1.

INTRODUCTION
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a device designed to trip a circuit breaker
when a fault is detected. The first protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on
coils operating on moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions such as
over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency. Microprocessorbased digital protection relays now emulate the original devices, as well as providing types of
protection and supervision impractical with electromechanical relays. In many cases a single
microprocessor relay provides functions that would take two or more electromechanical devices.
By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and
maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long life span, tens
of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and electrical
apparatus all over the world. An important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles
dedicated to protection, with many individual electromechanical devices, or one or two
microprocessor relays.
Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was described as early as 1928, using
vacuum tube amplifiers. Devices using electron tubes were studied but never applied as
commercial products, because of the limitations of vacuum tube amplifiers. A relatively large
standby current is required to maintain the tube filament temperature; inconvenient high voltages
are required for the circuits, and vacuum tube amplifiers had difficulty with incorrect operation
due to noise disturbances.
Static relays with no or few moving parts became practical with the introduction of the transistor.
Static relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical relays,
because power to operate output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from the signal
circuits. Static relays eliminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast operation,
long life and low maintenance.

2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 2.1 circuit diagram

3. MAIN PARTS

1) POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
2) RECTIFIER
3) FILTER
4) COMPARATOR
5) PWM CONTROLLER
6) MOTOR POWER CIRCUIT

3.1.POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:
Potential transformers (PT) (also called voltage transformers (VT)) are a parallel connected type
of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary
connected metering.
The PT is typically described by its voltage ratio from primary to secondary. A 600:120 PT
would provide an output voltage of 120 volts when 600 volts are impressed across its primary
winding. Standard secondary voltage ratings are 120 volts and 70 volts, compatible with standard
measuring instruments.
Burden and accuracy are usually stated as a combined parameter due to being dependent on each
other.
Metering style PTs are designed with smaller cores and VA capacities than power transformers.
This causes metering PTs to saturate at lower secondary voltage outputs saving sensitive
connected metering devices from damaging large voltage spikes found in grid disturbances. A
small PT (see nameplate in photo) with a rating of 0.3W, 0.6X would indicate with up to W load
(12.5 watts[3] ) of secondary burden the secondary current will be within a 0.3 percent error
parallelogram on an accuracy diagram incorporating both phase angle and ratio errors. The same
technique applies for the X load (25 watts) rating except inside a 0.6% accuracy parallelogram.
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Some transformer winding primary (usually high-voltage) connection points may be labeled as
H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally designed to be grounded) and X1, X2 and sometimes an
X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) (and third (Z1, Z2,
Z3) may also be available on the same voltage transformer. The primary may be connected phase
to ground or phase to phase. The secondary is usually grounded on one terminal to avoid
capacitive induction from damaging low-voltage equipment and for human safety.

Types of PTs
Simplified circuit diagram of a CVT
There are three primary types of potential transformers (PT): electromagnetic, capacitor, and
optical. The electromagnetic potential transformer is a wire-wound transformer. The capacitor
voltage transformer (CVT) uses a capacitance potential divider and is used at higher voltages due
to a lower cost than an electromagnetic PT. An optical voltage transformer exploits the electrical
properties of optical materials.

3.2 RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.

When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides
full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared
to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply
terminal via the blue (negative) path.

The function of filter capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to
lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge.
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There is still some variation, known as ripple. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the
capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC
voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the
output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor.
This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current and
voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage
correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output
voltage / current.

The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in
some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source is removed.
If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to discharge
the capacitor safely. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function, perhaps
because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as close as
practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a current large enough to discharge
the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power waste.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C and R are the
capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that
this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will
produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load.

When the capacitor is connected directly to the bridge, as shown, current flows in only a small
portion of each cycle, which may be undesirable. The transformer and bridge diodes must be
sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned on at the peak of the
AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series resistor is included
before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the power supply
transformer's resistance is already sufficient. Adding a resistor, or better yet, an inductor,
between the bridge and capacitor can ensure that current is drawn over a large portion of each
cycle and a large current surge does not occur.

In older times[when?], this crude power supply was often followed by passive filters (capacitors
plus resistors and inductors) to reduce the ripple further. When an inductor is used this way it is
often called a choke. The choke tends to keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant.
Although the inductor gives the best performance, usually the resistor is chosen for cost reasons.
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Because of the increasing availability of voltage-regulator chips, passive filters are less
commonly used. The chips can compensate for changes in input voltage and load current, which
the passive filter does not, and eliminate ripple to a high degree.

Fig: 3.1 Rectifier with filter

3.3 COMPARATOR
An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well balanced difference input and a very high gain.
This parallels the characteristics of comparators and can be substituted in applications with lowperformance requirements.

Fig: 3.2 opamp as comparator

In theory, a standard op-amp operating in open-loop configuration (without negative feedback)
may be used as a low-performance comparator. When the non-inverting input (V+) is at a higher
voltage than the inverting input (V-), the high gain of the op-amp causes the output to saturate at
the highest positive voltage it can output. When the non-inverting input (V+) drops below the
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inverting input (V-), the output saturates at the most negative voltage it can output. The op-amp's
output voltage is limited by the supply voltage. An op-amp operating in a linear mode with
negative feedback, using a balanced, split-voltage power supply, (powered by VS) has its
transfer function typically written as: V_{out}=A_{o} (V_1 - V_2). However, this equation may
not be applicable to a comparator circuit which is non-linear and operates open-loop (no negative
feedback)
In practice, using an operational amplifier as a comparator presents several disadvantages as
compared to using a dedicated comparator:
Op-amps are designed to operate in the linear mode with negative feedback. Hence, an op-amp
typically has a lengthy recovery time from saturation. Almost all op-amps have an internal
compensation capacitor which imposes slew rate limitations for high frequency signals.
Consequently an op-amp makes a sloppy comparator with propagation delays that can be as slow
as tens of microseconds.
Since op-amps do not have any internal hysteresis, an external hysteresis network is always
necessary for slow moving input signals.
The quiescent current specification of an op-amp is valid only when the feedback is active. Some
op-amps show an increased quiescent current when the inputs are not equal.
A comparator is designed to produce well limited output voltages that easily interface with
digital logic. Compatibility with digital logic must be verified while using an op-amp as a
comparator.

3.4 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Fig: 3.3 PWM technique

PWM generated pulses are given to the mosfet, and the mosfet is operated with respective to the
pulses given to it.

3. WORKING

In this circuit the input voltage which is to be monitored is taken from potential transformer and
it is further step downed to 6 volts and it is rectified. This rectified dc is given as input to the op
amp which acts as comparator. For the op amp another input is given as 7.2 v dc which is
equivalent to 230 volts supply before step down transformer.
In any faulty conditions the voltage goes beyond rated voltage then opamp output will be +vsat
which is +12 volts and then output is compared with triangular wave and produce pulses and
these produced pulses are given to mosfet and the mosfet is operated with respective to the
pulses given to the it. The mosfet here acts as a switch to the d.c motor. When pulses are
generated mosfet on and motor starts. This D.C motor is connected to the circuit breaker
moving contact. when the motor rotates the circuit breaker moving contact move and results in
isolating the faulty section.

4. MULTISIM RESULTS

Fig: 5.1 healthy system

RATED VOLTAGE: 230v Supply voltage=227v
Rated voltage > supply voltage,so led will not glow and motor does not rotates so voltage at
motor is 20 milli volts.
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Fig:5.2 Faulty system

Here supply voltage is greater than rated voltage then If the voltage is greater than the rated
voltage then step down transformer voltage will increases and this voltage is compared with the
reference voltage of 7.3v the comparator output is +vsat then led connected in series with the
comparator will glow. This indicates fault.

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6.CONCLUSION

The use of static relays has become very common. Many utilities are taking advantage of the
new features and innovations offered in these relays. New developments in static relays offer
added benefits by further reducing costs and by improving the relay functions and features. In
this project the simulation of over voltage is done and verified motor rotating during faulty
conditions. Project was done in multisim simulation and circuit was examined during healthy and
abnormal conditions also.

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7. REFERENCES
1. Hassan Abniki, H.Afsharirad, A.Mohseni, F. Khoshkhati, Has-san Monsef, Pourya
Sahmsi Effective On-line Parameters for Transformer Monitoring and Protection, on
Northern American Power Symposium (NAPS), pp 1-5, September 2010.
2. Power System Protection By BADRI RAM, D N VISHWAKARMA
3. K.C.A. Dierks, Relay Specific Computer Aided Testing for Protective Relays, Eskom,
South Africa, 2003.

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