexpressiontotherealityoflifeofthe
lowerclassesinBuenosAires.TherewasalsoFlixBasterra,whowroteElcrepsculodelosgauchos,aswellasArmandoDiscpolo,GonzlezPacheco,JosdeMaturanaandAlejandroSux.
Itshouldbenotedthattheyallhaddualloyalties:ontheonehand,totheanarchistcirclesinwhosepublicationstheywroteandatwhosesocialgatheringstheirplayswerepresentedandtheir
poetryread,whileontheother,theycarefullypreservedtheirlinkstotheexternalliteraryworldinwhichtheirworkswerepublishedandwhichconstitutedboththeirmarketandthesourceofthe
literarycriticismthatdeterminedtheirstatus.Atthesametime,however,thisdualloyaltyopenedgapsbetweentheintellectualsandtheanarchistactivists,andcreatedtensionbetweenthetwo
groups.Mostof the latter were autodidacts, who had acquired their education as they worked so they may be termed "semiintellectuals", and later applied it to their newspaper writing and
propagandaefforts.Thetensionscontinuedthroughoutthisperiodandculminatedintheseconddecadeofthecenturywiththemajorityofthebohemianintellectualsleavingtheanarchistranks.
[ 26 ]

Allinall,bycomparisonwithotherpartsoftheworld,theanarchistmovementinArgentinawasfairlymoderate.Theearlyintellectualtraditionofthemovementsoondisappeared.Intheend,the
principalattributeofArgentiniananarchismwasitspopularcharacter,asdefinedbyAbaddeSantillnin1938:
"LospropagandistasdelaArgentina,yaseaporsucarcterdeextranjerosensumayornmeroyporlotantoinestables,bienporelexcesodeactividadoporlasmodalidades
deluchaydelapropaganda,noalcanzanunnivelintelectualextraordinario...Sehandivulgadoideas,nosehanpensado,elmovimientoargentinofueunvehculoexcelente,pero
nohaofrecidoalmundomuchodeoriginal".[ 27 ]
WecanacceptSantilln'sassessmentbecausetheoriginalityofArgentiniananarchismshouldnotbesoughtinthetheoreticalsphere,butratherinthecombinationoftheoryandpractice.
Argentinian anarchism played an important role in advancing workers' education, and this prompted the initiative to establish open rationalist schools, which in itself constituted a revolution in
teaching methods. From the end of the 19th century, anarchists adopted the custom of establishing and fostering alternative schools the "escuelas libres", which later became known as
"escuelasracionalistas".Theinitiativewasfirsttakenbytheanarchocommunistcircleswhichtendedtoworkinsidethetradeunions,andit was later adopted by the anarchists in the FORA
unions.[ 28 ]
Free schools were established by anarchist cells in the workers' quarters. The FORA activists supported this move and there was cooperation between the trade union people and the
intellectuals.Despitetheirmodestbeginnings,theanarchistgroupspersistedintheiractivities,undeterredbythedifficultiesandgovernmentharassmentthattheyfaced.Theburdenwasgreat
and,consequently,themajorityoftheseschoolswasshortlivedthemarktheyleft,however,wasprofound.Theestablishmentoffreeorrationalistschoolscontinueduninterruptedthroughoutthe
firstdecadeofthecentury.Becauseoftheiralternativeeducationalapproach,theseschoolsattractedmanyintellectualstotheanarchistcells.Thegovernment,however,viewedtheexistenceof
theschools,whichrejectedacceptedconservativepedagogicalmethods,withajaundicedeye,and,duringtimesoftension,pointedanaccusingfingeratthemascentresofanarchistagitation.
Therationalistschoolsforchildrenandteenagers,theworkers'schools,thediscussiongroupsandculturalprograms,allbecameaxesforfosteringapopular,radical,proletariancounterculture
thatstrovetoencompasseverysphereoflife.Thepointofdeparturewasthebroadeningofeducationandthedevelopmentofarationalistconsciousnessasthemeansforcreatinganewman
withalternativemoralvaluesthatwouldpreparehimforbuildingthefutureanarchocommunistsocietywhenthetimecarne.Itisworthnotingthatthisculturereservedarespectableplacefor
women,anumberofwhomfilledpositionsinthepressandeveninthetradeunions.[ 29 ]Feministgroupswereformedwithinanarchistcirclesfromtheendofthe19thcentury.In1896,women
publishedanewspaperoftheirown,LaVozdelaMujer,andin1907,thefeministanarchistleaguewasestablished.[ 30 ]
Inadditiontothedirectcontributionmadebytheproletariancounterculture,thestrengtheningofanarchisminArgentinaatthebeginningofthe20thcenturyalsoactedascatalystforeventsin
otherspheres.Thefearofanarchismwasgroundsenoughfortakingstrongpreventivemeasures.Attheendofthel9thcentury,whenanarchistterrorwasprevalentinEurope,ithadnotyet
affectedArgentinathereitbeganinthefirstdecadeofthe20thcentury,inresponsetopolicebrutality.Wementionedearlierthatthefirstterroristacttookplacein1909,whenSimnRadowitzki
assassinatedpolicechiefColonelRamnFalcn,andthesecondin1921,whenKurtWilkenskilledColonelHctorVarelainretalationforthebrutalquellingofthestrikeinPatagonia.[ 31 ]Although
terroritselfdidnotconstitutearealproblem,thedeteriorationofthesocialsystemsandthestrengtheningofradicalcirclesintheworkers'movementwerecausesofconcernfortheauthorities.
Inthefirstdecadeofthiscentury,socialfermentwassorifethattheauthoritiesvieweditasarealsocialthreat.Itwasunderthesecircumstancesthattherulingelitesawthattherepressive
measurestakenbythepolicewerenotenoughandthatpoliticallegislationwasthesolution.Initially,thistooktheformoflegislationagainstforeigners,sincepoliticiansblamedmassimmigration,
supposedlyinfiltratedbyagitators,asthesourceofthetrouble.Thisservedasbackgroundforthelegislationofthe"LeydeResidencia"in1902,andthe"LeydeDefensaSocial"in1910,that
aimedtochecktheentryofanarchistimmigrantsandallowtheirdeportation.Theselawsweremetwithoppositionfromliberalcirclesandinstantlydeemedunconstitutional.Theseliberalcircles
foughtboththeimplementationofthelawsandthedeportationofanarchists,withtheresultthatthelegislationthathadbeendesignedtoweakenanarchism'sfootholdinArgentina,infacthad
servedtostrengthenit.Moreover,thedeportationofforeignactivistsencouragedtheriseofanewlocalleadership.[ 32 ]
The challenge posed by the anarchists was considered dangerous enough to helppreciptatethedivisionwithintheoligarchythatledtothereformsof1912. The "anarchist periV among the
workersandimmigrantswasoneofthecatalystsfortheenactmentoftheSenzPeaLaw.Butthenewelectoralreformdidnotconcedetherighttovotetooverhalfoftheindustrialworking
class,whichremainedexcludedfromthepoliticalprocess,andthepoliticalmarginalityoftheforeignbornworkerscontinuedtobeaconstantsourceofconflictwithinArgentinesociety.

ltmayalsobesaidthatthestrengtheningofanarchismduringthefirstdecade of the century helped mold the kind of nationalism that led Ricardo Rojas to write in his book, La Restauracin
Nacionalista(1909):"Thestateofanarchythatafflictsustoday...isduetothemassiveimmigration...",addingthat"venalcosmopolitananarchybeginstospreadthroughoutthecountry."[ 33 ]
Alongtheselines,theArgentinePatrioticLeaguesprangupasatoolinthestruggleagainstanarchistcosmopolitaninfluence.ItshouldbenotedthatthefirstpogromsthatoccurredinArgentina
againstanarchists,socialistsandJewseruptedin1910,beforetheycouldbeattributedtothefearof"theRedCommunistPeril".TheArgentinePatrioticLeagueitselfcarneintheaftermathofthe
eventsof1919.Itsrecruitswerescionsoftheoligarchyanduppermiddleclass.TheLeaguebecameanassaultgroupdirectedagainsttheunions,theanarchists,and,aboveall,theimmigrants,
in particular the Russian Jews who were accused of Bolshevism. It issued a manifesto explicitly stating its intention to adopt the necessary measures to ensure that its members organize
themselvesandcooperateinactionsagainstmovementsofanarchistcharacter.[ 34 ]
Inconclusion,wemaysaythattheuniquenessofArgentiniananarchismasasyncreticmovementontheinternationalfront,anditsdirectandindirectcontributiontoArgentiniansociety,warrant
extensivestudy.However,itwouldappearthat,forthemoment,thehistoriographyofArgentiniananarchismisstillfarfromitsfullpotential,despitethefactthatscoresofbooksandpapershave
been published on the subject, from those by historians like Diego Abad de Santilln to the autobiographies of activists like Alberto Ghiraldo and Eduardo Gilimn, as well as the syndicalist
SebastinMarotta.AnimportantcontributionwasmadebytheanarchisthistorianMaxNetlau,whobequeathedawealthofarchivalmaterialandanumberofimportantchaptersfromhisbooksand
paperstoresearch.Also,authorandjournalistOsvaldoBayerhasbridgedthegapbetweenliteratureandresearchinhisbooksonSeverinoDiGiovanniandLosvengadoresdelaPatagonia
trgica.
Sincethe'60s,withthegrowingtrendtowardsthestudyofsocialhistoryinspiredbytheArgentinianhistorianTulioHalperinDonghiandhisstudents,anumberofimportantstudiesonthissubject
havebeenpublished,althoughmostareonlypartialorcombinedwithothersubjects.WorthyofmentionarethosebyJosLuisRomero,JorgeSolomonoff,HugoDelCampo,JulioGodioandJos
Panettieri.The`80ssawthepublicationofanumberofobjectiveresearchbooks,amongthemthecomprehensivehistoricalaccountsbyEduardoBilski,JuanSuriano,RicardoFalcn,Antonio
LpezthesociologistDoraBarrancos'sbookon"Anarquismoeducacinycostumbres",andmyowndoctoraldissertation,publishedasElanarquismoyelmovimientoobreroenlaArgentina,
whichdealsonlywiththeformativeperiod(from1897to1905).[ 35 ]
Lastly,itshouldbeemphasizedthatthereisawealthofmaterialonthesubjectwaitingtobetapped,fromthelabormovementandthespiritualworldoftheworkingclassestotheweightofthe
movementintheformationoftheArgentinianconsciousness.Forhistorians,thisisavastfieldtoexploreandresearch.

NOTAS
1 Eduardo Gilimn, Un anarquista en Buenos Aires, (Buenos Aires: Historia Popular, 1972), pp. 3133 Julio Godio, El movimiento obrero y la cuestin nacional,
(Buenos Aires: Erasmo, 1972), pp. 5058 Iaacov Oved, "Influencia del anarquismo espaol sobre la formacin del anarquismo argentino", in Estudios
InterdisciplinariosdeAmricaLatinayelCaribe,vol.2,no.1(1991),pp.517.
2 Osvaldo Bayer, "La influencia de la inmigracin italiana en el movimiento anarquista argentino", in Los anarquistas expropiadores y otros ensayos, (Omnibus
EditorialLegasa),pp.136152.
3 Dardo Cneo, Juan B. Justo y las luchas sociales en Argentina, (Buenos Aires, 1956), pp. 61 63 Iaacov Oved, El anarquismo y el movimiento obrero en
Argentina,(Mxico:SigloXXI,1978),pp.3646SebastinMarotta,Elmovimientosindicalargentino,(BuenosAires:Lacio,1960),tomo1,p.58JosPanettieri,Los
trabajadores,(BuenosAires,1967),pp.120121.
4 Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.3646Gilimn,Unanarquista...,pp.4344Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.108113.
5 F.LpezArangoyDiegoAbaddeSantilln,Elanarquismoyelmovimientoobreroargentino,(Barcelona,1925),p.13Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.8893Jacinto
Oddone, Gremialismo proletario argentino, (Buenos Aires: La Vanguardia, 1949), pp. 2325 Diego Abad de Santilln, El movimiento anarquista en la Argentina,
(BuenosAires,1930),pp.6971Panettieri,Lostrabajadores,(BuenosAires:JosAlvarezLosArgentinos,1967),p.123.
6 On the articles published by Pellicer Paraire in support of anarchist involvement in the trade unions, see: Oved, El anarquismo..., pp. 148160 La Protesta
Humana,17.10.1900EduardoBilsky,LaFORAyelmovimientoobreroargentino,(BuenosAires:BibliotecaPopularArgentina,1985),pp.19,112,115DiegoAbad

de Santilln, La FORA ideologa y trayectoria, (Buenos Aires, 1971), pp. 5255 Ronaldo Munck, Argentina from Anarchism to Peronism, (London: Zed Books,
1987),p.49Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.146151.
7 Marotta, El movimiento sindical argentino..., tomo 1, pp. 106114 Oddone, Gremialismo proletario..., pp. 8385 Bilsky, La FORA..., pp. 6769 Oved, El
anarquismo...,pp.163173,184185Cneo,JuanB.Justo...,pp.259260Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.115117JorgeSolomonoff,Ideologasdelmovimientoobrero
yconflictosocial,(BuenosAires,1971),pp.200201.
8 Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.262268,268282C.SnchezViamonte,BiografadeunaleyantiArgentina,(BuenosAires:NuevasEdicionesArgentinas,1956),p.
53 Enrique Dickman, Recuerdos de un militante socialista, (Buenos Aires, 1949), pp. 9192 Oddone, Gremialismo proletario..., pp. 109110 The Economist,
13.1.1903TheTimes(London),25.11.1902Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.177182Oddone,Gremialismoproletario...,pp.110118.
9 Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.414423Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.213215Bilsky,LaFORA...,pp.121122Oddone,Gremialismoproletario...,pp.173175.
10 Bilsky,LaFORA...,p.126Oved,Elanarquismo.,.,pp.403409,412414Godio,Elmovimiento...,pp.197202.
11 TheEconomist,5.6.190912.6.1909.InarticlespublishedinBuenosAires,itwasreportedthatpolicestatementsmentionedtheconfiscationofleafletsprintedin
Hebrew(probablyYiddish)callingforviolenceandrioting.See:LaPrensa,1.3.1909,3.5.1909Panettieri,Lostrabajadores,pp.143146Bilsky,LaFORA...,pp.29,
91,151153Cneo,JuanB.Justo...,pp.307311Marotta,Elmovimiento...(2),pp.2535,110111Dickman,Recuerdos...,pp.155178.Onthevictoryasaresult
ofanarchistsocialistcooperation,see:Godio,Elmovimiento...,p.230SouthAmericanJournal,12.6.1909Gilimn,Unanarquista...,p.98DiegoAbaddeSantilln,
"EvocacindelPrimerodeMayode1909",inSuplementodeLaProtesta,18.7.1927,pp.162166.
12 AbaddeSantilln,Elmovimiento...,pp.111116Gilimn,Unanarquista...,p.102Bilsky,LaFORA...,pp.156157LaProtesta,20.1.1910AbaddeSantilln,La
FORA...,pp.196199,204215Dickman,Recuerdos...,p.184Marotta,Elmovimiento...(2),pp.6186TheEconomist,23.4.1910,7.5.1910,4.6.1910PublicRecord
Office(London),FO/CP/(9837),AR,1910.
13 Marotta,Elmovimiento...(2),pp.6468AbaddeSantilln,LaFORA...,pp.189195Bilsky,LaFORA,p.157.
14 The Times, 16.5.1910, 2.7.1910 Gilimn, Un anarquista..., p. 107 Marotta, El movimiento... (2), pp. 7279 Abad de Santilln, La FORA..., p. 197 Bilsky, La
FORA...,p.158Dickman,Recuerdos...,pp.186188DavidRock,AuthoritarianArgentina,(California,1993),pp.5960.
15 TheEconomist,30.7.1910Panettieri,Lostrabajadores,pp.147148Marotta,Elmovimiento...(2),pp.8485Gilimn,Unanarquista...,pp.9092.
16 AbaddeSantilln,Elmovimiento...,pp.112,184.
17 LaProtesta,12.12.1911.
Forthebackgroundandreasonsofthedeclineofanarchismandtheriseofsyndicalisminthetradeunions,see:Korzeniewicz,TheLabourMovement,pp.3839.
18 Abad de Santilln, La FORA..., pp. 203237 Munck (with Ricardo Falcn and Bernardo Galitelli), Argentina from Anarchism to Peronism, p. 66 Marotta, El
movimiento...(2),pp.165206Edelman,PoliticalEconomy,p.19Bilsky,LaFORA...,p.159.
19 DavidRock,PoliticsinArgentina.18901930.TheRiseandFallofRadicalism,(CambridgeUniversityPress,1975),pp.157179Munck,Argentina...,pp.8589
EduardoBilsky,LaSemanaTrgica,(BuenosAires:CEAL,1984).
20 OsvaldoBayer,LosvengadoresdelaPatagoniatrgica,(BuenosAires:Galerna,1972).
21 Bayer,Losanarquistasexpropiadores...,pp.2687AntonioLpez,LaFORAenelmovimientoobrero,tomo1,(BuenosAires:CEAL),pp.7177.
22 Eduardo Colombo, "Anarchism in Argentina and Uruguay", in David Apter and James Joll, eds., Anarchism Today, (Macmillan, 1970), pp. 181190 Jorge
Solomonoff, Ideologas del movimiento obrero y conflicto social, (Editorial Proyeccin, 1971), pp. 192203 Angel Capelleti, Hechos y figuras del anarquismo
hispanoamericano,(EdicionesMadreTierra,1990),pp.911.
23 Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.176192A.Lpez,LaFORA...,pp.7273.
24 EduardoBilsky,"Etnicidadyclaseobrera:lapresenciajudaenelmovimientoobreroargentino",inEstudiosMigratoriosLatinoamericanos,ao4,no.11,1989,
pp.2747.
25 DiegoAbaddeSantilln,"Bibliografiaanarquistaargentina",inTimn,(Barcelona,septiembre1938),p.121.
26 laacovOved,"CulturaanarquistaenlaArgentinaaprincipiosdelsigloXX",inLatinoamrica,no.17,(Mxico:UniversidadNacionalAutnomadeMxico,1985),
pp.157163.
27 AbaddeSantilln,Timn,p.182.
28 Oved,Latinoamrica,pp.130138.
29 DoraBarrancos,Anarquismo,educacinycostumbresenlaArgentinadeprincipiosdesiglo,(BuenosAires:EditorialContrapunto,1990).
30 Oved,Latinoamrica,pp.154157J.RoucoBuela,Historiadeunidealvividoporunamujer,(BuenosAires:Reconstruir,1990).

31 Rock,Politics...,pp.160161.
32 Oved,Elanarquismo...,pp.225283SnchezViamonte,Biografa...
33 RicardoRojas,LaRestauracinNacionalista,(BuenosAires,1971),pp.136137.
34 Rock,Politics...,pp.193202,211213.
35 DoraBarrancos,"Anarquismoehistoriografa:unbalance",inChristianFerrer,comp.,Ellenguajelibertario,(Montevideo:NordanComunidad,1991),tomo2,pp.
229248.

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