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INTRODUCTION

The mechanical properties of metals and foundries are influenced by the chemical
composition, production of material, heat treatment, environmental conditions,
heating and cooling rate, and especially the degree of resistance to deformation
generated by forces external and internal to them that they should be constantly.
You must have a high awareness of the extreme conditions in which they work
materials, especially metals, as this is the material in which we capture our
knowledge of design, maintenance, production and construction. This rest is the
best way to understand the steels by tests on experimental specimens.
In general, when undergoes a material to a set of forces occurs both Flex, such as
shear or torque , these efforts involve the emergence of tensions both of traction as
compression. Although engineering is distinguished between the effort of
compression (axial) and compression stress.
Trials practiced for measuring compressive stress are contrary to those applied to
the traction, the direction of the applied force. It has several limitations:

Difficulty of applying a load, concentric or axial, without appearing buckling.

A test-piece of circular cross-section is preferable to other forms.

The test is performed on materials:

Hard.

Semi-hard.

Soft.

Ceramic materials.

TEST OF COMPRESSION AND ITS PROPERTIES TO EVALUATE


Compressive stress is the result of tensions or pressures that exist within a
deformable or medium continuous, solid characterized because it tends to body
volume reduction and a shoulder of the body in particular direction (coefficient of
Poisson).
Compression test consists of determining the properties of a material with a
negative axial situation. Solicitation that tries to compress the test specimen. This
compression module will be attached to a press, which is a device used to
compact. The term comes from the catalan press and linked to exert pressure or
use a force. Hydraulic press, presents a mechanism with compartments that are
implemented by the Pistons and that through different strengths of little and great
intensity, allows other more intense compaction forces
TERMINOLOGY
Concentric load: Load applied to a column or pile which is not symmetrical with
respect to the core, producing a bending moment. Also called strength eccentric.
Shear: Lateral deformation caused by an external force. Also called cutting,
chiselling.
Covalent bond: The covalent bonds are defined as the union that occurs between
2 atoms sharing of 2 or more electrons in its outer layer in order to form a stable
molecule.
Young's modulus: Relationship between unitary fatigue and corresponding
unitary deformation in a material subjected to an effort that is below the limit of
elasticity of the material. Also called coefficient of elasticity, modulus of elasticity,
elastic modulus.
Voltage: Force applied to an elastic body produces it or tends it to produce a
voltage. Also called pulling force.

Drive: Makes different particles that compose a piece, to separate each other,
tending to extend it. For example, when a lamp hung from a string, the string is
subject to a tractive effort, tending to increase their length.
APPLICATIONS
This type of testing is important in applications such as packaging, design of
bridges, buildings and other structures.
By means of the compression test characteristics of the materials can be
determined as modulus of elasticity, determining the supported load and
deformation presented in the used probe.
These properties are decisive for determining the quality of a material, are used as
a basis to audit their characteristics and measurements in large projects.
ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM-E9-89a: Test methods of compression testing of metallic materials at room
temperature. These test methods cover the disruption, signs and the procedure for
testing of axial compression, load of metallic materials at room temperature.
ASTM C-773: Established for high strength ceramic.
ASTM D-695: Test methods standard for compression of rigid plastics, established
for polymers properties.
ASTM C-39: Established for concrete.
REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS FOR PERFORMING THE TEST
Determine the strength of the material: hard, medium-hard, soft and ceramic
materials and deformation of each. In many cases the compression test is easy to
spot depending on the metal, and therefore previous calculations, tables of results
and graphs for satisfactory results should be done.

EXCEPTIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS WHEN PERFORMING THE TEST

We must bear in mind that type of material is the specimen.


The tests are performed in the machine universal AMSLER and

hydraulic press.
The friction between the bridges of trial machine or the support
plates and surfaces of the ends of the test specimen due to lateral

expansion of this.
We see a remarkable difference between the theoretical results

and practical.
We detect that there are three types of dimensions suggested for
the samples, for example: the short are for use in metal
antifriction, medium-sized utility and the long test that determines

the modulus of elasticity.


As the length of the specimen is increased, is a growing trend

towards the bending of the piece.


Although many important mechanical properties of a material can
be determined with this test, they are mainly used to determine
the relationship between the average normal effort and unit
normal deformation in many materials used in engineering, or
metal, ceramic, polymer compounds.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT USED

Figure 1: Micrometer of
Outdoor, 1 in.

Figure 2: 6 in Vernier.

Figure 3: Industrial safety equipment.

Figure 4: 20 ton hydraulic press force.

Figure 5: Hydraulic press plate.

Figure 6: Universal machine.

Figure 7: Plate of universal machine.

DIMENSIONS and shapes of the samples according to the standard ASTM


E9-89a

Figure 8: Norm ASTM E9-89a.

Figure 9: ASTM E9-89a

Figure 10: Dimensions suggested for the samples

THE TEST IS PERFORMED


1. Measures are taken early in the probe, length and diameter, if necessary
take further images, so better to compare outcomes.
2. Familiarization with the machine and test instruments and placed you
attachments corresponding to hold the specimen. Proceed to lower the
machine to place the test piece in the right place, to ensuring that this more
focused as possible to base.
3. Verify that this press holding the press enough, but without great pressure.
4. Starts to the trial, putting pressure on the hydraulic press, taking values every
certain period of time, to observe the longitudinal variations generated.

THEORETICAL BASIS
Shortening (h): As the material is subjected to compression loads suffer
deformation of shortening. The usually cylindrical specimens of flats, thus
shortening are the variation of height.

Where h0 is the calibrated length and hf the length at the end of the trial
Normal effort (): the effort is perpendicular to the area, therefore is called normal
effort. The effort is defined as the intensity of force per unit area. Figure 20 shows
the cross-section nn of a test tube, if the axial force acting on the central axis of
the area (A) efforts is distributed uniformly; the following equation is used to
determine the magnitude of the efforts:

When the material is compressed area tends to expand. If the area is used initial
(ator) of the specimen in the ecuacion16 for the calculation of the effort, the effort is
called nominal effort or conventional compression effort.

Figure 11: Normal efforts on the bar.

Unitary deformation (): in the same way which is determined in the tensile test,
unitary deformation is determined directly by dividing the change in height
(shortening) between the calibrated original height (h o). If it is assumed that unitary
deformation is constant in the calibrated region (h or constant), defined nominal
unitary deformation as:

Real efforts (): as defined in the tensile test, due to the change in the area of the
test piece during the test, determines the actual or true effort considering the
variable area into the equation for the calculation of the effort 16. Thus determines
the real effort on compression:

Where P and Af are the load and actual area, respectively. The area is normally
determined by conservation of volume and is greater than the initial area, because
it is the crushed material.

The force-deflection diagrams unitary for compression and traction, frequently,


have similar forms, but recent compression efforts are much greater than the
traction:

Unitary deflection curve: Curves differ deflection unit for materials in


compression curves of traction. Ductile, like steel, aluminum and copper metals,
are very close to the traction limits of proportionality in compression, and the initial
regions of its tensile and compression unit deflection diagrams are more or less
equal. However, once it begins the creep behaviour is very different. In a tensile
test, the specimen is stretched, can have a necking and eventually fracture.

Figure 12: Bend stress - strain unit.


When the material is compressed, expands to the sides and their shape becomes
like barrel, because the fraction between the specimen and the plates at the ends
avoids the lateral expansion. By increasing the load is flattened and offers a high
resistance to greater contraction, which means that the curve deflection increases
its descent. This characteristic is illustrated in Figure 22. Since in the area cross
real of a specimen tested in compression is greater than the initial area, the actual
effort in a compression test is lower than nominal effort.

Figure 13: Curves stress - strain nominal and real for the compression test.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES


There are advantages and disadvantages of having knowledge about compressive
stress, since considering it helps prevent future failures, delays in production and in
severe cases large economic losses. To avoid these events it is important to have
considered the properties of each material that is occupied in a process or in the
manufacture of something. There are trials of compressive stress which may be
considered the resistances and the calculations necessary to know in that parts is
required each material according to its function. Among the advantages that can be
mentioned about these types of trials are as follows:
Advantages

Prevent stoppages in production because certain material not

resisted the effort of compression during the process.


Having identified that material is suitable according to their
characteristics

for

some

function

in

which

no

effort

of

compression.
The compression tests are not very costly to perform.
Have safety as companies that have their materials standardized
by the corresponding associations, there is a control with respect

to compressive stress.
You have the materials suitable for processes that involved
compressive stress, produces less the possibility of a failure at
these, consequently avoid stoppages, poor production and
unplanned expenses.

Disadvantages
o Having no knowledge of which may lead to compression in materials,
creates the possibility of an unexpected failure during your time.
o Compressive stress generated expenses by changes of materials.
o Not controlled materials, compressive stress generate accidents
because of it.
CONCLUSIONS

To put an end to this research it is important to have controlled the events that
happen to the types of metals that are in use, in this case the compressive stress
have controlled. The use of rules of associations dedicated to the study of the
characteristics of the metals is a great way of testing with metals and using that
have the understanding of what form is most appropriate for use. Finally, it is
advisable to follow the procedures for the use of metals which can cause failures
not be occupied properly and in cases more serious accidents in staff by low
resistance that could have a material before an event such as compressive stress
that occurs in an area where it is circled by people.

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