THE UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM

Bipolar Transistor
-BiasingProfessor Dino Isa
BSEE (Hons), PhD
Professor of Intelligent System
Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering

Bipolar Transistor Normal Operating Conditions

 junction forward biased   

 junction reversed biased   

 is forward biased. The depletion region has been reduced in width due to the applied
forward bias, resulting in a heavy flow of majority carriers from the p to the n type material.

 is reversed biased. The depletion region has been increased in width. No majority
carrier current flows across the reversed biased junction but all the majority carriers which
manage to get into the base through thermal excitation will cross the reversed biased CB
junction because in the base these majority carriers coming from the emitter are actually
minority carriers.

Majority carrier current from the emitter cross the forward bias eb junction and find
themselves in the n type base where they become minority carriers.

Since most minority carriers will cross a reversed biased p-n junction, most of the holes
generated in the emitter will find themselves in the collector, hence,
   ;

  

   Active region operation

Or more accurately,
 ! 
Where

range from 0.98 to 1 depending on device construction

Class Example

For the bipolar transistor below, indicate, using arrows of different sizes the direction of
majority and minority current flow, reflecting the magnitudes of those currents. Also
indicate the direction of the flow for currents in the external circuit.

Majority and minority carrier flow of a pnp transistor

(a) pnp transistor;

(b) npn transistor;

Common Base Configuration

Pnp transistor rigged to measure the output common base characteristics (next page)
For each hole that recombines with an electron in the base (base loses one electron), a hole
leaves the base (electron enters base).
1. For the circuit above, increase  starting from 0 volts (going more negative) as 
increases, ie the CB junction becomes more reverse biased, also increases. When
 is big enough,   1
and  !  . This is because only a very small portion of
the emmiter current is able to enter the collector region at low values of reversed
biased voltages   0
.
2. Once  reaches a value large enough to ensure that almost all carriers enter the
collector, the curves more or less levels off. In the active region, therefore, is very
close to 1 and is essentially constant.
3. When the EB junction is open and no emitter flows, no minority carrier is injected
into the base. Under these conditions only a very small "leakage" current flows, we
call this current $ .

Origin of $ .

Output or collector characteristics for a common-base transistor amplifier

(npn)

10

Input or driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor

amplifier (npn)

11

Common Base Input Characteristics

As  gets more reversed biased,  increases. This increase in  "causes" a corresponding

increase in  ; so for a specific   is higher for a  which is more reversed biased.

12

Review Common Base Equations.



& ! '  
Where
' ! '  $


 !


(

)*+,-./0  $).1,-./0

13

Typical values of voltage amplification for the common base configuration vary from 50 to

300. The current amplification ( is always less than 1 for the common base

configuration. This latter characteristics should be obvious since
 !

 and

is always less than 1

The base amplifying action was produced by transferring a current from a low to a high
resistance circuit. The combination of the two terms results in the label transistor;
Transfer + Resistor 2 transistor

ACTIVE:

 FORWARD BIAS 2 3

 REVERSE BIAS 2 43

14

Common Base Configuration

In the active region, the collector junction is reversed biased, while the emitter junction is
forward biased.

Current Convention
 !   

15

Transistor Amplifying Action

Input resistance looking from e to b is small due to the forward biased junction.
Output resistance looking from c to b is large due to the reverse biased junction.

! 65 !
5

Assume

7889:
78

! 10;<

!1

=  !  ! >
> ! 10;<

And > ! > ?

! 10;<5000

! 50 3ABCD

= AC AMPLIFICATION !

E
5

F8

7889

! 250

16

Common Emitter Configuration

Previously;
 !   

(1)

 !  H:I  $ HJK
(Coming from Base. Akin to L (reverse

(Coming from Emitter)

saturation current in reverse biased P-N

junction) $ like L is temperature
sensitive.

From
=  !

J

J

, or

  $

J)*+
J

where

! 0.9 2 0.99

(2)

Manipulating (1) and (2),

 !
At  ! 0 , we define
 ! $ !

 $

14
14

$
NO PQRR SC TBAUVSW TRA; PABB PCAR
14

CA ;VCC R UVCO CO XYD AZ S

17

 [ !

[
1
!

14
14 [

= [ is much larger than [

Returning to the previous page,
 !

14

Define ; \] ! ^
J

= In terms of ^,  ! \] 

J,
\]

2 ^  

J,
\]

! ^   [
Neglegating [
  ^ 

18

Common Emitter Forward Current Amplification Factor

Common emitter transfer characteristics:

 out current
 in current

 output voltage

^

J

J

where  and  are collector and base current of a particular operating point in the

linear region. ^ varies from 60 2 200 typically.

Since ^ !


( and


We get ^ !

\]

or

!
!


( and using  !    ,

`

`a\

Common emitter characteristics can be derived from common base characteristics and vice
versa.

19

Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the common-emitter configuration: (a)

collector characteristics; (b) base characteristics. (npn)

20

Why is $ small? The eb depletion region is bigger then when the eb junction was forward
biased. (See diode @ no bias)

21

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Common Collector Characteristics.

BUT

and

Looking at the common collector characteristic graph,

remains negative if
remains above 0.7V.

To keep

reversed biased,

Input characteristic graph :

Output characteristic graph :

must be larger than 0.7v

versus
versus

22

Common collector characteristics (npn)

Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics

23

Common Collector (Input Characteristics)

What the
diagram
shows

If

is allowed to increase to a point where it approaches

(the B-E junction is no longer forward biased) and

24

that means,
.

The Purpose of Bias

The purpose of biasing a transistor amplifier is to set a dc output level somewhere in the
middle of the total range of output voltages so that an ac waveform can be superimposed
on it and results in an undistorted and amplified ac output signal.
An ac input current causes the output voltage to vary and below the bias voltage.

25

Graphical Analysis of Small Signal Amplifiers

1. Assume
is forward biased at 0.65V. The 0.03V
variation of
causes
to vary between 0.62V and
0.68V.
2. The variation in
variation?

causes a variation in

. What is this

3. The variation in causes a variation in

a variation in
. What is this variation?

which causes

26

Input Graph

Output Graph

The base emitter voltage varies from 0.62 to 0.68V as L varies b 0.03V about the bias
voltage of  ! 0.65V. This input voltage variation causes  to vary between 20c<
and 40c<.

27

As the base current varies between 20 and 40c<. The collector emitter voltage varies
between 6V and 12V and  varies between 2mA and 4mA.
Recall that the DC load line is a plot of all combinations of  and  for a specific set of ?
and ? .

 4  ? 4  ! 0

 4  ? 4  ! 0

1) 18 4 0 4  ! 0 =  ! 18  ! 0

2)  ? !  =  !


6

! 6 @  ! 0

28

Find the value of ?g so that > will have maximum symmetrical swing.
ANS: For maximum symmetrical swing,  !

(
2 ! 6

 4  !    
?

!    ^ 
?

 ! 29.7c<

 4 ?g  4  ! 0
= ?g ! 178.5i

29

TRANSISTOR MAXIMUM RATINGS;

COMMON EMMITER;

)*l


k

)*l

)*l
)*l

!  

30

ASSUMING   0 , FIND  , 

 !

?7
 ! 2
?\  ?m7 

 !  4  ! 2 4 0.7 ! 1.3

 !


1.3
!
! 0.867;<
? 1.5i

 !  4  ? ! 13.33

 !  4  ! 13.33 4 1.3 4 12.03

31

USE ! 140 , CALCULATE  , 

 !  !

?7
3.9i
22
! 2
 !
39  3.9i
?\  ?7
? !

p  !

?\ ?7
! 3.55i
?\  ?7

 4 
2 4 0.7
!
! 6.05c<
?  ^  1
? 3.55i  1411.5i

 ! ^  ! 1406.05c<
! 0.85;<  
 !  4  ?  ?
! 12.2
 0.7

! ?:L



Almost the same because we picked ?7 small compared to ?:L qr therefore the
assumption that   0 is valid

p  4  ? 4  4  ? ! 0

 4  ? 4  4 ` ^  1

? ! 0
4  ^  1
? !    ? 4 
 !

 4 
?  ^  1
?
 !   

!  ^
 
!  ^  1

32

Exact Analysis Using Thevenin Equivalents

When ?7 is not much smaller as compared to ?qr

1. Thevenin Equivalent Resistance,

? !

1(
1
?\  (?7

?\ ?7
?\  ?7

2. Thevenin Equivalent Voltage,

 !

?7

?\  ?7 

33

[ !

?7

?\  ?7 

34

1.

Short voltage supply, open current source.

2.

Calculate ?Ns
,

?Ns
 ! 2i  3i ! 5i

3.

Remove (open current) load, Apply 4V source;

[ ! 4

Apply 2;< current source; (short 4 source)

[ ! 2;< t 2i ! 4
= [ /,/ ! 8

35

No Emitter Resistor! Anomaly!

Common emitter! Read value of  to calculate  ! Cannot assume   0

 ! 0.7

22 4 0.7
! 0.546;<
39i

1.

Assume   0

77tu.v

uvau.v

! 2 vollts at B

But  ! 0.7, where  ! 0

=  cannot be 2
=   0 not valid

36

2.

22 4 10000  4  ! 0
22 4 10000  4  ! 0

3.

22 ! 39000 w 4 0.7 ! 0

4.

 ! w 4 ww

ww x
J {8.u||9:
J {`J

8.y]8
u.vz

! 0.179;<

! 3.66;<

Too big, assumption that ww ! 0 is not valid

= 22 4  10000
! 
 ! 22 4 36.6

! 414.6 ! (Cannot be true)

 is too big. Need emitter resistor to limit 

37

  !

77]8.y
uv888

! 0.5;<

 ! 0.7
 ! ^ 
! 1000.54;<

! 5.4;<
22 4  ? ! 
 ! 22 4 5.4
10000

! 22 4 54 !

38

Example (dc load line)

The silicon transistor in the CE bias circuit below has a
algebraically. Find it graphically.
Repeat when

of 100. Find the bias point

is changed to

ALGEBRATICLY

GRAPHICALLY

1)

2)
3) Calculate

, : know

: can

determine value of

Changing

does not have any effect on the slope of the load line

39

Dc bias with voltage feedback

 4  \ ? 4  ? 4  4  ? ! 0
But  \ !    ! 

! ^  1


= U W C  4 ^  1
 ? 4  ? 4  4 ^  1
 ? ! 0
 !
 4  \ ? 4  4  ? ! 0
Assume  \  

 4 
?  ^  1
? ?

 !  4  ?  ?

40

Find  , 

10 4 2i  4  ! 0
But  ! ^ 

! 10020c<

! 2;<

10 4 20002;<
4  ! 0

4 ! 410  4

 ! 6 }~N

41

Find [ when ^ ! 50, 100 and 200 for q ! 0, q ! 5 .

@q ! 0
[ ! 5

@q ! 5
F]

! \88z

F]8.y

.u

! \88888 ! \88888 <

! 43c<

 ! ^  ! 5043c<

! 2.15;<

5 4 2.151000
4  ! 0

 ! 5 4 2.15
! 2.85
! [

42

^ ! 100

 ! 4.3;<

 ! 5 4 4.3
! 0.7
! [

CP CP

43

= 5 4 1000100 
4 100000  4 0.7 ! 0
5 4 100000  4 100000  4 0.7 ! 0
5 4 200000  4 0.7 ! }

 !

4.3
! 21.5c< ,  ! 10021.5c<

200000
 ! 2.15;<

=  ! 5 4 10002.15;<

! 2.85

44

Find [ , Assume : 

5 4  1000
4  4  1000
! 0
5 4 : 20000
4 : 10000
! 0
5 4 : 20000
4  4  1000
! 0
Calculate 

Find    ,

then calculate 

45

Calculate the dc bias current  and voltage  for the circuit above.

 !

 4 
?  ^  1
?  ?

 ! ^  1
 !   
 !  4  ?  ?

46

Find  and  for the circuit above

 !

 
?  ^  1
?  ?

 ! ^ 
 !  4  ?

47

Find 
 

? w
43i
10
! 8.11
 !
?w  ?
43i  10i
 !    ! 8.11  0.7 ! 8.81

 !

 4  10 4 8.81
!
! 0.595;<  
?
2i

 !  ? ! 0.595;<
6.2i
! 3.69

48

Progress Test 2

1. Transistor bias circuit

2. Transistor bias circuit
3. Transistor bias circuit
4. Forward biased diode
5. Transistor operating regions
6.  !   

49

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRUDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
TRANSISTOR BIAS STABILTY AS A FUNCTION OF ^g VARIATIONS
By Ron Roscoe

Figure 1: Single resistor transistor biasing circuit.

^g ! 100;

 ! g  1
 ;

 ! ^g  ;

 ?  0.7   ? ! 

 ?  0.7  ^g  ? ! 

 ?  ^g ?
!  4 0.7

 !
 !

 4 0.7

?  ^g ?

^g  4 0.7

?  ^g ?

50

(1)

(2)

  

?  ^g ? !

^g  4 0.7

?  100 t 2200 !
?  220i !

10015 4 0.7

4;<

1430
t 10u
4

?  220i ! 358i
? ! 138i

Variation of Collector Current with Beta


^g
2.9 mA
50
4.0 mA
100
5.0 mA
200
5.4 mA
300
' =2.5 mA

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2: Two-resistor biasing circuit and Thevenin Equivalent for analysis.

 !

?\
t 
?\  ?7

? !

(3)

51

?\ ?7
?\  ?7

(4)

 4  ? 4 0.7 4  ? ! 0
 !  ?  0.7  ^g  ?

 4 0.7 !  ?  ^g  ? !  ?  ^g ?

 !
 !

 4 0.7

?  ^g ?

(5)

^g  4 0.7

?  ^g ?

(6)

Equation (6) is an equation with two unknowns:  and ? . Analysing the denominator of
the equation (6) we note that if ? is kept small compared to the product ^g ? then
the ^g s in the numerator and denominator will cancel if we can ignore ? . As a general rule
of thumb, keeping ? no greater than ten times ? will give good bias stability over a wide
range of ^g values. ? cannot be lowered to zero since the internal impendence of the
battery is zero, and thus any AC source that is capacitor-coupled into the transistor stage
will be shorted out. We will continue the example using ? ! 22. Now we can solve eqn.
(6) for ? .

4;< t 22  220

! 100 4 0.7

4;< t 242 ! 100 4 70

968  70 ! 100
 ! 10.4

Given  ! 10.4 and ? ! 22 , we can now solve equation (3) and (4) for ?\

 !

?\
t 
?\  ?7

And ?7 . ?\  ?7 ! ?\




! ?\

?\  ?7 ! 1.45?\
0.45?\ ! ?7

52

\F

\8.

! 1.45?\

?\ ?7
! ? ! 22
?\  ?7

?\ ?7
! ? ! 22i
?\  ?7
?\ t 0.45?\
! 22i
?\  0.45?\
0.45?\7
! 22i
1.45?\

0.310?\ ! 22i

?\ ! 70.9i use 68

?7 ! 0.45?\ ! 0.45 t 70.9i ! 31.9K use 33

Check  variation with change in ^g using equation (6):

^g  4 0.7

?  ^g ?
 !

(6)

^g 10.4 4 0.7

22i   2200


3.7 mA
4.0 mA
4.2 mA
4.3 mA
' =0.6 mA

^g
50
100
200
300

Looking at the partial circuit shown in Figure 2c; we can see that our goal is to keep the
product of the collector (emitter) current and the emitter resistor constant. This voltage is
8.8 volts for  = 4 mA. Note that the 0.7V base-emitter voltage is essentially constant. If we
can keep the voltage drop due to IB RB as small as possible by keeping RB small (since we
have no control over IB); then it becomes obvious that the emitter resistor voltage drop is
essentially set by the VB battery voltage minus the base-emitter voltage.

53

H61IIC Introduction to Electronic Engineering

Semester 2 Topic: Transistors and Transistor Circuits
Lecture Notes 2006-07
Another circuit which provides some bias stability using negative feedback
from the collector voltage

 !  4 6 ?

(A) From KVL

6 !    ! 1  ^


(B) From KCL

54

H61IIC Introduction to Electronic Engineering

Semester 2 Topic: Transistors and Transistor Circuits
Lecture Notes 2006-07

 !    ?  0.6   ?

(C) From KVL

For example, increasing increases IRC (B) but this in turn lowers the collector voltage VC (A)
and hence reduces IB (C) which in turn acts to reduce the increase in IC.

55

Example Sheet 3a
Base Bias

Find  ,  and 

12 4  390i
  ! 0
 !

\7]8.y
uv8z

! 28.97c<

 ! ^ 

! 150 t 28.97c<
! 4.34;<

12 4  ? 4  ! 0

 ! 12 4 4.34;< t 1.5i

! 5.49

56

pnp common emitter

Find  and 

422 4  680i
4 40.7
! 0
4  !

77]8.y
|8z

 ! 431c< (the minus sign means the direction of  is opposite to that shown in the
diagram)

 ! ^ 

! 12031c<

! 3.75;<

422 4  3.3i
4  ! 0
]77]
uu88

u.yF

! \888

 ! 49.62

57

Bias with emitter resistor

Common emitter, npn

Solve for

in terms of

58

and

Small Signal
ac analysis:

1)

Hybrid parameter model

2)

& model

(small signal ac equivalent circuits)

59

Hybrid (h) Parameter Definition. (2 Port Theory)

Circuit For Small Signal AC Analysis

Vq ! V  , V[ ! V
Capacitor u shots out ?
? connected between emitter and collector

Important things to calculate;

q input impedance

[ output impedance
,
5

60

voltage gain

Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent Circuits for transistor use transistor model which replace the transistor symbols
in the circuit under analysis. This is done so that the network can be simplified and analyzed
using basic methods of ac circuit analysis (mesh, node, Thevenin & Norton equivalents). Two
types of transistor models will be considered;

(1) Hybrid Parameter

Small signal ac

(2) & or

Others not considered in this module;

(a)

Hybrid } high frequency

(b)

Ebers - moll

61

The Purpose of Bias

The purpose of bias in a transistor amplifier is to set a dc output level somewhere in the
middle of the total range of output voltage so that an ac waveform can be superimposed on
it.
An ac input causes the output voltage to vary above and below the bias voltage.

Therefore, for a qr ! <q VS UC we get,

$ ! J:L  <[ VS U C

62

Small Signal AC Analysis

Common Emitter

(1)

Short dc levels to ground

(2)

Assume

to be very

small at operating
frequency

small if pick big

enough value of capacitor C

63

Capacitors

Time domain

V!P
3 !
3 C
!
!

Frequency Domain

3
C

!

1
VC


UP


1
!
UP

1
VC  3C[

Impedance of a capacitor

1
VC 


U 2 radian frequency
As U ,

1
3C
! VC
 ]

C is chosen to have

'

'

small at the

frequency of application

64

2 Port Theory
Any 2 port network can be represented with voltage and current sources in series and in
parallel with resistors, respectively. The transistor has an input port and an output port,
hence it is a two port network.

65

Combining Circuits;
The key is to match the general two port h parameter to the equivalent parameter
associated with transistor characteristics.

Replacing

O\\
O\7

O7\
O77

with
with
with
with

Oq

O[

Input resistance
Reverse transfer voltage ratio
Forward transfer current ratio
Output conductance
Conductance !

66

6LJL:K

Common Emitter Hybrid Parameter Model

is input current q

 is output current [
& is input voltage q

'& is output voltage [

67

Common BASE hybrid parameter model

68

O and O[
Remembering that,
Reverse transfer voltage

O ! O\7 ratio

O[ ! O77 output conductance (Small)

Where q ! O\\ \  O\7 8

Where 8 ! O7\ q  O77 8

1. We can see that O\7 or O will be small (the "feedback" term from output to input)
(ignore resistance in series means to short circuit id)
2. 1(O is normally large enough to be ignored. (Ignore resistance in parallel means to
8
open circuit it)

69

= For the common emitter;

Approximate CE hybrid equivalent model

q !

q ! Oq&

8 !  ! O& 

70

Common Emitter PNP

Common Emitter NPN

 ! O& 

 ! O& 

O& ! ^

O& ! ^

71

Common Base PNP

Common Base NPN

O  ! 

O  ! 

O ! 1

O ! 1

72

Example
Common Emitter Fixed Bias Configuration (1 bias resistor on base)

= q ! ? ||Oq&
[ ( output impedance found at [ ! 0 ) ! ?

73

(Since if q ! 0,Oq& ! 0)
Vq ! 0, V ! 0 and

< ! voltage gain !

,

<q !

5

J,
J5

Where

[ ! O&

1) Assume ? Oq&

= ! q

q  ? Oq&

= <q ! O& ! ^

And [ ! 4 [ ?

2) Substitute [ ! O& and ! q ,

= [ ! 4O& q ?

But q !

= [ !
= < !

5

]
5

q ?

] g
5

74

Summary CE PNP (Fixed bias configuration)

(1)

But

(2)

75

Example

Find

The aim is to get expressions for

and that contain no voltages
or current

76

q ! ? ||Oq&

< !

 Oq& ! 1300

4O&
? ! 4230.77
Oq& 

<q !

$ ! ? ! 3i

77

[
( ! O& ! 100
q

Given (from a datasheet) Oq& ! 1i, O& ! 10] , O& ! 100, O& ! 12cV ; SD

At node C,

By definition,

O& ! V"  VP , = V" ! O& V 4 V' 4 1

<q !

! O& V 4 V>

At node \ ,

V
= <q ! >(V

V>
V>
!
VJK V

!
!

Where from 4

V 4 V> ! 0 ; V ! V> 4 2

V> !

And V> ?> ! >

Also ~ ?> ! > 4 3

Substitute (2) into (1) and using (3),

O& B 4 B> 1(O

$&

1(
O$&

O& V

1(

?
>
OA
1(
O$& O& V
!
? O$&  1

(O
$&

! >

O&
V>
4
! V> ?> ;
O$& O$&

O&
V ! V> ?>  1(O 4 4

$&
O$&

78

O&
1  O$& ?>

100
1  12 t 10]|

t 2 t 10u

! 97.7

If we had neglected O$& (open circuit)

V> ?> ! > ! ~ ?> ! O& ~ ?>
O& ?>
V
(V !
! O&

?>

<q ! q E !
.1

aq
q

! O&

Compared to

! 100
Previously
found

O&
! 97.7
1  O$& ?>

Inclusion of O$& reduces current gain

79

Voltage Divider Bias (equivalent circuit)

DC network

AC network
Step (1)

80

Step (2) Hybrid Equivalent Circuit

(3)

(4)

But
And
Where

81

Review current Division

And

But
And
Also,

(current division)

Need

Current gain of voltage

divider bias circuit

82

CE unbypassed Emitter Resistor

Calculation;
Step (1)

Step (2)

Step (1) Ground the DC Power Supply;

But
And

Step (2);

Step (3)
If

then
(Current division)

83

Common Emitter (1 Bias Resistor Base)

q ! ? ||Oq&

[ ! ?

< ! voltage gain !

[ !  ! O&

4  ? ! [ ! 4 [ ?
,
5

84

Case 1 (most common)

? Oq&
=  q

Since $ ! 4 [ ?

And [ !  ! O&

And ! q ,

= [ ! 4O& q ? , but q !
!

= < !
<q !

4O& q ?
Oq&

$ 4O&
!
?
q
Oq& 

[
! O&
q

q
(O
q&

Voltage gain

Current gain

85

Case 2
Cannot assume  q
[ ! 4O& ?
q ! Oq&

[ 4O&
!
?
\
Oq& 

Same as before
(logical because ? is in parallel with Oq& )

The difference is in the current gain expression derived below;

<q !

J,
J5

J
J5

Current division!

?

O& q
?  Oq&
!
q

<q ! O&

?

?  Oq&

Reduce to O& if ? Oq&  ! q

(case 1)

86

Common Emitter unbypassed Emitter Resistor

Find formulas for q , [ , < and <q .

q ! ? ||
[ ! ?

87

[ ! 4 [ ?
! 4  ?

! 4O& ?
!

] 5

? since ! 5

4O& ?
[
! < !
q

But q ! Oq&  O& 

?

= !

q
! Oq&  1  O& ?

= < !

! 6
=

But

6

 a

4O& ?
[ 4O& ?
!
!
q

Oq&  1  O& ?

q by current division

?
!
q ? 

J,
J5

! <q !

= <q !

J
J5

YBDA, [ ! O& ! 

O& ?
? 

88

Summary notes for hybrid equivalent circuits.

5 main basic types of circuits in dc analysis;
1. Common Emitter Fixed Bias or base biased circuit.
2. Common Emitter Voltage Divider or beta immunity bias..
3. Common Emitter unbypassed Emitter resistor.
4. Emitter Follower.
5. Common Base.
For ac analysis, transistor models are used to simplify the network so that mesh, node,
Thevenin's and Norton's equivalents can be used. The transistor models replace the symbol
of individual transistor when placed in a circuit diagram.
In ac analysis, assume frequency is high enough so that capacitors can be shorted and
voltage power supplies can be shorted to ground.
When using the principle of superposition in a circuit which has both current and
voltage sources, what do you do to the voltage source when you want to calculate
only the contribution of the current source? YOU SHORT THE VOLTAGE SUPPLY.
Same principle is used for small signal ac analysis of transistor circuits.
The reason for using h parameters is convenience with which they can be measured at
audio frequencies, typically 1 KHz. They provide an accurate model if the frequency is low
enough that the inter electrode capacitances may be neglected.
The steps to performing the small signal low frequency ac analysis using the hybrid
parameter model is as follows;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Short all dc voltage sources to ground.

Assume 1/jwC to be small at the operating frequency (short capacitors).
Redraw circuit implementing steps 1 and 2 above.
Draw hybrid equivalent circuit replacing the transistor with its model.
Neglect appropriate parameters.

Common Emitter Hybrid Parameter Model

89

Progress Test 3

1) q

2) $

3) <

4) <q

5) Dc load line
6) Dc analysis

90

The

model

Remember the approximate CB output

characteristic,

Input characteristics

For ac conditions, the input impedance at

the emitter of the CB transistor can be
determined by;

(The small signal input impedance of

the transistor in its common base
configuration is defined as;
)
Resistance similar to that of a
forward biased diode

Differentiate the diode current equation

output resistance looking from

collector to base and is given by;

91

' is usually big, so we can approximate with an open circuit

92

Substitute & for the Diode between E and B . . . and get the & model

93

(1)

(2)

Comparing (1) and (2),

if current power points upwards!

is determined by setting
(open circuit current source) for both cases.

94

95

Remembering the approximate CE characteristics;

As

increases,

(looking into the base)

is more forward biased

and more majority carriers
cross into the base resulting in
a larger base currents.
Comparing the

The finite slope of the

plot effectively acts as an
output resistance. It results
from base width modulation.
Increasing
causes a greater
reverse bias across the
junction increasing the
depletion region and reducing
base width. This has 2 affects
both leading to an increase in
the collector current.
1) Reduce chance of
recombination within the
effectively smaller base.
2) The charge gradient is
increased across the base as
the flow of electrons
increases

(sometimes called

and hybrid parameter models,

in

datasheets)

Assume is a constant, which is

not exactly true since decreases
as the transistor reaches
saturation. Since we are in the
small signal region we can
assume is a constant for all
values of

96

very big)

Common Base Example

Find & , q , $ , < and <q

97

Common base pnp ac equivalent circuit & model

From the dc circuit on the previous page,

 !
= & !

2 4 0.7
! 1.3;<
1i

26;
! 20
1.3;<

q ! ? |& ! 1 | 20 ! 19.61
[ ! ? ! 5i
< !

5iI 5iI 5i
[
( !
!
!
! 250
q
& &
& &
20

4 
4 
4 & ?

<q ! $( !
!
!
? 
q


q
& ? &  R&  ?


4?
! 40.98
R&  ?

Current division at the input:

q t ?
! &
?  &
q !

J 6 a

6

98

Example: common base npn, & model

Draw the & ac equivalent circuit of the CB amplifier above, and find
< and <q . Assume N ! 1; (very big) but show it in the equivalent
circuit. Use  ! & relationship.

99

< !

[
(
q

<q !

V
(V !
&

q ! 4V& &

Assuming  is very big compared to ? , then

Or,

[ ! 4V[ ?

V& = very small

<q !

= [ ! 4V[ ? ! 4V ?
= < !

V[
V
V
(V ! [(V t &(V
q
&
q

V
V& &  ?

?
!

[ 4V ? 4 V& ? ?
!
!

q
4V& &
4V& &
&

V& ?
V& &  ?

?
&  ?

If & is small compared to ? ,

<q !

100

?
!
?

Example

Common emitter npn

& ac equivalent circuit problem

Draw the & equivalent circuit. Find & , q , [ , < and <q if  ! [ !

[ ! 50i

For  ! 223, ?\ ! 56i, ?7 ! 8.2, R ! 1.5K, R ! 6.2K

101

To find ^& use dc analysis, (circuit on previous page)

 !

8.2i
22

?7
 !
! 2.81
?\  ?7
56i  8.2i

 !  4  ! 2.81 4 0.7

! 2.11

 !

2.11

(? !
! 1.41;<

1.5i

& !

26;
! 18.44


102

[ 2
q ! ?\ |?7 |^& ! 1.35i
[ ! ? ! 6.8

<
[ 4  ?
!
!
@[ !
q
^&
!

4^ ? 4?
!
^R&
&

<q @[ !

<q !

Current division at the input,

J
$
( ! -w ||-
q
J

-w ||-

^
!
?\ ||?7  ^&

?\ ||?7

^?\ ||?7

?\ ||?7  ^&

907.15

! 73.04
7.15  1.66

?\ ||?7
!
?\ ||?7  ^&

= q !

103

?\ ||?7  ^&

?\ ||?7

[ ! 50i
q ! ?\ |?7 |^& ! 1.35i

Summary of calculations:

[ ! ? ||[ ! 5.98i

ac
parameter

< @ [ ! 50i

4? ||[
< !
! 4324.3
&

<

<q @ [ ! 50i ,

<q ! [( !
q

<q

 [

  ?

^ R$
[  ?

^R[
R[  ?

?\ ||?7
?\ ||?7  ^R&

8 ! 50i

6.8K

5.98K

1.35K

1.35K

-368.76

-324.3

73.04

64.3

Thats why good amplifiers have very

very big output impedances

? ||?  ^R&
\ 7

?\ ||?7

8 !

?\ ||?7

?\ ||?7  ^R&

! 64.3

104

Example Sheet 4a
1. What is the reactance of a 10F capacitor at a frequency of 1KHz? For networks in
which the resistor levels are typically in the in the kilohm range, is it a good
assumption to use the short circuit equivalence for the conditions just disabled?
How about at 100KHz?

2.

Find q , q , $ , $ , <q .

3. Using the & model, for the common base configuration find & , q , ' , $ , < , for
an emitter current of 3.2 mA and of 0.99. Assume  ! 48; and ?> ! 2.2i.

105

4. Given Oq& ! 1i, O& ! 2 t 10] , < ! 4160 for the input configuration shown
below;

a) Determine $ in terms of q

b) Calculate in terms of q

c) Calculate if $ is ignored

d) Determine the % difference in using the following equation:

% VTTR SP VS !

UVCOAQC Oq&
4 UVCO Oq&

t 100%
UVCOAQC Oq&

106

5.

Draw the small signal ac equivalent circuit and determine expressions for;
a) q

b) $

c) <
d) <q

107

6.

Oq& ! 1, h ! 10] , h ! 100, h ! 12cD, ?> 2

a) Draw the O parameter equivalent circuit
b) Find expressions for <q and <

a)

108

b) By current division,

V> !

O& V 1(O

$&

1(
O$&  ?>

V>
(V ! 97.7

Mesh around the input,

43 4 V Oq& 4 O& '& ! 0

(1)

But > !  ! O& V 1(O

O& ?> V
1  O$& ?>

$&

||?>

 1  O$& ?>

= V !
O& ?>

(2)

Replace ( 2 ) into ( 1 )

'& 1  O$& ?>

4L 4
Oq& 4 O& '& ! 0
O& ?>
1  O$& ?>

4L 4 
Oq& 4 O& ! 0
O& ?>



! 4

109

7.

^ ! 100
$ ! 50
a) Determine &

b) Calculate q and $

c) Find < and <q

d) Repeat parts (b) and (c) with $ ! 25

110

3.

& !

a)

q ! & ! 15

b)
c)
d)

q 48;
!
! 15
q 3.2;<

 !  ! 0.99
3.2;<
! 3.168;<

$ !  ?> ! 3.168;<
2.2
! 6.97V
< !

e)

$ 6.97
!
! 145.21
q 48;

 ! 14
 ! 32c<

f)

4)
a)

< !

$
! 4160
q

$ ! 4160q
b)

q 4 O& $ q 4 O& < q q 1 4 O& <

!
!
Oq&
Oq&
Oq&
!

q 1 4 2 t 10]
160

! 9.68 t 10] q
c)

q
! 1 t 10]u q
1

111

5.

a)
b)
c)

q ! ? ||Oq&

? ||?> ! [

 ?
$ [ ?> ?  ?> ?>

< ! !
!
q
q
q

q ! Oq&

O& ? ?>
 ? ?>
$ ?  ?>
?  ?>
= !
! 
q
Oq&
Oq&

= < !

O& ? ?>
Oq& ?  ?>

112

H61 IIC Introduction to Electronics

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example Sheet 4(b): Transistor Amplifiers

1.

A single stage NPN transistor amplifier hfe = 100, hie = 1k has a collector load
resistor of 15 k. The ac input to the amplifier is obtained from a source having an
internal resistance Rs = 1 k. Using the h parameter equivalent circuit for the
transistor, calculate:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The current gain

The overall voltage gain
The voltage gain from the transistor base to the output

[Ans: 100, -750, -1500]

2.

In the CE circuit below, RE = 1k, RC = 8k, R1 = 10k, R2 = 85k, Rs = 0k, RL = 10k.

For the transistor hfe = 60, hie = 10k .
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The current gain

The transistor voltage gain
The source generator to output terminal voltage gain across RL.

The impedance of all capacitors and the dc voltage supply may be assumed to be
negligibly small at the signal frequency.

113

3.

In the circuit below RS =0, RE = 1k, RL = 10k, and for the transistor hfe = 60, hie=
1k. Determine the current gain, transistor input resistance and transistor terminal
voltage gain.

SAME AS CLASS EXAMPLE JUST DIFFERENT NUMBERS

4.

A silicon n-p-n transistor is connected so as to form a simple a.c. coupled common

emitter amplifier as shown in the circuit below. If VCC = 10V, RL = 1k and the current
is biased to give a collector voltage of 5V, find RB and then calculate (hie = 10k
hfe=100):
(i)
(ii)

The input impedance

The small signal voltage gain vo/vi.

SAME AS CLASS EXAMPLE JUST DIFFERENT NUMBERS

114

H61IIC Solutions to example sheet 4b

1.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

O& ! 
 ! O&
<q ! O& ! 100

4q  
 Oq& ! 0
q !   Oq&

[ ! 4 [ ? ! 4  ?
! 4O& ?
4O& ?
[
=
! < !
q
1000  Oq&

410015000

!
! 4750
1000  1000
 ! Oq&
[ ! 4  ?
! 4O& ?
[ 4O& ?
=
!

Oq&
410015000

!
1000
! 41500

115

2.

(i)

<q !

[
(
q

[  [ ! 

! O& XQC [ ? ! [ ?>

O&

= [  1 !
[
[
YS

6
6E

1!

J 6 ||6

w
|5

! 65 |6w

J
J,

_____ ( 1 )

______ ( 2 ) current division

Plug ( 2 ) into ( 1 ),

O& q ?\ ||?7

?
1!
?>
?\ |?7 |Oq& [
=

O& ?\ ||?7

[
?
! <q !
q
?\ |?7 |Oq& ?  1


O& ?> 10010000

!
Oq&
10000
! 100

116

(ii) Transfer voltage gain



! ]J 56 ______ ( 1 )

 ! [ [

[ [
!
?> ?
= [ !

?>

? [

 ! [ 

?>

? [

! [ 1  ?> ?

J 6

= [ ! \a6 6 ! 6 a6 ______ ( 2 )

E

Plugging ( 2 ) into ( 1 ),

Oq&

( !
?  ?>

'
4  ?

!
=

Oq& ?  ?>

4O& ?

 4Oq& ?  ?>
!
'
O&
?
!

10000 8000  10000

60
8000

! 4375

(iii)

,


]J, 6E


 ?

! [
?  ?>
= [ !

4  ? ?> 4O& ? ?>

!
?  ?>
?  ?>

117

 q 85||10
!
10  85||10

Or in symbols,

q ?7 ||?\
!
?\ ||?7  Oq&

= q !

?\ ||?7  Oq&

?7  ?\

L 4 q ?L ! Oq&

L ! Oq&  q ?
! Oq& 
! Oq& 

?\ ||?7  Oq&

?7 ||?\

?\ ||?7  Oq&

?7 ||?\

4O& ? ?>
[
?  ?>
!
? ||?  Oq&
L
Oq&  \ 7
?7 ||?\

4O& ? ?> ?7 ||?\

?  ?>
!
?7 ||?\
Oq&  ?\ ||?7  Oq&

4O& ? ?>
?7 ||?\

?  ?>
!
?7 ||?\
Oq&  ?\ ||?7  Oq&

But ?7 || ! \

(6 a\(6w

!\

(F888a\(\8888

! 8952

1008000
10000
892

4
[
18000
!
L 89210000  10000  892

1008000
10
892
89538952
18

! 444.43

118