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Viewing and Interpretation of Radiographs

Topics Index
1. Back to Module Index
2. Introduction
3. Requirements for Inspecting Radiographs
4. Interpreting Weld Discontinuities
5. Surface Discontinuities for Welds
6. Internal Discontinuities for Welds
7. Interpreting Casting Discontinuities
8. Casting Discontinuities
9. Reporting Discontinuities
10.
Summary The Basic Steps in Interpreting
a Radiograph
11.
Check Your Progress
12.
Your Task
13.
Glossary

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Introduction
The final stage in radiographic testing is the
viewing, interpretation and reporting the results of
a radiographic inspection. After all, the real
purpose of a radiographic inspection is to provide
information about the acceptability, or otherwise,
of the product being tested.
After compeleting this task, you should be able to:

set up and check the conditions for properly


viewing a radiograph
interpret weld radiographs for defect in
accordance with Australian Standards
interpret casting radiographs in accordance with
ASME and Australian Standards.

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Requirements for Inspecting Radiographs


The viewer must include a uniformly illuminated
diffusing screen
AS2177 states that the examination of radiographs
shall be carried out by diffused light in a darkened
room. Most illuminators also include a rheostat
that enables the brightness to be adjusted to
accommodate radiographs of varying densities. In
addition, it must be possible to mask the viewer so
that bright, direct light is excluded from the eyes of
the inspector.

Radiograph viewing illuminator


(click photo to enlarge)

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A very important requirement is the brightness of


the viewer
AS3998 requires the minimum intensity of light
transmitted through a radiograph being examined
to be 30 candella per square meter (cd/m2). To
achieve this, the brightness of the viewing facility
must be at least that shown in the following table:

Minimum illuminator brightness required for radiograph


density
Density of
Minimum Illuminator Brightness
Radiograph
(cd/m2)
1.5
1,000
2.0
3,000
2.5
10,000
3.0
30,000
3.5
100,000

It follows that the upper limit of film density is


determined by the brightness of the available
illuminator. The above values are the minimum
brightness to view film, based on 30 cd/m2
intensity of transmitted light. The standard
suggests that 100 cd/m2 is a more reasonable
value.
The brightness of an illuminator can be checked
with a photographic light meter by following these
steps:

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1. Set the film speed indicator to 100 ASA or 200


ASA
2. Place the sensitive element of the meter close to
the screen of the illuminator
3. Record the exposure in hundredths of a second
against a camera aperture setting of f10, f14.3
or f20
4. Use the table below to relate photographic
exposure time to screen brightness.

Photographic luminosity meter


(click photo to enlarge)

The following table provides information on the


relationship between screen brightness and the
exposure reading obtained using the above
method.

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Relationship between screen brightness and the exposure


reading
Screen brightness
Exposure
(cd/m2)
f number
(seconds)
100 ASA
200 ASA
10
1/100
1,000
2,000
10
1/500
5,000
10,000
10
1/1000
10,000
20,000
14.3
1/100
2,000
4,000
14.3
1/500
10,000
20,000
14.3
1/1000
20,000
40,000
20
1/100
3,000
6,000
20
1/500
15,000
30,000
20
1/1000
30,000
60,000
20
1/1500
45,000
90,000
20
1/2000
60,000
120,000

This illuminator must be used in a darkened room


There should be only sufficient background light to
enable recording of details on the viewing record.
Too much background lighting may cause
reflections off the film, effectively reducing contrast
and making interpretation more difficult.
Furthermore, the room used as a viewing room
should be quiet and comfortable to avoid
unnecessary distractions.
Radiographs are veiwed for short intervals
This practice is followed to prevent eye strain and
maximise your concentration level. Although each
interpreter will differ, it is recommended that no

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more than five minutes be spent viewing a


radiograph.
Upon commencing a viewing session, the
interpreter must allow sufficient time for his or her
eyes to become adjusted to the darkened
conditions.
Radiographs should be dried before viewing
Wash water on a radiograph has a significant effect
on sensitivity and increases the difficulty of
detecting fine discontinuities. Be sure to dry you
radiographs before viewing.
Check the quality of the radiograph
Before inspection proper can begin, the radiograph
is checked for processing and handling artefacts
and film density, and the IQI sensitivity is
determined. The person interpreting the radiograph
must be sure that the quality of the radiograph is
adequate, and is in accordance with the
requirements of the code or specification, so that
relevant discontinuities can be detected. The
results of these preliminary checks and
measurements should be recorded on the viewing
report.
Assessing for discontinuities is done methodically
You must resist the temptation to simply spot the
defect. A thorough examination is achieved by
carefully scanning the radiograph from one side to
the other, concentrating on each area of the
radiograph as it is viewed. To do this properly, the
interpreter must understand:

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the product that has been radiographed,


including the type of material
the method of fabrication or casting
the type of discontinuities that are likely to occur
how the radiograph was produced.

The other very important criteria that the


interpreter must clearly understand are the
acceptance/rejection criteria for the area or part
being inspected. This information is generally
contained in specifications or codes, or sometimes
in the customers own specification for the
component.
Radiographic interpretation is a skill that can only
be mastered through knowledge of the material
being tested and experience. Many indications
produce subtle low contrast or unsharp images that
can be difficult to interpret. Material knowledge and
experience are the most valuable aids that an
interpreter can draw on.

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Interpreting Weld Discontinuities


Weld discontinuities are designated by standard
abbreviations
There is a standard set of abbreviations used to
describe most weld discontinuities. These
abbreviations are listed in AS4749-2001, NonDestructive Testing Terminology of and
Abbreviations for Fusion Weld Imperfections as
Revealed by Radiography. Description of each
discontinuity are provided, plus prints taken from
an actual radiograph or a sketch to describe
discontinuity. You are strongly advised to obtain a
copy of this standard from Standards Australia if
you are at all involved with weld radiography.
Weld imperfections are either surface or internal
There are two classes of weld discontinuities:

surface imperfections
internal imperfections.

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Standard abbreviations for weld discontinuities are


listed in the tables below.
Abbreviations for surface imperfections
Imperfection
Code
Excessive penetration
SXP
Incompletely filled groove
SGI
Undercut
SUC
Grinding mark
SMG
Hammer mark
SMH
Surface pitting
SPT
Linear misalignment
HiLo
Root Concavity
SRC
Shrinkage groove
SGS
Excessive dressing
SED
Tool mark
SMT
Torn surface
STS
Spatter
SSP
Abbreviations for internal imperfections
Imperfection
Code
Longitudinal crack
KL
Crater crack
KC
Lack of root fusion
LR
Incomplete root penetration
LP
Linear inclusion
IL
Tungsten inclusion
IT
Gas pore
GP
Crater pipe
CP
Linear porosity
PL
Uniform porosity
PU
Diffraction mottling
DM
Transverse crack
KT
Lack of side fusion
LS
Lack of inter-run fusion
LI

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Inclusion
Oxide inclusion
Copper inclusion
Worm hole
Localised porosity
Elongated cavity
Burn through

IN
IO
IC
WH
PG
EC
BT

All radiographs should be interpreted to determine


their compliance with a code or standard
A typical standard is Australian Standard AS4037
which includes acceptance levels for various weld
imperfections in pressure vessels. It states:

No planar imperfections (e.g. crack or lack


fusion defects) are allowed.
In main butt welds (class 1 vessels), slag
inclusions can have:
o a maximum length of 6 mm for
thicknesses of up to 18 mm
o a maximum length of T/3 for thicknesses
between 18 mm and 60 mm
o a maximum length of 20 mm for
thicknesses greater than 60 mm.

Some standards include porosity charts which are


typically illustrations to provide a visual comparison
to help determine the acceptablility of porosity
discontinuities. Porosity imperfections may be
classified as:

isolated pores (maximum diameter 0.3T but not


greater than 6 mm)
uniform porosity
clustered porosity
linear porosity.

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Surface Discontinuities for Welds

The following images have been provided courtesy of


Agfa Gevaert Pty Ltd. These reproductions of radiographs
show various weld defects as they might appear in a
radiograph.
Excessive penetration (SXP)
Weld metal protruding through the root of the
weld. Appears as a light continuous or more often
intermittent, irregularly shaped band within the
image of the weld.

Radiograph of Excessive Penetration (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Root concavity (SRC)


Sometimes called suck-back. A shallow groove in
the root of a butt weld. Appears as a dark area
along the centre of the weld.

Radiograph of Internal (Root) Concavity (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Incompletely filled groove (SGI)


A continuous or intermittent channel at the top
surface of the weld and running along the length of
the weld. It may be at the centre of the weld,
where it is sometimes known as external concavity
or insufficient fill, or may be at the edges of the
weld where it is known as incompletely filled
groove.

Radiograph of External Concavity (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

Incompletely Filled Groove

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Undercut (SUC)
An irregular groove at the top edge (toe) of a weld
caused by contraction of the weld metal, or by
burning away (gouging) of the parent metal.
Appears as a dark irregular band along the top
edge of the weld metal.
Radiograph of External Undercut (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Undercut can also occur at the root of the weld,


although this can easily be confused with lack of
root fusion.

Radiograph of Internal Undercut (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Linear misalignment (HiLo)


A planar misalignment of the two sides being
welded. May appear as light and dark sides.

Radiograph of Linear Misaligment (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

Linear misalignment may have a linear indication


associated with it caused by the protruding edge of
one of the plates. This has the appearance of a lack
of penetration indication.

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Radiograph of Lack of Penetration (Courtesy Agfa NDT)


(click radiograph to enlarge)

Internal Discontinuities for Welds


The following images have been provided courtesy
of Agfa Gevaert Pty Ltd. These reproductions of
radiographs show various weld defects as they
might appear in a radiograph.
Longitudinal Crack (KL)
Cracks appear a fine dark lines, mostly jagged
edges, sometimes discontinuous. Its detection is
dependent on its orientation relative to the
radiation beam.
Radiograph of Longitudinal Crack (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Longitudinal root crack (KL)


This form of crack occurs mostly in the parent
metal adjacent to the root run of the weld. It
appears as a fine dark line, mostly jagged edges,
sometimes discontinuous. Its detection is
dependent on its orientation relative to the
radiation beam.
Radiograph of Longitudinal Root Crack (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Transverse Crack (KT)


A transverse crack runs across the weld bead and
sometimes into the parent metal. It appears as a
fine dark line, mostly jagged edges, sometimes
discontinuous. Its detection is dependent on its
orientation relative to the radiation beam.
Radiograph of Transverse Crack (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Lack of side fusion (LS)


A lack of union between the weld metal and the
parent metal at the side of a weld. Its image
appears as a straight dark line or band, depending
on the orientation of the beam of radiation. Its
detection depends on its orientation relative to the
beam orientation, and sometimes requires an
additional exposure with the beam aligned parallel
to the weld preparation face.

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Radiograph of Lack of Side Wall Fusion Crack (Courtesy


Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Lack of inter-run fusion (LI)


A lack of union between adjacent weld runs in a
multi-run weld. It appears as a faint dark line with
sharply defined edges.
Radiograph of Lack of Inter-run Fusion (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Lack of root fusion (LR)


A lack of union of the weld metal with the parent
metal at the root of a weld. Appears as a straight
line or band at one or both edges of the weld root
image.
Lack of Root Fusion

Incomplete root penetration (LP)


Failure of the weld metal to extend into the root
area of a joint. Appears as a dark continuous or
intermittent band with mostly straight edges. In
close square butt joints it may appear as a
continuous or broken line. There is often a line of
fine porosity associated with this defect.
Radiograph of Incomplete Root Penetration (Courtesy Agfa
NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Inclusion (IN)
Slag or other foreign matter trapped between weld
runds or between the weld and the parent metal.
Appears as mostly irregular shapes.
Radiograph of Inclusion (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Linear inclusion (IL)


Also known as a slag line. Caused by lines of slag
trapped, generally between the weld metal and
parent metal, in a multi-run weld. Appears as one
or more dark bands, mostly with irregular edges,
running along a weld.
Radiograph of Linear Inclusion (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Tungsten inclusion (IT)


An inclusion of tungsten from a tungsten electrode
used in the gas tungsten arc (GTAW) process.
Appears as small white sharp edged images in the
weld metal due to the fact that tungsten is much
denser than steel or aluminium.
Radiograph of Tungsten Inclusion (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Gas pore (GP)


A mostly spherical gas hole in the weld metal.
Appears as one or more circular dark images.
Radiograph of Scattered Porosity (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Linear porosity (PL)


A line of mostly small round images aligned along a
weld. Note that this can sometimes indicate a lack
of fusion defect which may not be immediately
obvious.
Radiograph of Root Pass Aligned Porosity (Courtesy Agfa
NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Localised porosity (PG)


A group of gas pores confined to a small area of a
weld. Appears as a cluster of small round
indications. These discontinuities are sometimes
elongated, where they are referred to as worm
holes.
Radiograph of Cluster Porosity (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Burn through (BT)


A localised collapse of the weld pool leaving a hole
in the bottom of the weld run. Appears as an
irregularly shaped globular dark area.
Radiograph of Burn Through (Courtesy Agfa NDT)
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Interpreting Casting Discontinuities


In the case of castings, there are two very different
systems for interpretation:
1. The American (ASTM) system.
2. Australian standard AS3507
The American (ASTM) system
This system relies on reference radiographs.
These are sets of radiographs showing particular
casting discontinuities at up to five levels of
severity. A typical standard is ASTM E446
Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings
up to two inches (51 mm) in Thickness. This
standard contains a number of reference
radiographs showing particular casting
discontinuities at different levels of severity. These
discontinuities are categorised as gas porosity,
shrinkage etc.
The radiographs are each 5" 7" (127 mm 178
mm) and are used to compare with 5" 7" areas of
radiographs of actual castings. Acceptance is based
on perceived severity of the particular
discontinuity. The standards states where a
particular severity is called for, and the radiograph
being evaluated is equal to or better than the
reference radiograph, the casting shall be indicated
as being radiographically acceptable. If the
radiograph shows a discontinuity of greater severity
than the reference radiograph, the casting shall be
rejected .

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The Australian standard


The Australian standard for radiography of steel
castings is AS3507, Non-destructive testing
Radiography of steel castings and classification of
quality. This standard adopts a totally different
approach in that discontinuities must be quantified
(measured) and the acceptance or otherwise of the
casting is based on these measurements.
For gas porosity, inclusions and shrinkage
discontinuities, the standard defines a viewing area
that varies from 30 mm 30 mm to 100 mm
100 mm, depending on casting thickness.
For gas defects (porosity) and inclusions, the
standard assigns a severity index depending on
the diameter or size of the discontinuity. The total
of the severity indexes in the viewing area must
not exceed a particular limit, determined by the
class of the casting.

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Example:
The following porosity discontinuities were detected
in the viewing area for a particular casting:
Porosity discontinuities detected for a particular casting
Number of
Total of
Discontinuity Severity
Similar
Individual
Diameter
Index
Size
Severity
d (mm)
Number
Discontinuities Indexes
d<2
1
5
5
2<d<4
2
6
12
10 < d < 15
12
1
12
Total of severity index numbers:
29
If the specification for maximum severity indexes
for this casting is 29 or greater, the casting is
radiographically acceptable. If the specification for
maximum severity indexes for the casting is less
than 29, the casting is not acceptable.
For shrinkage discontinuities, the maximum length
and/or width of the discontinuity is measured. The
total length or area of shrinkage within the viewing
area must not exceed limits set for the particular
class of casting. If two or more areas are detected
in the viewing area, the lengths or areas are
summed.
Example:
Two areas of macro-shrinkage are detected in the
viewing area of a casting, one measuring 100 mm
long and one measuring 20 mm long. Total length
is 120 mm. If the maximum length allowed is 120
mm or greater, the casting is radiographically
acceptable, otherwise the casting is not acceptable.

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Casting Discontinuities
The following images show various casting
discontinuities as they might appear in a
radiograph.
Micro-porosity
This is a very fine, but often extensive,
discontinuity caused by evolution of gas whereby
very fine gas pores form around grain boundaries
or between dendrite arms. They present a
somewhat mottled effect in a radiograph.
Mainly effects non-ferrous metals such as
magnesium and aluminium.
Micro-porosity
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Pin-hole porosity
Small rounded cavities, typically less than 1 mm
diameter, caused by evolution of gas during
solidification of the molten metal. Sometimes
occurs just below the surface of the casting, where
it is known as sub-cutaneous pinhole porosity.
Appears in a radiograph as widely distributed small
dark rounded images.

Pin-hole Porosity
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Gas holes
Rounded cavities generally greater than 1 mm
diameter - they can be quite large - and often more
randomly dispersed through the casting due to gas
evolved from the metal during solidification or from
the mould or core. Appears as dark areas with a
smooth outline which may be circular or elongated
in shape.
Gas Holes
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Wormholes
Tube-like cavities similar to gas holes, generally
located just below the surface of a casting. Caused
by progressive expansion of entrapped superheated
steam from moisture in a mould or core.
Wormholes
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Airlock
A large cavity formed by air entrapped in the mould
during pouring of the metal. Appears as a generally
smooth and often irregularly shaped image.
Airlock
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Shrinkage cavity
A discrete cavity caused by contraction of the metal
during solidification. Generally rougher edges to the
image and an irregular - often tapered - shape.
Shrinkage cavity in casting feeder head
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Filamentary shrinkage
A fine to course form of shrinkage in which the
cavities are branching, interconnected and
extensive. Appears as a network of branched
irregular shapes.
Filamentary Shrinkage
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Hot tear
A discontinuity caused by fracture of the metal
during its contraction as it cools during the early
stages after solidification. Appears as one or more
dark, jagged, lines. Hot tears tend to be a planar
type of discontinuity, so detection by radiography
may depend on the plane of the crack relative to
the direction of the radiation beam.
Hot Tear
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Stress crack
A sharper, more well defined fracture of the metal
that forms generally during the later stages of
cooling from solidification. May appear as a slightly
jagged or a smooth dark line. They can also form
when the casting is cold or during subsequent heat
treatment. Again, hot tears tend to be planar so
detection will depend upon the viewpoint of the
radiograph.
Stress Crack
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Cold shut
A discontinuity formed when a stream of liquid
metal, as it flows through a mould, fails to fuse
with other metal in the mould. Mostly a surface
discontinuity, radiographically it appears as a
smooth dark line. Being a basically planar type of
discontinuity, its detection by radiography may
depend on the plane of the discontinuity relative to
the direction of the radiation beam. It is often
detected visually.
Cold Shut
(click radiograph to enlarge)

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Unfused chaplet/unfused chill


Chaplets and chills are metal inserts placed in a
mould for various casting purposes. If the liquid
metal fails to fuse to these devices, a planar
discontinuity may result. The presence of rust on
the chaplet or chill will generally give rise to
porosity around the chaplet or chill.
Unfused Chaplet

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Inclusion
Sand from a mould, and slag or dross from a ladle
of metal, can be washed into the stream of metal
as it enters and flows through a mould, and
become trapped in the metal as it solidifies. It may
appear as a light or dark irregularly shaped image
in a radiograph, and may be difficult to distinguish
from a void. However, the outcome is the same this discontinuity is generally not acceptable.
Inclusion
(click radiograph to enlarge)

Segregation
This discontinuity comprises particular components
of the metal composition that have different
solidification temperatures and so tend to be driven
by solidifying metal and segregate at particular
areas, particularly the central zones, of a casting.
May appear as light or dark areas in a radiograph,
or even as banded light and dark areas.

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Reporting Discontinuities
All discontinuities are recorded on the viewing
report
In the case of welds, there is an accepted
convention for the recording of discontinuity
indications. This is described in AS4749, NonDestructive Testing - Terminology of and
Abbreviations for Fusion Weld Imperfections as
Revealed by Radiography. The code comprises of:

a number to indicate the distance from the


horizontal of vertical distance (mm) of the start
of the discontinuity from the reference mark of
the lowest number on the radiograph
letters, using standard abbreviations, to denote
the type of discontinuity
a number to denote the length of the
discontinuity (mm) over which the particular
imperfection extends
each code is separated by a dash ( - ).

Hence 48-PL-180 indicates linear porosity (PL),


starting 48 mm from the reference mark and
extending over a distance of 180 mm.
The outcome of the viewing and interpretation is
recorded in a report
A typical viewing report should include the
following information:

name of the test laboratory


identification of the component
product standard
details of the material tested, including welding
processes if relevant

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the number of the test method standard (eg.


AS2177.1/ AS3507) and designation of test
method
details of the area(s) tested
details of surface imperfections and other
artefacts noted in the radiograph
type of IQI and calculated sensitivity
film density range achieved
a statement of compliance or non-compliance
with the acceptance criteria
date and place of testing
identification of the radiographer and interpreter
report number and date.

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Summary The Basic Steps in Interpreting a Radiograph


1. Verify that the radiograph corresponds to the
part being examined.
2. Verify that radiographic coverage is complete for
the particular part.
3. Verify that the image quality indicators are
correct and properly used and that the proper
image quality level was achieved.
4. Verify that the film densities meet requirements
of the standard.
5. Check for film artifacts and indications of surface
phenomena and record any on the viewing
record
6. Retake any indications that cannot be resolved
as an artifact or discontinuity.
7. Visually check the surfaces of the part for
surface discontinuities or contours that match
the appearance of the discontinuity on the
radiograph.
8. Evaluate the internal discontinuities to the
applicable standards and accept, reject, or hold
the part for further review. Record as complies
or does not comply on the viewing record.
9. Mark the locations on the part of any noncomplying discontinuities.
10.
Prepare a test report indicating the nature,
extent, and disposition of all significant
indications found on the radiographs.

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Check Your Progress


1. Radiographic viewing should be carried out in a:
a. totally darkened room
b. brightly lit room
c. darkened room with sufficient indirect
background light to enable details to be
recorded
Answer: c - Radiographic viewing should be
carried out in adarkened room with sufficient
indirect background list to enable details to be
recorded.
2. The light intensity through a radiographic film
should be:
a. at least 30 cd/m2
b. at least 10 cd/m2
c. at least 100 cd/m2
d. bright enough to see the image of the IQI
Answer: a - Light intensity through a
radiographic film should be at least 30 cd/m2
3. The minimum brightness of an illuminator to
view radiographic film of density 2.0 is:
a. 30 cd/m2
b. 100 cd/m2
c. 1,000 cd/m2
d. 3,000 cd/m2
Answer: d - To view radiographic film of density
2.0, an illuminator of light intensity 3,000 cd/m2
is needed.
4. Radiographs should be viewed:
a. immediately after the development phase
b. immediately after the fixing phase
c. immediately after the washing phase

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d. after the drying phase


Answer: d - Radiographs should be dried before
viewing.
5. When viewing a weld, a linear inclusion (code
IL) located 54 mm from the left hand indicator
and extending over a length 100 mm should be
recorded on the viewing record as:
a. IL-54-100
b. 54-IL-154
c. 54-IL-100
d. IL-54-154
Answer: c - 54-IL-100
6. A product code for a weld states linear
inclusions maximum length T/3 in any 10T
length. An inclusion measuring 15 mm long in a
50 mm thick weld should be classified as:
a. complies
b. does not comply
c. refer to customer
Answer: a - complies
7. A casting shows 3 gas pores severity index = 1,
5 gas pores severity index = 3, and 2 gas pores
severity index = 8. If the casting is 60 mm thick
class 3, the maximum severity index for gas
holes is 33. The above casting should be
classified as:
a. complies
b. does not comply
c. refer to customer
Answer: b - does not comply

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8. Name five items that must be included on a


viewing report.
Answer:
Choose any five of the following:
name of the test laboratory
identification of the component; product
standard
details of the material tested (including
welding processes if relevant)
the number of the test method standard (eg.
AS2177.1/ AS3507) and designation of test
method
details of the area(s) tested
details of surface imperfections and other
artefacts noted in the radiograph
type of IQI and calculated sensitivity
film density range achieved
a statement of compliance or non-compliance
with the acceptance criteria
date and place of testing
identification of the radiographer and
interpreter
report number and date.

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In this task, you will identifiy some defects from


radiographs.
1. What are the weld defects present in the
following radiographs? You may click on each
radiograph to examine it more closely.
Radiographs of weld defects
(click radiograph to enlarge)

a.

b.

c.

d.

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e.
2. What are the casting defects present in the
following casting radiographs? You may click on
each radiograph to examine it more closely.
Radiographs of casting defects
(click radiograph to enlarge)
a.

b.

c.

d.

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e.

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Radiographic Testing Glossary


Absorption
The reduction in intensity of a beam of ionising radiation due to its
passage through a material that blocks some of the incident radiation.
Activity
The number of atoms in a radioisotope that are decaying each second.
Anode
The positively charged electrode of an X-ray tube which contains the
target and from which X-rays are emitted.
Attenuation
See absorption.
Autoradiography
Production of an image by the photographic recording of natural
radiation.
Back scatter
That part of the scattered X-radiation or gamma radiation which is
transmitted at an angle of more than 90 degrees in relation to the
direction of the incident beam.
Beam angle
The angle between the central axis of the radiation beam and the
plane of the radiographic film.
Beam divergence
The angle of the beam of radiation as it emerges from the X-ray tube
or gamma ray source.
Becquerel
The unit of activity of a radioisotope. An isotope has an activity of one
(1) becquerel if one (1) atom is decaying each second. Its unit symbol
is Bq.
Betatron

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A toroidal device in which electrons are accelerated using


electromagnets to generate high energy X-rays.
Cassette
A light-tight container for holding a radiographic film during exposure.
Cathode
The negatively charged electrode of an X-ray tube carrying the
filament and focusing cup and from which electrons are discharged
towards the target contained in the anode electrode.
Characteristic curve
A curve showing the relation between the logarithm to the base 10 of
the relative exposure and the photographic density of the film.
Characteristic radiation
X-radiation consisting of discrete wavelengths which are characteristic
of the emitting material.
Collimation
The production of a near parallel beam of radiation by use of a slit or
aperture in a shielding material.
Constant potential circuit
A circuit which is arranged to supply a substantially constant voltage
across an X-ray tube.
Coulomb per kilogram
The metric unit of exposure. Its unit symbol is C/kg.
Dark adaptation
The process by which the eye adapts itself to a lower level of ambient
illumination when entering a darkened room.
Decay curve
The activity of a radioactive source, measured in becquerels, plotted
against time.
Defect sensitivity

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The minimum size of a discontinuity, considered to be a defect, which


can be detected under specified conditions.
Densitometer
An instrument for measuring light transmission density of film.
Diffraction
The phenomenon of the preferential scattering of a beam of radiation
in certain directions when passing through a course grained absorber.
Diffraction mottle
A mottle superimposed on a radiographic image due to the diffraction
of incident radiation.
Dose
A general term used to denote a quantity of radiation absorbed by
living tissue. See also Gray.
Dose equivalent
A general term used to denote the biological effect of radiation
absorbed by living tissue. See also Sievert.
Dose rate
The rate at which radiation is delivered or received.
Dose rate meter
See survey meter.
Dosimeter
A monitoring device used for measuring or evaluating the absorbed
dose or exposure. It is normally worn by an operator to detect and
record the radiation received.
Effective source size
The apparent dimensions as viewed along the beam axis of that
portion of the source from which ionising radiation is emitted.
Electromagnetic spectrum
The broad range of wavelengths of radiation extending from very short
wavelength cosmic rays to the very long wavelength radio waves that

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travel in straight lines and are characterised by a wave motion, and


travel through a vacuum at the speed of light.
Electron
Very small negatively charged particles that orbit around the nucleus
of an atom.
Equilibrium half value layer
The greatest thickness of materials required to reduce the intensity of
a polychromatic beam of radiation by a factor of two.
Exposure chart
A chart on which is plotted one or more curves which indicate
exposures for specified source or X-ray tube, product, film, film
density and source to film distance for various product thicknesses.
Exposure latitude
The ability of a film to accommodate variations in density occurring as
a result of differences in thickness of the test object.
Filament
The source of electrons in a Coolidge type X-ray tube.
Film badge
A film contained within a special holder worn by personnel to record
the radiation received over a period of time. Largely replaced by the
thermo-luminescent detector.
Film base
A flexible transparent or translucent support for the photographic
emulsion.
Film contrast
The property of a film to record differences in density in relation to
radiation intensity. It is dependent on the slope of the film's
characteristic curve at the particular film density.
Film processing
The operations necessary to transform a latent image into a
permanent visible image.

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Film speed
A measure of the exposure required to produce a given density on a
photographic emulsion under a particular set of conditions.
Film unsharpness
See inherent unsharpness.
Filter
A layer of absorptive material interposed in the path of radiation in
order to reduce the intensity of longer wavelength radiation.
Fixing
The chemical removal of unexposed silver halides from emulsion after
development.
Flash radiography
Radiography for the purpose of examining transient effects, such as
moving objects in which the radiation intensity is relatively high and
the exposure time is relatively short.
Fluorescent screen
A material which fluoresces in the visible region of the spectrum under
the action of X-rays or gamma rays.
Fluorometallic screen
A support base to which is attached thin lead foil coated with a
fluorescent material.
Focal spot
The area on the surface of the anode of an X-ray tube on which the
electron stream impinges and from which the primary beam of X-rays
is emitted.
Fog
A general term used to denote any increase in the density of a film
arising from unwanted reduction of the silver halide during storage,
use or processing.
Full-wave rectification

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Rectification which reverses the negative half-cycle of an alternating


supply allowing current to flow in only one direction during both half
cycles of an alternating supply.
Gamma radiation
See gamma ray.
Gamma radiography
Radiography using a gamma ray source.
Gamma ray
Electromagnetic radiation emitted in the process of nuclear decay.
There are also other nuclear processes that can give rise to gamma
radiation.
Gamma ray source
A quantity of matter emitting gamma-radiation which is suitable for
radiography (see sealed source).
Geometric unsharpness
Unsharpness caused by penumbra geometrically related to a finite
source size and source to film distance
Gradient
The slope of a characteristic film curve at a specified density. It is
represented by the symbol Gd.
Graininess
A visual effect due to the random distribution of groups of silver grains
in the fixed emulsion layer.
Gray
The SI unit of absorbed dose of ionising radiation, equal to the joule
per kilogram (J/ kg). Its unit symbol is Gy.
Half-life
The time taken for a radioisotope to decay to one half of its original
activity.
Half value layer

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See half value thickness.


Half value thickness
The thickness of an absorber that will reduce the intensity of ionising
radiation to one half of its incident value
half-life The time required for the activity of a radio-nuclide to be
halved.
Half-wave rectification
Rectification which allows current to flow only during alternate half
cycles of an alternating supply
Hard radiation
Radiation of relatively high penetrating power.
Hardener
A substance used to harden the gelatine in the emulsion on a
radiographic film during fixing.
Heel effect
Reduction in intensity in X-radiation at the anode end of the radiation
beam
HVL
The abbreviation for "half value layer". See also half value thickness.
Image definition
The sharpness of an image details in a radiograph.
Image intensifier
A device used improve the contrast of a fluoroscopic image and to
render variations in X-ray intensity directly visible.
Image quality indicator
A device used for assessing the quality of a radiograph.
Inherent filtration
The filtration of an X-ray beam by any parts of the tube or tube shield.
Inherent unsharpness

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Image spread caused by electron scatter through emulsion grains in


the radiograph.
Initial half value layer
That thickness of material required to reduce the initial intensity of
radiation passing through an absorber by a factor of two.
Intensifying factor
The ratio of the exposure time required without intensifying screens to
that when screens are used.
Intensifying screen
A layer of material, which, when placed in close contact with a
photographic emulsion, adds to the effect of the radiation on the film
by reducing the exposure time.
Ionisation
A loss or gain of electrons from an atom, resulting in the formation of
a positive or negative ion.
Ionising radiation
Radiation which produces ions when it passes through matter.
IQI
See image quality indicator.
IQI sensitivity
The sensitivity of a radiograph quantified in terms of the smallest IQI
element seen on the radiograph.
Isotope camera
A device for housing radioisotopes which provides protection against
radiation and permits controlled exposure of radiation. Also referred to
as an "isotope container".
Latent image
A change produced in the emulsion of a film, paper or plate by
exposure to radiation and capable of being converted into a visible
image by development.
Linear accelerator

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A straight-line particle accelerator used for the production of high


energy X-rays.
Mask
A material used adjacent to a product during radiography to reduce
the effect of scattered radiation, and/or minimize the effect on section
differences on radiographic exposure.
Masking
The application of material which limits the area of irradiation to the
region undergoing radiographic examination.
Metal intensifying screen
An intensifying screen of metal foil (usually lead) which emits
secondary radiation under the influence of X-rays or gamma rays.
Neutron
Particles with zero electric charge located in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron radiography
The use of a beam of neutrons to examine an object by producing a
graphical record or image on sensitized film or on other recording or
indicating media.
Object-to-film distance
The distance from the source side of the test object to the film surface,
i.e. inclusive of object thickness.
Penetrameter
See image quality indicator.
Photographic density
The degree of blackening of a radiographic film expressed as the
logarithm to base 10 of the opacity (blackness) of the film.
Photographic development
The conversion of a latent image into a visible image by a chemical
process.
Quality Factor

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A measure of the relative biological effect of radiation compared to


other types of radiation. Also known as "radiation weighting factor". Xrays and Gamma rays have a quality factor of 1.
Radioactive Decay
Decrease of activity due to radioactive disintegration. Generally
expressed as half life.
Radioactivity
The property of certain atoms to decay and emit particulate and/or
gamma radiation.
Radiograph
A photographic image produced by ionizing radiation on a film or paper
after passing through a material.
Radiographic contrast
The relative density or brightness between adjacent areas on an
illuminated radiograph or a fluorescent screen or video device.
Radiographic definition
A measure of the sharpness of a radiographic image.
Radiographic exposure
The subjection of a recording medium to radiation for the purpose of
producing a latent image. Radiographic exposure is commonly
expressed in terms of milliampere minutes, or gigabequerel minutes.
Radiographic film
A photographic film which is usually coated on both sides with an
emulsion designed for use with X-rays and gamma rays.
Radiographic paper
Photographic type paper suitable for the production of radiographs.
Radiographic viewer
Equipment incorporating a suitable area of diffuse illumination for
viewing radiographs, the brightness of the illuminated area being
appropriate to the density of the radiograph.
Radiography

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The use of radiant energy in the form of X-rays or gamma rays, or


neutrons, for non-destructive testing of opaque objects, to order to
produce graphical records on sensitised film or as electronic or digital
images on video devices, magnetic tape or computer disk.
Radioisotope
An isotope of an atom that undergoes a process of decay with the
emission of ionising radiation.
Reciprocity law
A law which states that, all other conditions remaining constant, the
time of exposure required to produce a given photographic density is
inversely proportional to the intensity of radiation. Also known as the
Bunsen-Roscoe Law.
Rectification
Any method by which a uni-directional voltage can be obtained from
an alternating voltage supply.
Reticulation
A net-like structure appearing in an emulsion of a radiographic film as
a result of buckling caused by difference in temperature between
processing baths, or rinsing water.
Safelight
A source of filtered light of colour or waveband chosen to give
insignificant fogging of a particular film type at intensity levels
necessary for handling and processing films in a dark room.
Salt intensifying screen
An intensifying screen consisting of a substance which fluoresces in
the visible or ultraviolet region of the spectrum under the action of
radiation.
Scattered radiation
Secondary radiation which is emitted in all directions.
Screen unsharpness
Unsharpness caused by the use of intensifying screens or a fluorescent
viewing screen. It may result from the scatter of light by the crystals
of the fluorescent layer and poor contact between screens and films.

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Sealed source
A radioactive source bonded or encapsulated to prevent the escape of
the radioactive material under the conditions of use for which it was
designed.
Sensitivity
The limiting amount of detail which can be seen on a radiograph. It
can also be regarded as the smallest discontinuity which can be
detected under given conditions. It is generally quantified as IQI
sensitivity.
Sensitometric curve
See characteristic curve.
SFD
See source-to-film distance.
Sievert
The SI unit of absorbed radiation dose in biological matter equal to the
absorbed dose in grays multiplied by the quality factor (QF) of the
radiation. Its unit symbol is Sv.
Soft radiation
Radiation of relatively low penetrating power.
Source
The origin of radiation.
Source shift radiography
A method for determining the depth of a discontinuity by the use of
two offset sources.
Source-to-film distance
The distance from the source of primary radiation to a film for a
radiographic exposure.
Specific activity
The activity per unit mass of radio nuclide (see also activity).
Step wedge

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A block of material in the form of a series of steps usually used for the
preparation of exposure charts.
Subject contrast
The difference in radiation intensity between adjacent areas in a test
object arising from differences in attenuation characteristics of those
areas.
Survey meter
A device that provides an instant readout of radiation intensity. They
are compulsory instruments for people working with X-ray and
radioisotope equipment in industrial radiography.
Target
The metal (normally tungsten) insert in the anode of an X-ray tube on
which the electron beam impinges.
Tenth value layer
See tenth value thickness.
Tenth value thickness
The thickness of an absorber that will reduce the intensity of ionising
radiation to one tenth of its incident value.
Thermo-luminescent detector
A solid state device used to record the radiation received by an
operator.
Tomography
The radiography of a predetermined layer of material.
Tube current
The current passing between the cathode and anode during the
operation of an X-ray tube.
Tube voltage
The potential difference between the anode and the cathode of an Xray tube during operation.
TVL

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Abbreviation for tenth value layer. See also tenth value thickness.
Unsharpness
Loss of image definition.
Van de Graaf generator
A high voltage generator for producing X-rays usually with energies of
1 MeV to 4 MeV.
X-radiation
See X-rays.
X-ray film
See radiographic film.
X-ray paper
See radiographic paper.
X-ray tube
An evacuated tube across which a high voltage is applied. Electrons
are accelerated from the cathode to the anode and impact on a target,
producing X-rays.
X-rays
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation originating in the extra-nuclear
part of the atom and having wavelengths much shorter than visible
light.
Xero-radiography
Radiography using a photo-conductive plate instead of radiographic
film or paper that works on the same principles as a photocopier.

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