Social Media - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia PDF

4/5/2015
SocialmediaWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Socialmedia
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Socialmediaarecomputermediatedtoolsthatallowpeopleto
create,shareorexchangeinformation,ideas,andpictures/videosin
virtualcommunitiesandnetworks.Socialmediaisdefinedas"a
groupofInternetbasedapplicationsthatbuildontheideological
andtechnologicalfoundationsofWeb2.0,andthatallowthe
creationandexchangeofusergeneratedcontent."[1]Furthermore,
socialmediadependonmobileandwebbasedtechnologiesto
createhighlyinteractiveplatformsthroughwhichindividualsand
communitiesshare,cocreate,discuss,andmodifyusergenerated
content.Theyintroducesubstantialandpervasivechangesto
communicationbetweenbusinesses,organizations,communities,and
individuals.[2]Thesechangesarethefocusoftheemergingfieldof
technoselfstudies.Socialmediaaredifferentfromtraditionalor
Diagramdepictingthemanydifferent
industrialmediainmanyways,includingquality,[3]reach,
typesofsocialmedia
frequency,usability,immediacy,andpermanence.Socialmedia
operatesinadialogictransmissionsystem,(manysourcestomany
receivers).[4]Thisisincontrasttotraditionalmediathatoperatesunderamonologictransmissionmodel
(onesourcetomanyreceivers).
Therearemanyeffectsthatstemfrominternetusage.AccordingtoNielsen,internetuserscontinueto
spendmoretimewithsocialmediasitesthananyothertypeofsite.Atthesametime,thetotaltimespent
onsocialmediaintheU.S.acrossPCandmobiledevicesincreasedby99percentto121billionminutesin
July2012comparedto66billionminutesinJuly2011.[5]Forcontentcontributors,thebenefitsof
participatinginsocialmediahavegonebeyondsimplysocialsharingtobuildingreputationandbringingin
careeropportunitiesandmonetaryincome,asdiscussedinTang,Gu,andWhinston(2012).[6]
Contents
1Classificationofsocialmedia
1.1Virality
1.2Mobilesocialmediaandbusinesspotential
2Distinctionfromothermedia
3Managingsocialmedia
3.1Honeycombframeworkofsocialmedia
4Building"socialauthority"andvanity
5Socialmediamining
6Globalusage
6.1Effectsofusingsocialmediafornewspurposes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media
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6.2Historyandmemoryeffects
7Criticismsofsocialmedia
7.1Disparity
7.2Trustworthiness
7.3Concentration
7.4Fewrealimpacts
7.5Reliability
7.6Ownershipofsocialmediacontent
7.7Privacy
7.8Effectsoninterpersonalrelationships
8Positiveeffectsofsocialmedia
9Employmentimpact
10CollegeAdmission
11Politicaleffectsofsocialmedia
12SocialMediaandtheLGBTQCommunity
13Patents
14Socialmediaintheclassroom
14.1Wikipedia
14.2Facebookandtheclassroom
14.3Twitter
14.4YouTube
15Advertisingonsocialmedia
15.1Tweetscontainingadvertising
16Censorshipincidents
17Seealso
18Notesandreferences
19Furtherreading
20Externallinks
Classificationofsocialmedia
Socialmediatechnologiestakeonmanydifferentformsincludingblogs,businessnetworks,enterprise
socialnetworks,forums,microblogs,photosharing,products/servicesreview,socialbookmarking,social
gaming,socialnetworks,videosharingandvirtualworlds.[7]
Virality
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Somesocialmediasiteshavegreaterviralitydefinedasagreaterlikelihood
thatuserswillresharecontentposted(byanotheruser)totheirsocialnetwork.
Manysocialmediasitesprovidespecificfunctionalitytohelpusersreshare
contentforexample,Twitter'sretweetbutton,PinterestpinorTumblr'sreblog
function.Businessesmayhaveaparticularinterestinviralmarketing
nonprofitorganisationsandactivistsmayhavesimilarinterestsinvirality.
Facebookanexample
ofasocialmediasite
hadoveronebillion
activeusersinOctober
2012.
Mobilesocialmediareferstothecombinationofmobiledevicesandsocial
media.Thisisagroupofmobilemarketingapplicationsthatallowthecreation
andexchangeofusergeneratedcontent.[8]Duetothefactthatmobilesocial
mediarunonmobiledevices,theydifferfromtraditionalsocialmediabyincorporatingnewfactorssuchas
thecurrentlocationoftheuser(locationsensitivity)orthetimedelaybetweensendingandreceiving
messages(timesensitivity).AccordingtoAndreasKaplan,mobilesocialmediaapplicationscanbe
differentiatedamongfourtypes:[8]
1. Spacetimers(locationandtimesensitive):Exchangeofmessageswithrelevanceforonespecific
locationatonespecificpointintime(e.g.FacebookPlacesFoursquare)
2. Spacelocators(onlylocationsensitive):Exchangeofmessages,withrelevanceforonespecific
location,whicharetaggedtoacertainplaceandreadlaterbyothers(e.g.YelpQype)
3. Quicktimers(onlytimesensitive):Transferoftraditionalsocialmediaapplicationstomobiledevices
toincreaseimmediacy(e.g.postingTwittermessagesorFacebookstatusupdates)
4. Slowtimers(neitherlocation,nortimesensitive):Transferoftraditionalsocialmediaapplicationsto
mobiledevices(e.g.watchingaYouTubevideoorreadingaWikipediaentry)
Mobilesocialmediaandbusinesspotential
Althoughtraditionalsocialmediaofferavarietyofopportunitiesforcompaniesinawiderangeofbusiness
sectors,EconomicSectormobilesocialmediamakesuseofthelocationandtimesensitivityaspectsofit
inordertoengageintomarketingresearch,communication,salespromotions/discounts,andrelationship
development/loyaltyprograms.[8]
Marketingresearch:Mobilesocialmediaapplicationsofferdataaboutofflineconsumermovements
atalevelofdetailheretoforelimitedtoonlinecompanies.Anyfirmcannowknowtheexacttimeat
whichacustomerenteredoneofitsoutlets,aswellascommentsmadeduringthevisit.[8]
Communication:Mobilesocialmediacommunicationtakestwoforms,thefirstofwhichiscompany
toconsumerinwhichacompanymayestablishaconnectiontoaconsumerbasedonitslocationand
providereviewsaboutlocationsnearby.Thesecondtypeofcommunicationisusergenerated
content.Forexample,McDonald'soffered$5and$10giftcardsto100usersrandomlyselected
amongthosecheckinginatoneoftherestaurants.Thispromotionincreasedcheckinsby33%(from
2,146to2,865),resultedinover50articlesandblogposts,andpromptedseveralhundredthousand
newsfeedsandTwittermessages.[8]
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Salespromotionsanddiscounts:Althoughinthepastcustomershadtouseprintedcoupons,mobile
socialmediaallowscompaniestotailorpromotionstospecificusersatspecifictimes.Forexample,
whenlaunchingitsCaliforniaCancunservice,VirginAmericaoffereduserswhocheckedinthrough
LooptatoneofthreedesignatedBorderGrilltacotrucksinSanFranciscoandLosAngelesbetween
11amand3pmonAugust31,2010,twotacosfor$1andtwoflightstoMexicoforthepriceof
one.[8]
Relationshipdevelopmentandloyaltyprograms:Inordertoincreaselongtermrelationshipswith
customers,companiesareabletocreateloyaltyprogramsthatallowcustomerswhocheckin
regularlyatalocationtoearndiscountsorperks.Forexample,AmericanEagleOutfitters
remuneratessuchcustomerswithatiered10%,15%,or20%discountontheirtotalpurchase.[8]
ECommerce:MobilesocialmediaapplicationssuchasAmazon.comandPinterestareinfluencingan
upwardtrendinthepopularityandaccessibilityofecommerce,oronlinepurchases.[9]
AccordingtotheNielsenCompany's"TheU.S.DigitalConsumerReport",almosthalf(47%)of
smartphoneownersvisitsocialnetworkseverydayviamobileapplications.Withtherapidadoptionof
mobiledevices,socialmediahasasymbioticrelationshipwiththemobileconsumer.[10]
Distinctionfromothermedia
Ecommercebusinessesmayrefertosocialmediaasconsumergeneratedmedia(CGM).Acommonthread
runningthroughalldefinitionsofsocialmediaisablendingoftechnologyandsocialinteractionfortheco
creationofvalue.
Peopleobtaininformation,education,news,andotherdatafromelectronicandprintmedia.Socialmedia
aredistinctfromindustrialortraditionalmediasuchasnewspapers,television,andfilmastheyare
comparativelyinexpensiveandaccessible.Theyenableanyone(evenprivateindividuals)topublishor
accessinformation.Industrialmediagenerallyrequiresignificantresourcestopublishinformationasin
mostcasesthearticlesgoesthroughmanyrevisionsbeforebeingpublished.
Onecharacteristicsharedbybothsocialandindustrialmediaisthecapabilitytoreachsmallorlarge
audiencesforexample,eitherablogpostoratelevisionshowmayreachnopeopleormillionsofpeople.
Someofthepropertiesthathelpdescribethedifferencesbetweensocialandindustrialmediaare:
1. Quality:Inindustrial(traditional)publishingmediatedbyapublisherthetypicalrangeofquality
issubstantiallynarrowerthaninniche,unmediatedmarkets.Themainchallengeposedbycontentin
socialmediasitesisthefactthatthedistributionofqualityhashighvariance:fromveryhighquality
itemstolowquality,sometimesabusivecontent.[3]
2. Reach:Bothindustrialandsocialmediatechnologiesprovidescaleandarecapableofreachinga
globalaudience.Industrialmedia,however,typicallyuseacentralizedframeworkfororganization,
production,anddissemination,whereassocialmediaarebytheirverynaturemoredecentralized,less
hierarchical,anddistinguishedbymultiplepointsofproductionandutility.
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3. Frequency:Thenumberoftimesanadvertisementisdisplayedonsocialmediaplatforms.
4. Accessibility:Themeansofproductionforindustrialmediaaretypicallygovernmentand/or
corporate(privatelyowned)socialmediatoolsaregenerallyavailabletothepublicatlittleorno
cost.
5. Usability:Industrialmediaproductiontypicallyrequiresspecializedskillsandtraining.Conversely,
mostsocialmediaproductionrequiresonlymodestreinterpretationofexistingskillsintheory,
anyonewithaccesscanoperatethemeansofsocialmediaproduction.
6. Immediacy:Thetimelagbetweencommunicationsproducedbyindustrialmediacanbelong(days,
weeks,orevenmonths)comparedtosocialmedia(whichcanbecapableofvirtuallyinstantaneous
responses).
7. Permanence:Industrialmedia,oncecreated,cannotbealtered(onceamagazinearticleisprintedand
distributed,changescannotbemadetothatsamearticle)whereassocialmediacanbealteredalmost
instantaneouslybycommentsorediting.
Communitymediaconstituteahybridofindustrialandsocialmedia.Thoughcommunityowned,some
communityradio,TV,andnewspapersarerunbyprofessionalsandsomebyamateurs.Theyusebothsocial
andindustrialmediaframeworks.
Socialmediahavealsobeenrecognizedforthewaytheyhavechangedhowpublicrelationsprofessionals
conducttheirjobs.Theyhaveprovidedanopenarenawherepeoplearefreetoexchangeideason
companies,brands,andproducts.AsstatedbyDocSearlsandDavidWagner,twoauthoritiesontheeffects
ofInternetonmarketing,advertising,andPR,"ThebestofthepeopleinPRarenotPRtypesatall.They
understandthattherearen'tcensors,they'rethecompany'sbestconversationalists."[11]Socialmedia
providesanenvironmentwhereusersandPRprofessionalscanconverse,andwherePRprofessionalscan
promotetheirbrandandimprovetheircompany'simagebylisteningandrespondingtowhatthepublicis
sayingabouttheirproduct.
Managingsocialmedia
Thereisanincreasingtrendtowardsusingsocialmediamonitoringtoolsthatallowmarketerstosearch,
track,andanalyzeconversationonthewebabouttheirbrandorabouttopicsofinterest.[12]Thiscanbe
usefulinPRmanagementandcampaigntracking,allowingtheusertomeasurereturnoninvestment,
competitorauditing,andgeneralpublicengagement.Toolsrangefromfree,basicapplicationsto
subscriptionbased,moreindepthtools.
Thehoneycombframeworkdefineshowsocialmediaservicesfocusonsomeorallofsevenfunctional
buildingblocks.[2]Thesebuildingblockshelpexplaintheengagementneedsofthesocialmediaaudience.
Forinstance,LinkedInusersarethoughttocaremostlyaboutidentity,reputation,andrelationships,
whereasYouTube'sprimaryfeaturesaresharing,conversations,groups,andreputation.Manycompanies
buildtheirownsocialcontainersthatattempttolinkthesevenfunctionalbuildingblocksaroundtheir
brands.Theseareprivatecommunitiesthatengagepeoplearoundamorenarrowtheme,asinarounda
particularbrand,vocationorhobby,ratherthansocialmediacontainerssuchasGoogle+,Facebook,and
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Twitter.PRdepartmentsfacesignificantchallengesindealingwithviralnegativesentimentdirectedat
organizationsorindividualsonsocialmediaplatforms(dubbed"sentimentitis"),whichmaybeareactionto
anannouncementorevent.[13]
Honeycombframeworkofsocialmedia
Ina2011article,[2]JanH.Kietzmann,KristopherHermkens,IanP.McCarthyandBrunoS.Silvestre
presentaframeworkthatdefinessocialmediabyusingsevenfunctionalbuildingblocks:
identity,conversations,sharing,presence,relationships,reputation,andgroups.
Identity:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichusersrevealtheiridentitiesinasocialmedia
setting.Thiscanincludedisclosinginformationsuchasname,age,gender,profession,location,and
alsoinformationthatportraysusersincertainways.[2]
Conversations:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichuserscommunicatewithotherusersina
socialmediasetting.Manysocialmediasitesaredesignedprimarilytofacilitateconversations
amongindividualsandgroups.Theseconversationshappenforallsortsofreasons.Peopletweet,
blog,etceteratomeetnewlikemindedpeople,tondtruelove,tobuildtheirselfesteem,ortobe
onthecuttingedgeofnewideasortrendingtopics.Yetothersseesocialmediaasawayofmaking
theirmessageheardandpositivelyimpactinghumanitariancauses,environmentalproblems,
economicissues,orpoliticaldebates.[2]
Sharing:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichusersexchange,distribute,andreceivecontent.
Thetermsocialoftenimpliesthatexchangesbetweenpeoplearecrucial.Inmanycases,however,
socialityisabouttheobjectsthatmediatethesetiesbetweenpeoplethereasonswhytheymeet
onlineandassociatewitheachother.[2]
Presence:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichuserscanknowifotherusersareaccessible.It
includesknowingwhereothersare,inthevirtualworldand/orintherealworld,andwhethertheyare
available.[2]
Relationships:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichuserscanberelatedtootherusers.Twoor
moreusershavesomeformofassociationthatleadsthemtoconverse,shareobjectsofsociality,
meetup,orsimplyjustlisteachotherasafriendorfan.[2]
Reputation:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichuserscanidentifythestandingofothers,
includingthemselves,inasocialmediasetting.Reputationcanhavedifferentmeaningsonsocial
mediaplatforms.Inmostcases,reputationisamatteroftrust,butbecauseinformationtechnologies
arenotyetgoodatdeterminingsuchhighlyqualitativecriteria,socialmediasitesrelyonmechanical
Turks:toolsthatautomaticallyaggregateusergeneratedinformationtodeterminetrustworthiness.[2]
Reputationmanagementisanotheraspectanduseofsocialmedia.
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Groups:Thisblockrepresentstheextenttowhichuserscanformcommunitiesandsubcommunities.
Themoresocialanetworkbecomes,thebiggerthegroupoffriends,followers,andcontacts.[2]
Building"socialauthority"andvanity
Itisthroughthisprocessof"buildingsocialauthority"thatsocialmediabecomeseffective.Oneofthe
foundationalconceptsinsocialmediahasbecomethatyoucannotcompletelycontrolyourmessage
throughsocialmediabutratheryoucansimplybegintoparticipateinthe"conversation"expectingthatyou
canachieveasignificantinfluenceinthatconversation.[14]
However,thisconversationparticipationmustbecleverlyexecutedbecausealthoughpeopleareresistantto
marketingingeneral,theyareevenmoreresistanttodirectorovertmarketingthroughsocialmedia
platforms.Thismayseemcounterintuitivebutitisthemainreasonbuildingsocialauthoritywithcredibility
issoimportant.Amarketercangenerallynotexpectpeopletobereceptivetoamarketingmessageinand
ofitself.IntheEdelmanTrustBarometerreport(http://www.edelman.com/trust/2008/)in2008,the
majority(58%)oftherespondentsreportedtheymosttrustedcompanyorproductinformationcomingfrom
"peoplelikeme"inferredtobeinformationfromsomeonetheytrusted.Inthe2010TrustReport
(http://www.slideshare.net/slides_eoi/edelmantrustbarometer2010),themajorityswitchedto64%
preferringtheirinformationfromindustryexpertsandacademics.AccordingtoInc.Technology'sBrent
Leary,"Thislossoftrust,andtheaccompanyingturntowardsexpertsandauthorities,seemstobe
coincidingwiththeriseofsocialmediaandnetworks."[15][16]
Socialmediamining
SocialMediaMiningistheprocessofrepresenting,analyzing,andextractingactionablepatternsfrom
socialmediadata.SocialMediaMining,introducesbasicconceptsandprincipalalgorithmssuitablefor
investigatingmassivesocialmediadataitdiscussestheoriesandmethodologiesfromdifferentdisciplines
suchascomputerscience,datamining,machinelearning,socialnetworkanalysis,networkscience,
sociology,ethnography,statistics,optimization,andmathematics.Itencompassesthetoolstoformally
represent,measure,model,andminemeaningfulpatternsfromlargescalesocialmediadata.[17]
Globalusage
Accordingtothearticle"TheEmergingRoleofSocialMediainPoliticalandRegimeChange"byRita
Safranek,"TheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaregionhasoneofthemostyouthfulpopulationsintheworld,
withpeopleunder25makingupbetween3545%ofthepopulationineachcountry.Theymakeupthe
majorityofsocialmediausers,includingabout17millionFacebookusers,25,000Twitteraccountsand
40,000activeblogs,accordingtotheArabAdvisorsGroup.[18]
Effectsofusingsocialmediafornewspurposes
Justastelevisionturnedanationofpeoplewholistenedtomediacontentintowatchersofmediacontent,
theemergenceofsocialmediahascreatedanationofmediacontentcreators.Accordingto2011Pew
Researchdata,nearly80%ofAmericanadultsareonlineandnearly60%ofthemusesocialnetworking
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sites.[19]MoreAmericansgettheirnewsviatheInternetthanfromnewspapersorradio,aswellasthree
fourthswhosaytheygetnewsfromemailorsocialmediasitesupdates,accordingtoareportpublishedby
CNN.ThesurveysuggeststhatFacebookandTwittermakenewsamoreparticipatoryexperiencethan
beforeaspeoplesharenewsarticlesandcommentonotherpeople'sposts.AccordingtoCNN,in201075%
ofpeoplegottheirnewsforwardedthroughemailorsocialmediaposts,whereas37%ofpeopleshareda
newsitemviaFacebookorTwitter.[20]
IntheUnitedStates,81%ofpeoplesaytheylookonlinefornewsoftheweather,firstandforemost.
Nationalnewsat73%,52%forsportsnews,and41%forentertainmentorcelebritynews.Basedonthis
study,doneforthePewCenter,twothirdsofthesamplesonlinenewsuserswereyoungerthan50,and
30%wereyoungerthan30.Thesurveyinvolvedtrackingdailythehabitsof2,259adults18orolder.[21]
33%ofyoungadultsgetnewsfromsocialnetworks.34%watchedTVnewsand13%readprintordigital
content.19%ofAmericansgotnewsfromFacebook,Google+,orLinkedIn.36%ofthosewhogetnews
fromsocialnetworkgotityesterdayfromsurvey.Morethan36%ofTwitterusersuseaccountstofollow
newsorganizationsorjournalists.19%ofuserssaytheygotinformationfromnewsorganizationsof
journalists.TVremainsmostpopularsourceofnews,butaudienceisaging(only34%ofyoungpeople).
29%ofthoseyoungerthat25saytheygotnonewsyesterdayeitherdigitallyortraditionalnewsplatforms.
Only5%under30saytheyfollownewsaboutpoliticalfiguresandeventsinDC.Only14%ofresponders
couldanswerallfourquestionsaboutwhichpartycontrolstheHouse,currentunemploymentrate,what
nationAngelaMerkelleads,andwhichpresidentialcandidatefavorstaxinghigherincomeAmericans.
FacebookandTwitternowpathwaystonews,butarenotreplacementsfortraditionalones.70%getsocial
medianewsfromfriendsandfamilyonFacebook.[22]
Socialmediafosterscommunication.Aninternetresearchcompany,PewResearchCenter,claimsthat
morethanhalfofinternetusers(52%)usetwoormoreofthesocialmediasitesmeasured(Facebook,
Twitter,Instagram,Pinterest)tocommunicatewiththeirfamilyorfriends[23]
Forchildren,usingsocialmediasitescanhelppromotecreativity,interaction,andlearning.Itcanalsohelp
themwithhomeworkandclasswork.Moreover,socialmediaenablethemtostayconnectedwiththeir
peers,andhelpthemtointeractwitheachother.Somecangetinvolvedwithdevelopingfundraising
campaignsandpoliticalevents.Howeveritcanimpactonsocialskillsduetotheabsenceoffacetoface
contact.[24]Socialmediacanaffectmentalhealthofteens.TeenswhouseFacebookfrequentlyandwho
especiallysusceptiblemaybecomemorenarcissistic,antisocial,andaggressive.Teensbecomestrongly
influencedbyadvertising,anditinfluencesbuyinghabitsforthefuture.SincethecreationofFacebookin
2004,ithasbecomeadistractionandawaytowastetimeformanyusers.[25]
Inarecentstudyconducted,highschoolstudentsages18andyoungerwereexaminedinanefforttofind
theirpreferenceforreceivingnews.Basedoninterviewswith61teenagers,conductedfromDecember
2007toFebruary2011,mostoftheteenparticipantsreportedreadingprintnewspapersonlysometimes,
withfewerthan10%readingthemdaily.Theteenagersinsteadreportedlearningaboutcurrenteventsfrom
socialmediasitessuchasFacebook,MySpace,YouTube,andblogs.[26]Anotherstudyshowedthatsocial
mediausersreadasetofnewsthatisdifferentfromwhatnewspapereditorsfeatureintheprintpress.[27]
Usingnanotechnologyasanexample,Rungeetal.(2013)[28]studiedtweetsfromTwitterandfoundthat
some41%ofthediscourseaboutnanotechnologyfocusedonitsnegativeimpacts,suggestingthataportion
ofthepublicmaybeconcernedwithhowvariousformsofnanotechnologyareusedinthefuture.Although
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optimisticsoundingandneutralsoundingtweetswereequallylikelytoexpresscertaintyoruncertainty,the
pessimistictweetswerenearlytwiceaslikelytoappearcertainofanoutcomethanuncertain.Theseresults
implythepossibilityofapreconceivednegativeperceptionofmanynewsarticlesassociatedwith
nanotechnology.Alternatively,theseresultscouldalsoimplythatpostsofamorepessimisticnaturethatare
alsowrittenwithanairofcertaintyaremorelikelytobesharedorotherwisepermeategroupsonTwitter.
Similarbiasesneedtobeconsideredwhentheutilityofnewmediaisaddressed,asthepotentialforhuman
opiniontooveremphasizeanyparticularnewsstoryisgreaterdespitethegeneralimprovementin
addressedpotentialuncertaintyandbiasinnewsarticlesthanintraditionalmedia.[29]
OnOctober2,2013,themostcommonhashtagthroughoutthecountrywas#governmentshutdown,as
wellasonesfocusingonpoliticalparties,Obama,andhealthcare.MostnewssourceshaveTwitter,and
Facebook,pages,likeCNNandtheNewYorkTimes,providinglinkstotheironlinearticles,gettingan
increasedreadership.Additionally,severalcollegenewsorganizationsandadministratorshaveTwitter
pagesasawaytosharenewsandconnecttostudents.[30]
Accordingto"ReutersInstituteDigitalNewsReport2013",[31]intheUS,amongthosewhousesocial
mediatofindnews,47%ofthesepeopleareunder45yearsold,and23%areabove45yearsold.However
socialmediaasamainnewsgatewaydoesnotfollowthesamepatternacrosscountries.Forexample,in
thisreport,inBrazil,60%oftherespondentssaidsocialmediawasoneofthefivemostimportantwaysto
findnewsonline,45%inSpain,17%intheUK,38%inItaly,14%inFrance,22%inDenmark,30%inthe
U.S.,and12%inJapan.[31]Moreover,therearedifferencesamongcountriesaboutcommentingonnewsin
socialnetworks,38%oftherespondentsinBrazilsaidtheycommentedonnewsinsocialnetworkina
week.Thesepercentagesare21%intheU.S.and10%intheUK.Theauthorsarguedthatdifferences
amongcountriesmaybeduetoculturedifferenceratherthandifferentlevelsofaccesstotechnicaltools.[31]
Historyandmemoryeffects
NewsmediaandtelevisionjournalismhavebeeninstrumentalintheshapingofAmericancollective
memoryformuchofthetwentiethcentury.[32][33]Indeed,sincetheUnitedStates'colonialera,newsmedia
hasinfluencedcollectivememoryanddiscourseaboutnationaldevelopmentandtrauma.Inmanyways,
mainstreamjournalistshavemaintainedanauthoritativevoiceasthestorytellersoftheAmericanpast.
Theirdocumentarystylenarratives,detailedexposes,andtheirpositionsinthepresentmakethemprime
sourcesforpublicmemory.Specifically,newsmediajournalistshaveshapedcollectivememoryonnearly
everymajornationaleventfromthedeathsofsocialandpoliticalfigurestotheprogressionofpolitical
hopefuls.JournalistsprovideelaboratedescriptionsofcommemorativeeventsinU.S.historyand
contemporarypopularculturalsensations.ManyAmericanslearnthesignificanceofhistoricaleventsand
politicalissuesthroughnewsmedia,astheyarepresentedonpopularnewsstations.[34]However,
journalisticinfluenceisgrowinglessimportant,whereassocialnetworkingsitessuchasFacebook,
YouTubeandTwitter,provideaconstantsupplyofalternativenewssourcesforusers.
Associalnetworkingbecomesmorepopularamongolderandyoungergenerations,sitessuchasFacebook
andYouTube,graduallyunderminethetraditionallyauthoritativevoicesofnewsmedia.Forexample,
Americancitizenscontestmediacoverageofvarioussocialandpoliticaleventsastheyseefit,inserting
theirvoicesintothenarrativesaboutAmerica'spastandpresentandshapingtheirowncollective
memories.[35][36]AnexampleofthisisthepublicexplosionoftheTrayvonMartinshootinginSanford,
Florida.Newsmediacoverageoftheincidentwasminimaluntilsocialmediausersmadethestory
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recognizablethroughtheirconstantdiscussionofthecase.Approximatelyonemonthafterthefatal
shootingofTrayvonMartin,itsonlinecoveragebyeverydayAmericansgarnerednationalattentionfrom
mainstreammediajournalists,inturnexemplifyingmediaactivism.Insomeways,thespreadofthistragic
eventthroughalternativenewssourcesparallelsthatoftheEmmittTillwhosemurderbecameanational
storyafteritcirculatedAfricanAmericanandCommunistsnewspapers.Socialmediawasalsoinfluentialin
thewidespreadattentiongiventotherevolutionaryoutbreaksintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaduring
2011.[37][38][39]However,thereissomedebateabouttheextenttowhichsocialmediafacilitatedthiskindof
change.[40]AnotherexampleofthisshiftisintheongoingKony2012campaign,whichsurfacedfirston
YouTubeandlatergarneredagreatamountofattentionfrommainstreamnewsmediajournalists.These
journalistsnowmonitorsocialmediasitestoinformtheirreportsonthemovement.Lastly,inthepast
coupleofpresidentialelections,theuseofsocialmediasitessuchasFacebookandTwitterwereusedto
predictelectionresults.U.S.PresidentBarackObamawasmorelikedonFacebookthanhisopponentMitt
RomneyanditwasfoundbyastudydonebyOxfordInstituteInternetExperimentthatmorepeoplelikedto
tweetaboutcommentsofPresidentObamaratherthanRomney.[41]
Criticismsofsocialmedia
Criticismsofsocialmediarangefromcriticismsoftheeaseofuseofspecificplatformsandtheir
capabilities,disparityofinformationavailable,issueswithtrustworthinessandreliabilityofinformation
presented,[42]theimpactofsocialmediauseonanindividual'sconcentration,[43]ownershipofmedia
content,andthemeaningofinteractionscreatedbysocialmedia.Althoughsomesocialmediaplatforms
offeruserstheopportunitytocrosspostsimultaneously,somesocialnetworkplatformshavebeen
criticizedforpoorinteroperabilitybetweenplatforms,whichleadstothecreationofinformationsilos
isolatedpocketsofdatacontainedinonesocialmediaplatform[44]However,itisalsoarguedthatsocial
mediahavepositiveeffectssuchasallowingthedemocratizationoftheinternet[45]whilealsoallowing
individualstoadvertisethemselvesandformfriendships.[46]Others[47]havenotedthattheterm"Social"
cannotaccountfortechnologicalfeaturesofaplatformalone,hencethelevelofsociabilityshould
determinedbytheactualperformancesofitsusers.
Duetotheincreaseinsocialmediawebsites,thereseemstobeapositivecorrelationbetweentheusageof
suchmediawithcyberbullying,onlinesexualpredators,andthedecreaseinfacetofaceinteractions.
Socialmediamayexposechildrentoimagesofalcohol,tobacco,andsexualbehaviors.[48]
Twitterisincreasinglyatargetofheavyactivityofmarketers.Theiractions,focusedongainingmassive
numbersoffollowers,includeuseofadvancedscriptsandmanipulationtechniquesthatdistorttheprime
ideaofsocialmediabyabusinghumantrustfulness.[49]
BritishAmericanentrepreneurandauthorAndrewKeencriticizessocialmediainhisbookTheCultofthe
Amateur,writing,"Outofthisanarchy,itsuddenlybecameclearthatwhatwasgoverningtheinfinite
monkeysnowinputtingawayontheInternetwasthelawofdigitalDarwinism,thesurvivaloftheloudest
andmostopinionated.Undertheserules,theonlywaytointellectuallyprevailisbyinfinite
filibustering."[50]Thisisalsorelativetotheissue"justice"inthesocialnetwork.Forexample,the
phenomenonHumanfleshsearchengineinAsiaraisedthediscussionof"privatelaw"broughtbysocial
networkplatform.
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ComparativeMediaprofessorJosvanDijckcontendsinherbook"TheCultureofConnectivity"(2013)
thattounderstandthefullweightofsocialmedia,theirtechnologicaldimensionsshouldbeconnectedtothe
socialandthecultural.Shecriticallydescribessixsocialmediaplatforms.Oneofherfindingsistheway
Facebookhadbeensuccessfulinframingtheterm'sharing'insuchawaythatthirdpartyuseofuserdatais
neglectedinfavourofintrauserconnectedness.
Disparity
EricEhrmanncontendsthatsocialmediaintheformofpublicdiplomacycreateapatinaofinclusiveness
thatcovers[51]traditionaleconomicintereststhatarestructuredtoensurethatwealthispumpeduptothe
topoftheeconomicpyramid,perpetuatingthedigitaldivideandpostMarxianclassconflict.Healsovoices
concernoverthetrendthatfindssocialutilitiesoperatinginaquasilibertarianglobalenvironmentof
oligopolythatrequiresusersineconomicallychallengednationstospendhighpercentagesofannual
incometopayfordevicesandservicestoparticipateinthesocialmedialifestyle.
Thephrase"Digitaldivide"wascoinedin1996byLloydMorrlsett,afounderoftheChildren'sTelevision
WorkshopandPresidentoftheMarkleFoundation,todescribethechasmthatpurportedlyseparates
informationtechnology(IT)havesfromhavenotsintheUS.AsVirginiaEubanksexplainsthedigital
divideintermsofsocialstructurethathavenotsideusersdon'thavemuchconsumerpowerbutthehave
sidehavethepower.Moneyandlaborsgofromthehavenottohave.
NeilPostmanalsocontendsthatsocialmediawillincreaseaninformationdisparitybetweenwinnerswho
areabletousethesocialmediaactivelyandloserswhoarenotfamiliarwithmoderntechnologies.
Trustworthiness
Becauselargescalecollaborativecocreationisoneofthemainwaysofforminginformationinthesocial
network,theusergeneratedcontentissometimesviewedwithskepticismreadersdonottrustitisasa
reliablesourceofinformation.AniketKittur,BongowonSuhandEdH.Chitookwikisunderexamination
andindicatedthat,"Onepossibilityisthatdistrustofwikicontentisnotduetotheinherentlymutable
natureofthesystembutinsteadtothelackofavailableinformationforjudgingtrustworthiness."[52]Tobe
morespecific,theauthorsmentionthatreasonsfordistrustingcollaborativesystemswithusergenerated
content,suchasWikipedia,includealackofinformationregardingaccuracyofcontents,motivesand
expertiseofeditors,stabilityofcontent,coverageoftopicsandtheabsenceofsources.[53]
Socialmediaarealsoimportantsourcesofnews.Accordingto'ReutersInstituteDigitalNewsReport2013',
socialmediaareoneofthemostimportantwaysforpeoplefindnewsonline(theothersbeingtraditional
brands,searchenginesandnewsaggregators).[31]ThereportsuggestedthatintheUnitedKingdom,trustin
newswhichcomesfromsocialmediasourcesislow,comparedtonewsfromothersources(e.g.online
newsfromtraditionalbroadcasteroronlinenewsfromnationalnewspapers).Peoplewhoagedat2435
trustsocialmediamost,whereastrustdeclinedwiththeincreaseofage.
RainieandWellmanhavearguedthatmediamakingnowhasbecomeaparticipationwork,[54]which
changescommunicationsystems.Thecenterofpowerisshiftedfromonlythemedia(asthegatekeeper)to
theperipheralarea,whichmayincludegovernment,organizations,andouttotheedge,theindividual.[55]
Thesechangesincommunicationsystemsraiseempiricalquestionsabouttrusttomediaeffect.Prior
empiricalstudieshaveshownthattrustininformationsourcesplaysamajorroleinpeoplesdecision
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making.[56]People'sattitudesmoreeasilychangewhentheyhearmessagesfromtrustworthysources.Inthe
Reutersreport,27%ofrespondentsagreethattheyworryabouttheaccuracyofastoryonablog.[31]
However,40%ofthembelievethestoriesonblogsaremorebalancedthantraditionalpapersbecausethey
areprovidedwitharangeofopinions.Recentresearchhasshownthatinthenewsocialmedia
communicationenvironment,theciviloruncivilnatureofcommentswillbiaspeople'sinformation
processingevenifthemessageisfromatrustworthysource,[57]whichbringthepracticalandethical
questionabouttheresponsibilityofcommunicatorinthesocialmediaenvironment.
Concentration
Somehavesaidthat"fast(social)mediaanddeepslowthoughtdon'tmixwell."FromNicholasCarr,"As
mediatheoristMarshallMcLuhanpointedoutinthe1960s,mediaarenotjustpassivechannelsof
information.Theysupplythestuffofthought,buttheyalsoshapetheprocessofthought.AndwhattheNet
seemstobedoingischippingawaymycapacityforconcentrationandcontemplation."However,thereare
severalbenefitsbroughtfromdeepreading.Forexample,"ourabilitytointerprettext,tomaketherich
mentalconnectionthatformwhenwereaddeeplyandwithoutdistraction,remainslargelydisengaged."But
needsforconvenienceoftenmakeitdifficulttochoosethisslower,moredeliberateway.[58]
Fewrealimpacts
ForMalcolmGladwell,theroleofsocialmedia,suchasTwitterandFacebook,inrevolutionsandprotests
isoverstated.[59]Ontheonehand,socialmediamakeiteasierforindividuals,andinthiscaseactivists,to
expressthemselves.Ontheotherhand,itisharderforthatexpressiontohaveanimpact.[59]
Gladwelldistinguishesbetweensocialmediaactivismandhighriskactivism,whichbringsrealchanges.
Activismandespeciallyhighriskactivisminvolvesstrongtierelationships,hierarchies,coordination,
motivation,exposingoneselftohighrisks,makingsacrifices.[59]
Gladwelldiscussesthatsocialmediaarebuiltaroundweaktiesandhearguesthat"socialnetworksare
effectiveatincreasingparticipationbylesseningthelevelofmotivationthatparticipationrequires.[59]
AccordingtohimFacebookactivismsucceedsnotbymotivatingpeopletomakearealsacrifice,butby
motivatingthemtodothethingsthatpeopledowhentheyarenotmotivatedenoughtomakeareal
sacrifice.[59]
Furthermore,socialmediasroleindemocratizingmediaparticipationmayfallshortofideals.Socialmedia
hasbeenchampionedasallowinganyonewithanInternetconnectiontobecomeacontentcreator[46]and
empoweringtheactiveaudience.[60]Butinternationalsurveydatasuggestonlinemediaaudience
membersarelargelypassiveconsumers,whilecontentcreationisdominatedbythefew.[31]:78
Accordingtothe"ReutersInstituteDigitalNewsReport2013"thepercentofonlinenewsuserswhoblog
aboutnewsissuesrangesfrom15%.Greaterpercentagesusesocialmediatocommentonnews,with
participationrangingfrom8%inGermanyto38%inBrazil.Butonlinenewsusersaremostlikelytojust
talkaboutonlinenewswithfriendsofflineorusesocialmediatosharestorieswithoutcreating
content.[31]:78
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Reliability
EvgenyMorozov,20092010YahoofellowatGeorgetownUniversitycontendsthattheinformation
uploadedtoTwittermayhavelittlerelevancetotherestofthepeoplewhodonotuseTwitter.Inthearticle
"Iran:DownsidetotheTwitterRevolutioninthemagazineDissent,[61]hesays:
"Twitteronlyaddstothenoise:itssimplyimpossibletopackmuchcontextintoits140
characters.Allotherbiasesarepresentaswell:inacountrylikeIranitsmostlyproWestern,
technologyfriendlyandiPodcarryingyoungpeoplewhoarethenaturalandmostfrequent
usersofTwitter.Theyareatinyand,mostimportant,extremelyuntypicalsegmentofthe
Iranianpopulation(thenumberofTwitterusersinIranacountryofmorethanseventy
millionpeople.)
EvenintheUnitedStates,thebirthcountryofTwitter,in2012thesocialnetworkhadonly107.7million
accounts.[62]Becausetherearelikelytobemanymultiaccountusers,andtheUnitedStatesin2012hada
populationof314.7million,[63]theadoptionofTwitterissomewhatlimited.
ProfessorMatthewAuerofBatesCollegecastsdoubtontheconventionalwisdomthatsocialmediaare
openandparticipatory.Healsospeculatesontheemergenceof"antisocialmedia"usedas"instrumentsof
purecontrol."[64]
Ownershipofsocialmediacontent
Socialmediacontentisgeneratedthroughsocialmediainteractionsdonebytheusersthroughthesite.
Therehasalwaysbeenahugedebateontheownershipofthecontentonsocialmediaplatformsbecauseit
isgeneratedbytheusersandhostedbythecompany.Addedtothisisthedangertosecurityofinformation,
whichcanbeleakedtothirdpartieswitheconomicinterestsintheplatform,orparasiteswhocombthedata
fortheirowndatabases.[65]TheauthorofSocialMediaIsBullshit,BrandonMendelson,claimsthatthe
"true"ownersofcontentcreatedonsocialmediasitesonlybenefitsthelargecorporationswhoownthose
sitesandrarelytheusersthatcreatedthem.[66]
Privacy
Privacyrightsadvocateswarnusersaboutusesfortheinformationthatcanbegatheredthroughsocial
media.Someinformationiscapturedwithouttheuser'sknowledgeorconsent,suchasthroughelectronic
trackingandthirdpartyapplicationonsocialnetworks.Othersincludelawenforcementandgovernmental
useofthisinformation,[67]includingthegatheringofsocalledsocialmediaintelligencethroughdata
miningtechniques.[68]
Additionalprivacyconcernsrelatetotheimpactofsocialmediamonitoringbyemployerswhosepolicies
includeprohibitionsagainstworkers'postingsonsocialnetworkingsites.[69]Asurveydonein2010from
differentuniversitiesrevealedthattherearelinesdrawnbetweenpersonalandprofessionallives.Manyof
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theuserssurveyedadmittedtomisrepresentingthemselvesonline.[70]Employeescanbeconcernedbecause
theirsocialmediasitesreflecttheirpersonallivesandnottheirprofessionallives,butyetemployersare
censoringthemontheinternet.
Otherprivacyconcernswithemployersandsocialmediaarewhenemployersusesocialmediaasatoolto
screenaprospectiveemployee.Thisissueraisesmanyethicalquestionsthatsomeconsideranemployers
rightandothersconsiderdiscrimination.ExceptinthestatesofCalifornia,Maryland,andIllinois,thereare
nolawsthatprohibitemployersfromusingsocialmediaprofilesasabasisofwhetherornotsomeone
shouldbehired.[71]TitleVIIalsoprohibitsdiscriminationduringanyaspectofemploymentincluding
hiringorfiring,recruitment,ortesting.[72]
Socialmediahasbeenintegratingitselfintotheworkplaceandthishasledtoconflictswithinemployees
andemployers.Particularly,Facebookhasbeenseenasapopularplatformforemployerstoinvestigatein
ordertolearnmoreaboutpotentialemployees.ThisconflictfirststartedinMarylandwhenanemployer
requestedandreceivedanemployeesFacebookusernameandpassword.Statelawmakersfirstintroduced
legislationin2012toprohibitemployersfromrequestingpasswordstopersonalsocialaccountsinorderto
getajobortokeepajob.ThisledtoCanada,Germany,theU.S.Congressand11U.S.statestopassor
proposelegislationthatpreventsemployersaccesstoprivatesocialaccountsofemployees.[73]
ManyWesternEuropeancountrieshavealreadyimplementedlawsthatrestricttheregulationofsocial
mediaintheworkplace.StatesincludingArkansas,California,Colorado,Illinois,Maryland,Michigan,
Nevada,NewJersey,NewMexico,Utah,WashingtonandWisconsinhavepassedlegislationthatprotects
potentialemployeesandcurrentemployeesfromemployersthatdemandthemtogiveforththeirusername
orpasswordforasocialmediaaccount.[74]Lawsthatforbidemployersfromdisciplininganemployee
basedonactivityoffthejobonsocialmediasiteshavealsobeenputintoactinstatesincludingCalifornia,
Colorado,Connecticut,NorthDakotaandNewYork.Severalstateshavesimilarlawsthatprotectstudents
incollegesanduniversitiesfromhavingtograntaccesstotheirsocialmediaaccounts.Eightstateshave
passedthelawthatprohibitspostsecondaryinstitutionsfromdemandingsocialmedialogininformation
fromanyprospectiveorcurrentstudentsandprivacylegislationhasbeenintroducedorispendinginat
least36statesasofJuly2013.[75]
AsofMay2014,legislationhasbeenintroducedandisintheprocessofpendinginatleast28statesand
hasbeenenactedinMaineandWisconsin.[76]Inaddition,theNationalLaborRelationsBoardhasbeen
devotingalotoftheirattentiontoattackingemployerpoliciesregardingsocialmediathatcandiscipline
employeeswhoseektospeakandpostfreelyonsocialmediasites.[77]
Effectsoninterpersonalrelationships
Datasuggestthatparticipantsusesocialmediatofulfillperceivedsocialneeds,butaretypically
disappointed.[78]LonelyindividualsaredrawntotheInternetforemotionalsupport.Thiscausesproblems
asitinterfereswithreallifesocializing.[79]SomeoftheseviewsaresummedupinanAtlanticarticleby
StephenMarchetitled,IsFacebookMakingUsLonely?inwhichtheauthorarguesthatsocialmedia
providesmorebreadth,butnotthedepthofrelationshipsthathumansrequire.[80]
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SherryTurkleexploressimilarissuesinherbookAloneTogetherasshediscusseshowpeopleconfuse
socialmediausagewithauthenticcommunication.Peopletendtoactdifferentlyonlineandarelessafraid
tohurteachothersfeelings.Someonlinebehaviorscausestressandanxiety,muchofthisassociatedwith
friendsandthepermanenceofonlineposts.Thisanxietyisalsoassociatedwiththefearofbeinghackedor
ofcollegesandemployersexploringsocialmediapagesandfindingunsavorythingsposted.Turklealso
speculatesthatpeoplearebeginningtoprefertextingtofacetofacecommunication,whichcancontribute
tofeelingsofloneliness.[81]
Someresearchershavealsofoundthatonlyexchangesthatinvolveddirectcommunicationand
reciprocationofmessagestoeachotherincreasedfeelingsofconnectedness.However,passivelyusing
socialmediawithoutsendingorreceivingmessagestoindividualsdoesnotmakepeoplefeellesslonely
unlesstheywerelonelytobeginwith.[82]
AstudypublishedinthePublicLibraryofSciencein2013revealedthattheperceptionofFacebookbeing
animportantresourceforsocialconnectionwasdiminishedbythenumberofpeoplefoundtohave
developedlowselfesteem,andthemoretheyusedthenetworkthelowertheirlevelofselfesteem.[83]
Acurrentcontroversialtopiciswhetherornotsocialmediaaddictionshouldbeexplicitlycategorizedasa
psychologicalailment.[84]ExtendeduseofsocialmediahasledtoincreasedInternetaddiction,
cyberbullying,sexting,sleepdeprivation,andthedeclineoffacetofaceinteraction.[85]Severalclinicsin
theUKclassifysocialmediaaddictionisacertifiablemedicalconditionwithonepsychiatricconsultant
claimingthathetreatsasmanyasonehundredcasesayear.[86]
Positiveeffectsofsocialmedia
InthebookNetworkedThenewsocialoperatingsystembyLeeRainieandBarryWellman,thetwo
authorsreflectonmainlypositiveeffectsofsocialmediaandotherinternetbasedsocialnetworks.
Accordingtotheauthors,socialmediaareusedtodocumentmemories,learnaboutandexplorethings,
advertiseoneselfandformfriendships.Forinstance,theyclaimthatthecommunicationthroughinternet
basedservicescanbedonemoreprivatelythaninreallife.Furthermore,RainieandWellmandiscussthat
everybodyhasthepossibilitytobecomeacontentcreator.Contentcreationprovidesnetworkedindividuals
opportunitiestoreachwideraudiences.Moreover,itcanpositivelyaffecttheirsocialstandingandgain
politicalsupport.Thiscanleadtoinfluenceonissuesthatareimportantforsomeone.Asaconcrete
exampleofthepositiveeffectsofsocialmedia,theauthorsusetheTunisianrevolutionin2011,where
peopleusedFacebooktogathermeetings,protestactions,etc.[46]
RainieandWellman(Ibid)alsodiscussthatcontentcreationisavoluntaryandparticipatoryact.Whatis
importantisthatnetworkedindividualscreate,editandmanagecontentincollaborationwithother
networkedindividuals.Thiswaytheycontributeinexpandingknowledge.Wikisareexamplesof
collaborativecontentcreation.
Employmentimpact
Useofsocialmediabyyoungpeoplehascausedsignificantproblemsforsomepeoplewhentheyentered
thejobmarket.Asurveyof17,000youngpeopleinsixcountriesin2013foundthat1in10peopleaged16
to34havebeenrejectedforajobbecauseofonlinecomments.[87]A2014surveyofrecruitersfoundthat
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93%ofthemcheckcandidates'socialmediapostings.[88]
Thesecaseshavecreatedsomeprivacyimplicationsastowhetherornotcompaniesshouldhavetherightto
lookatemployeesFacebookprofiles.InMarch2012,Facebookdecidedtheymighttakelegalaction
againstemployersforgainingaccesstoemployeesprofilesthroughtheirpasswords.[89]Accordingto
FacebookChiefPrivacyOfficerforpolicy,ErinEgan,thecompanyhasworkedhardtogiveitsusersthe
toolstocontrolwhoseestheirinformation.Healsosaidusersshouldntbeforcedtoshareprivate
informationandcommunicationsjusttogetajob.AccordingtothenetworksStatementofRightsand
Responsibilities,sharingorsolicitingapasswordisaviolationtoFacebook.Employeesmaystillgivetheir
passwordinformationouttogetajob,butaccordingtoErinEgan,Facebookwillcontinuetodotheirpart
toprotecttheprivacyandsecurityoftheirusers.[90]
CollegeAdmission
Beforesocialmedia,admissionsofficialsintheUnitedStatesusedSATscores,extracurricularactivities,
lettersofrecommendation,andhighschoolGPA'stodeterminewhethertoacceptordenyanapplicant.
AccordingtoKaplan,Inc,acorporationthatprovideshighereducationpreparation,in201227%of
admissionsofficersusedGoogletolearnmoreaboutanapplicant,with26%checkingFacebook.[91]
Politicaleffectsofsocialmedia
Thepopularityofgettingpoliticalnewsfromsocialmediaplatformsisgreatlyincreasing.A2014study
showedthat62%ofwebusersturntoFacebooktofindpoliticalnews.[92]Thissocialphenomenonallows
forpoliticalinformation,trueornot,tospreadquicklyandeasilyamongpeernetworks.Furthermore,social
mediasitesarenowencouragingpoliticalinvolvementbyunitinglikemindedpeople,remindingusersto
voteinelections,andanalyzinguserspoliticalaffiliationdatatofindculturalsimilaritiesand
differences.[93]
Socialmediacanhelptaintthereputationofpoliticalfiguresfairlyquicklywithinformationthatmayor
maynotbetrue.Informationspreadslikewildfireandbeforeapoliticiancanevengetanopportunityto
addresstheinformation,eithertoconfirm,deny,orexplain,thepublichasalreadyformedanopinionabout
thepoliticianbasedonthatinformation.However,whenconductedonpurpose,thespreadofinformation
onsocialmediaforpoliticalmeanscanhelpcampaignsimmensely.TheBarackObamapresidential
campaign,2008,isconsideredtobeoneofthemostsuccessfulintermsofsocialmedia.Ontheotherhand,
negativewordofmouthinsocialmediaconcerningapoliticalfigurecanbeveryunfortunatefora
politicianandcancostthepoliticianhis/hercareeriftheinformationisverydamaging.[94]Forexample,
AnthonyWeinersmisuseofthesocialmediaplatform,Twitter,eventuallyledtohisresignationfromU.S.
Congress.[95]
Openforumsonlinehavealsobeentherootofnegativeeffectsinthepoliticalsphere.Somepoliticians
havemadethemistakeofusingopenforumstotryandreachabroaderaudienceandthusmorepotential
voters.Whattheyforgottoaccountforwasthattheforumswouldbeopentoeveryone,includingthosein
opposition.Havingnocontrolthecommentsbeingposted,negativeincluded,hasbeendamagingforsome
withunfortunateoversight.Additionally,aconstraintofsocialmediaasatoolforpublicpoliticaldiscourse
isthatifoppressivegovernmentsrecognizetheabilitysocialmediahastocausechange,theyshutit
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down.[96]DuringthepeakoftheEgyptianRevolutionof2011,theinternetandsocialmediaplayedahuge
roleinfacilitatinginformation.Atthattime,HosniMubarakwasthepresidentofEgyptandheadthe
regimeforalmost30years.Mubarakwassothreatenedbytheimmensepowerthattheinternetandsocial
mediagavethepeoplethatthegovernmentsuccessfullyshutdowntheinternet,usingtheRamses
Exchange,foraperiodoftimeinFebruary2011.[97]
Socialmediaasanopenforumgivesavoicetothosewhohavepreviouslynothadtheabilitytoheard.in
2015,somecountriesarestillbecomingequippedwithinternetaccessibilityandothertechnologies.Social
mediaisgivingeveryoneavoicetospeakoutagainstgovernmentregimes.In2014,theruralareasin
Paraguaywereonlyjustreceivingaccesstosocialmedia,suchasFacebook.Incongruencewiththeusers
worldwide,teensandyoungadultsinParaguayaredrawntoFacebookandotherstypesofsocialmediaasa
meanstoselfexpress.Socialmediaisbecomingamainconduitforsocialmobilizationandgovernment
critiquesbecause,"thegovernmentcan'tcontrolwhatwesayontheinternet."[98]
Youngergenerationsarebecomingmoreinvolvedinpoliticsduetotheincreaseofpoliticalnewspostedon
varioustypesofsocialmedia.Duetotheheavieruseofsocialmediaamongyoungergenerations,theyare
exposedtopoliticsmorefrequently,andinawaythatisintegratedintotheironlinesociallives.While
informingyoungergenerationsofpoliticalnewsisimportant,therearemanybiaseswithintherealmsof
socialmedia.Itcanbedifficultforoutsiderstotrulyunderstandtheconditionsofdissentwhentheyare
removedfromdirectinvolvement.[99]Socialmediacancreateafalsesenseofunderstandingamongpeople
whoarenotdirectlyinvolvedintheissue.Anexampleofsocialmediacreatingmisconceptionscanbeseen
duringtheArabSpringprotests.Today'sgenerationrelyheavilyonsocialmediatounderstandwhatis
happeningintheworld,anconsequentlypeopleareexposedtobothtrueandfalseinformation.For
example,AmericanshaveseveralmisconceptionssurroundingtheeventsoftheArabSprings
movement.[100]
Socialmediacanbeusedtocreatepoliticalchange,bothmajorandminor.Forexample,in2011Egyptians
usedFacebook,Twitter,andYouTubeasameanstocommunicateandorganizedemonstrationsandrallies
tooverthrowPresidentHosniMubarak.StatisticsshowthatduringthistimetherateofTweetsfromEgypt
increasedfrom2,300to230,000perdayandthetop23protestvideoshadapproximately5.5millionviews
[101]Thisnotonlyallowedfororganizationamongprotesters,butalsoallowedtheuprisingtogainthe
attentionofpeoplearoundtheworld.
SocialMediaandtheLGBTQCommunity
SocialmediahashadalargeimpactontheLGBTQcommunity.Socialmediacreatesadigitalcommunity
inwhichLGBTQindividualsareabletocommunicatewitheachother,regardlessofgeographicdistance.
SeveralsocialmediaappshavebeendevelopedthataretargetedspecificallyfortheLGBTQcommunity.
GrindrisanexampleofaformofsocialmediathatwascreatedspecificallyfortheLGBTQcommunity.
Grindrisanappthatusesthehostphonesgeolocationtolocateothermenusingtheappincloseproximity.
GrindrwasthefirstgaygeosocialapptolaunchintheiTunesAppStoreandhassincebecomethelargest
andmostpopulargaymobileappintheworld.Thereareapproximately5millionusersofGrindrin192
countries.Approximately10,000downloadtheappeveryday[102]WhileGrindrismainlyusedasadating
app,theGrindrleadershiphasdemonstratedthattheywouldliketohelpachievemoreequalityforthe
LGBTQcommunity.JoelSimkhai,thefounderofGrindrsaidinaninterview"Wedon'thavethesame
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rightsaseveryoneelse,Weareauniquecompanywhere100percentofmyaudiencedoesnothave
equality."[103]HebelievesGrindrhasaresponsibilitytoimprovethequalityoflifebyachievingequality
foritsmembers.
In2011,aninitiativewasstartedcalled"GrindrForEquality."Thegoalof"Equality"istoraisepublic
awarenessofissuesfacingtheLGBTQcommunity.[104]Usersareencouragedtosubmitinformationtothe
GrindrwebsitewhentheyhearaboutissuesrelatingtotheLGBTQcommunityintheirarea.Whenusers
logontoGrindr,theyarepresentedwithanotificationcontaininginformationabouttheissue.Forexample,
GrindrforEqualitysentabroadcastmessagetoallGrindruserstoraiseawarenessandcelebratetherepeal
oftheU.S.militarysDontAsk,DontTellpolicyinSeptember2011.Themessageincludedalinktoa
donationpagefortheServicemembersLegalDefenseNetwork.Morethan5,000Grindrusersclicked
throughtothatpage[104]whisperisanotherappthathasalargeeffectontheLGBTQpopulation.Users
selectabackgroundphotofortheirpost,andthenwriteashortcaptionwiththeirmessageThepurposeof
theappisforuserstoanonymouslysharesecrets,orthingstheywouldntfeelcomfortablesharingpublicly,
andtheypostitontheappsmainpage.Whatattractsmostpeopletotheappisitspromiseofanonymity
[105]ThisanonymityisespeciallyusefulforLGBTQmemberswhohavenotpubliclyannouncedtheir
sexuality,becauseitallowsthemtoconfideinasupportivedigitalcommunitywithouthavingtoreveal
theiridentity.WhisperalsoincludesasectiondedicatedtotheLGBTQcommunitywhichoftencontains
Comingoutstories.
ManyLGBTQcivilrightsgroupsareactiveonsocialmedia,suchasHumanrightsorganizationandThe
InternationalGay&LesbianHumanRightsCommission.Socialmediaallowscivilrightsgroupstospread
theirmessagetoalarge,diverseaudience,whichisusefulincreatingawarenessofissuesfacedbythe
LGBTQcommunity[106]
Patents
TherehasbeenrapidgrowthinthenumberofUSpatent
applicationsthatcovernewtechnologiesrelatedtosocialmedia,and
thenumberofthemthatarepublishedhasbeengrowingrapidly
overthepastfiveyears.Therearenowover2000publishedpatent
applications.[108]Asmanyas7000applicationsmaybecurrentlyon
fileincludingthosethathaven'tbeenpublishedyet.Onlyslightly
over100oftheseapplicationshaveissuedaspatents,however,
largelyduetothemultiyearbackloginexaminationofbusiness
methodpatents,patentswhichoutlineandclaimnewmethodsof
doingbusiness.[109]
Socialmediaintheclassroom
NumberofUSsocialnetworkpatent
applicationspublishedandpatents
issuedperyearsince2003. [107]
Havingsocialmediaintheclassroomhasbeenacontroversialtopic
forthelastseveralyears.Manyparentsandeducatorshavebeenfearfuloftherepercussionsofhaving
socialmediaintheclassroom.[110]Asresult,cellphoneshavebeenbannedfromclassroomandschools
haveblockedmanypopularsocialmediawebsites.However,despiteadultsapprehensions,studentsare(or
willbe)usingsocialmedia.Asaresultofthat,schoolshaverealizedthattheyneedtoincorporatethese
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toolsintotheclassroombecausetherulesarechanging.ThePeelDistrictSchoolBoard(PDSB)inOntario
isoneofmanyschoolboardsthathasbeguntoaccepttheuseofsocialmediaintheclassroom.In2013,the
PDSBintroducedaBringYourOwnDevice(BYOD)policyandhaveunblockedmanysocialmedia
sites.[111]FewkesandMcCabe(2012)haveresearchedaboutthebenefitsofusingFacebookinthe
classroom.[112]
Wikipedia
Inearly2013,SteveJoordens,aprofessorattheUniversityofToronto,encouragedthe1,900students
enrolledinhisintroductorypsychologycoursetoaddcontenttoWikipediapagesfeaturingcontentthat
relatedtothecourse.Likeothereducators,[113]Joordensarguedthattheassignmentwouldnotonly
strengthenthesitespsychologyrelatedcontent,butalsoprovideanopportunityforstudentstoengagein
criticalreflectionaboutthenegotiationsinvolvedincollaborativeknowledgeproduction.However,
Wikipediasallvolunteereditorialstaffcomplainedthatthestudentscontributionsresultedinan
overwhelmingnumberofadditionstothesite,andthatsomeofthecontributionswereinaccurate.[114]
Facebookandtheclassroom
Facebookrepresentsapotentiallyusefultoolineducationalcontexts.Itallowsforbothanasynchronous
andsynchronous,opendialogueviaafamiliarandregularlyaccessedmedium,andsupportstheintegration
ofmultimodalcontentsuchasstudentcreatedphotographsandvideoandURLstoothertexts,inaplatform
thatmanystudentsarealreadyfamiliarwith.Further,itallowsstudentstoaskmoreminorquestionsthat
theymightnototherwisefeelmotivatedtovisitaprofessorinpersonduringofficehourstoask.[115]Italso
allowsstudentstomanagetheirownprivacysettings,andoftenworkwiththeprivacysettingstheyhave
alreadyestablishedasregisteredusers.
Facebookisonealternativemeansforshyerstudentstobeabletovoicetheirthoughtsinandoutsideofthe
classroom.Itallowsstudentstocollecttheirthoughtsandarticulatetheminwritingbeforecommittingto
theirexpression.[115]Further,thelevelofinformalitytypicaltoFacebookcanalsoaidstudentsinself
expressionandencouragemorefrequentstudentandinstructorandstudentandstudentcommunication.At
thesametime,TownerandMunoznotethatthisinformalitymayactuallydrivemanyeducatorsand
studentsawayfromusingFacebookforeducationalpurposes.
Fromacoursemanagementperspective,Facebookmaybelessefficientasareplacementformore
conventionalcoursemanagementsystems,bothbecauseofitslimitationswithregardstouploading
assignmentsandduetosomestudents(andeducators)resistancetoitsuseineducation.Specifically,there
arefeaturesofstudenttostudentcollaborationthatmaybeconductedmoreefficientlyondedicatedcourse
managementsystems,suchastheorganizationofpostsinanestedandlinkedformat.Thatsaid,anumber
ofstudiessuggestthatstudentsposttodiscussionforumsmorefrequentlyandaregenerallymoreactive
discussantsonFacebookpostsversusconventionalcoursemanagementsystemslikeWebCTorBlackboard
(ChuandMeulemans,2008Salaway,etal.,2008SchroederandGreenbowe,2009).[116][117][118]
Additionally,Facebooksprivacysettingscanbedifficulttounderstandandmanage,leavingsomepotential
usersparticularlyfemalesandolderstudentsuncomfortableaboutthelevelofprivacyandsafety
affordedthem.[117]Further,familiarityandcomfortabilitywithFacebookisoftendividedbysocio
economicclass,withstudentswhoseparentsobtainedacollegedegree,oratleasthavingattendedcollege
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forsomespanoftime,beingmorelikelytoalreadybeactiveusers.[119]Instructorsoughttoseriously
considerandrespectthesehesitancies,andrefrainfromforcingFacebookontheirstudentsforacademic
purposes.[120][121]InstructorsalsooughttoconsiderthatrenderingFacebookoptional,butcontinuingto
providecontentthroughittostudentswhoelecttouseit,placesanunfairburdenonhesitantstudents,who
thenareforcedtochoosebetweenusingatechnologytheyareuncomfortablewithandparticipatingfullyin
thecourse.Arelatedlimitation,particularlyatthelevelofK12schooling,isthedistrust(andinsome
cases,outrightdisallowal)oftheuseofFacebookinformalclassroomsettingsinmanyeducational
jurisdictions.
However,thishesitancytowardsFacebookuseiscontinuallydiminishingintheUnitedStates,asthePew
Internet&AmericanLifeProjectsannualreportfor2012showsthatthelikelihoodofapersontobea
registeredFacebookuseronlyfluctuatesby13percentbetweendifferentlevelsofeducationalattainment,9
percentbetweenurban,suburban,andruralusers,only5percentbetweendifferenthouseholdincome
brackets.Thelargestgapoccursbetweenagebrackets,with86percentof1829yearoldsreportedas
registeredusersasopposedtoonly35percentof65andupyearoldusers.[122]
Twitter
Twitteralsopromotessocialconnectionsamongstudents.Itcanbeusedtoenhancecommunication
buildingandcriticalthinking.Domizi(2013)utilizedTwitterinagraduateseminarrequiringstudentsto
postweeklytweetstoextendclassroomdiscussions.StudentsreportedlyusedTwittertoconnectwith
contentandotherstudents.Additionally,studentsfoundittobeusefulprofessionallyandpersonally[123]
Junco,Heibergert,andLoken(2011)completedastudyof132studentstoexaminethelinkbetweensocial
mediaandstudentengagementandsocialmediaandgrades.Theydividedthestudentsintotwogroups,one
usedTwitterandtheotherdidnot.Twitterwasusedtodiscussmaterial,organizestudygroups,postclass
announcements,andconnectwithclassmates.Juncoandhiscolleagues(2011)foundthatthestudentsinthe
TwittergrouphadhigherGPAsandgreaterengagementscoresthanthecontrolgroup[124]Gao,Luo,and
Zhang(2012)reviewedliteratureaboutTwitterpublishedbetween2008and2011.Theyconcludedthat
Twitterallowedstudentstoparticipatewitheachotherinclass(backchannel),andextenddiscussion
outsideofclass.TheyalsoreportedthatstudentsusedTwittertogetuptodatenewsandconnectwith
professionalsintheirfield.Studentsreportedthatmicrobloggingencouragedstudentstoparticipateata
higherlevel[125]Becausethepostscannotexceed140characters,studentswererequiredtoexpressideas,
reflect,andfocusonimportantconceptsinaconcisemanner.Somestudentsfoundthisverybeneficial.
Otherstudentsdidnotlikethecharacterlimit.Also,somestudentsfoundmicrobloggingtobe
overwhelming(informationoverload).Theresearchindicatedthatmanystudentsdidnotactually
participateinthediscussions,theyjustlurked[126]
YouTube
YouTubeisthemostfrequentlyusedsocialmediatoolintheclassroom.[127]Studentscanwatchvideos,
answerquestions,anddiscusscontent.Additionally,studentscancreatevideostosharewithothers.Sherer
andShea(2011)claimedthatYouTubeincreasedparticipation,personalization(customization),and
productivity.YouTubealsoimprovedstudentsdigitalskillsandprovidedopportunityforpeerlearningand
problemsolving[128](2012)foundthatvideoskeptstudentsattention,generatedinterestinthesubject,and
clarifiedcoursecontent[129]Additionally,thestudentsreportedthatthevideoshelpedthemrecall
informationandvisualizerealworldapplicationsofcourseconcepts.
20/31
4/5/2015
Advertisingonsocialmedia
Tweetscontainingadvertising
In2013,theUnitedKingdomAdvertisingStandardsAuthority(ASA)begantoadvisecelebritiesand
sportstarstomakeitcleariftheyhadbeenpaidtotweetaboutaproductorservicebyusingthehashtag
#sponor#adwithintweetscontainingendorsements.InJuly2013,WayneRooneywasaccusedof
misleadingfollowersbynotincludingeitherofthesetagsinatweetpromotingNike.Thetweetread:
"Thepitcheschange.Thekillerinstinctdoesnt.Owntheturf,anywhere.@NikeFootball
#myground."[130]
ThetweetwasinvestigatedbytheASAbutnochargeswerepressed.TheASAstatedthatWeconsidered
thereferencetoNikeFootballwasprominentandclearlylinkedthetweetwiththeNikebrand."[130]When
askedaboutwhetherthenumberofcomplaintsregardingmisleadingsocialadvertisinghadincreased,the
ASAstatedthatthenumberofcomplaintshadrisenmarginallysince2011butthatcomplaintswere"very
low"inthe"grandscheme."[131]
Censorshipincidents
Socialmediaoftenfeaturesinpolitical
strugglestocontrolpublicperception
andonlineactivity.
Forexample,in2013socialmediawas
bannedinTurkeyaftertheTaksimGezi
Parkprotests.BothTwitterand
YouTubewereclosedincountrywith
Turkishcourtsdecision.Andanew
law,passedbyTurkishParliament,has
grantedimmunitytoTurkeys
TelecommunicationsDirectorate(TB)
personnel.TheTBwasalsogiventhe
authoritytoblockaccesstospecific
websiteswithouttheneedforacourt
order.[132]
BannerinBangkok,observedonthe30thofJune2014,informing
Morerecently,inthe2014Thaicoup
theThaipublicthat'like'or'share'violentorillegalactivityonsocial
d'tat,thepublicwasexplicitly
mediaisunacceptabletoThaiculture.
instructednotto'share'or'like'
dissentingviewsonsocialmediaorface
prison.InJulythatsameyear,inresponsetoWikileaks'releaseofasecretsuppressionordermadebythe
VictorianSupremeCourt,medialawyerswerequotedintheAustralianmediatotheeffectthat"anyone
whotweetsalinktotheWikileaksreport,postsitonFacebook,orsharesitinanywayonlinecouldalso
facecharges".[133]
21/31
4/5/2015
Seealso
Brandinfiltration
Citizenmedia
CokeZeroFacialProfiler
Connectivism(learningtheory)
HumanimpactofInternetuse
Internetandpoliticalrevolutions
Listofphotosharingwebsites
Listofvideosharingwebsites
Listofsocialnetworkingwebsites
Mediapsychology
Metcalfe'slaw
MMORPG
Networkedlearning
Newmedia
Onlinepresencemanagement
Onlineresearchcommunity
Participatorymedia
Socialmediamarketing
Socialmediaoptimization
Socialmediasurgery
Socialmediamining
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110561.OCLC61881089(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61881089).
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Externallinks
SocialMedia:EstablishingCriteriaforLawEnforcementUse
(http://www.fbi.gov/statsservices/publications/law
enforcementbulletin/2013/february/socialmedia
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoSocial
media.
establishingcriteriaforlawenforcementuse?utm_campaign=email
Immediate&utm_content=175293),FBI
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_media&oldid=654987229"
Categories: Collaborativeprojects Socialmedia Massmedia Revolutionarytactics
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon5April2015,at01:20.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
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