THE INFLUENCE OF MASS MEDIA IN SHAPING PEOPLES PERCEPTION

BY

NANKANJA MAIMUNA
REGNO: 211 023052 04049

RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

OF MASS COMMUNICATION, FACULTY OF ARTS AND
SOCIAL SCIENCE, ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
IN UGANDA

March 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE.............................................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY................................................................................................................1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT............................................................................................................................3
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY...................................................................................................................3
1.4 GENERAL OBJECTIVE.............................................................................................................................3
1.5 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................3
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY................................................................................................................4
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY............................................................................................................................4
1.8 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMINOLOGIES....................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................................................8
LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................................8
2.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................8
2.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.........................................................................................................8
2.3 MEDIA EFFECTS MODELS......................................................................................................................8
2.4 MEDIA EFFECTS AND NEWS PRODUCTION...........................................................................................10
2.5 NEWSPAPER AND FEAR OF CRIME........................................................................................................11
2.6 NEWSPAPER AND ATTITUDES TOWARD POLICE....................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE......................................................................................................................................15
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................15
3.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................15
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN...............................................................................................................................15
3.2 AREA OF THE STUDY............................................................................................................................15
3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY.................................................................................................................16
3.4 SAMPLING DESIGN...............................................................................................................................16
3.5 SAMPLE SIZE........................................................................................................................................16
3.6 INSTRUMENT USED FOR DATA COLLECTION.......................................................................................16
3.7 METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA..........................................................................................................16
REFERENCES:............................................................................................................................................18

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose
of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, scope
of the study, and conceptual frame work.
1.1 Background of the study
In the modern society, mass media represents the dominant mean of social

communication, giving to the individuals and to the groups a permanent intense stream
of data, facts and ideas.
When the information is transmitted through mass media, it proposes certain meanings,
building a certain image about the world. Therefore, I could say that the values,
hierarchies and social norms promoted by media, the meanings determined by them,
could influence the way of thinking and the cognitive map of the people. This means
that mass media works as a creator of an agenda with classifications and priorities for
the mass audience.
Mass-media expresses and influences positive or negative opinions, behaviors,
mentalities, values and social norms, contributing to the increasing or to the decreasing
of knowledge and the general education level of people in the essential areas of culture
and civilization.
Regarding

this

aspect,

it

is

important

the

conclusion

drawn

by Alexander

King and Bertrand Schneider, two reporters from the Club of Rome. They said that
mass-media has become one of the main agents in the shaping of the public opinion
and of peoples thinking.
The humanity shaped by mass media in the world, at the global village level,
as McLuhan said, must not be viewed as being reduced to a general uniformization of
the individuals, but rather as a diversified collectivity.

In my opinion, the values and the norms are represented in different ways, depending
on the culture of each country. For example, values such as family, freedom, identity,
tolerance,

security,

money

are

reflected

different

in Uganda,

in

comparison

with America, with a great history of capitalism and democracy. Americans are
associated with freedom, Uganda are associated with hospitality and with old and
valuable traditions.
The media is actually very powerful because it can influence and shape the perception
of the public. This is the main reason why there are a lot of responsibilities involved with
the press because of the big impact that they have on the minds of different individuals.
But a lot of people ask, does the press or the online media truly have a great effect on
millions of people? How do they influence the opinions and perception of the public? If
you watch the news, you will definitely get a lot of information and updates on various
fields of interests. The media has the power to present all of the reports regarding a
specific event, which is the main source of information for millions of people from
around the world. If you want to understand what happened during a particular event,
then you can simply watch some news and media updates regarding that event.
If you take a very close look at television shows and news reports, you will probably
notice that some of these outlets have a narrow message that can be etched within the
minds of people. In previous years, news reports were highly limited to presenting the
different facts and information surrounding a specific event. It was considered to be
irresponsible for reports and news anchors to incorporate their own thoughts and ideas
regarding a certain situation. But things are quite different these days. More and more
anchors and news presenters already give in their own opinions and interjections, which
can also strongly influence how one perceives a specific news item. Some of news
reports are also based according to how the press TV wants the public to perceive a
specific person. For example, a show may present all of the possibilities of a suspected
murdered to be guilty, but fails to present the other side of the story. This is truly one of
the most important topics that most experts discuss about media bias, press release
and other media matters.
On the other hand, there is another side to the story because mass media can also
have a very positive effect on people. It can evoke feelings of love, national pride and
2

patriotism, especially in situations involving national difficulties or catastrophes. Mass

media definitely has a great impact on how people get the message regarding a specific
news item.
Based on the above points, media definitely has a great responsibility in shaping the
perception and opinions of different people.
1.2 Problem statement
The process of manipulation through the personal choice exercised in a multiple source of
information and culture forms the myth of media pluralism. This idea is manipulated through the
fact that the individual believes that his choice is meaningful. The information controllers create
confusion by providing an abundance of media which gives the impression of a diverse content,
when in fact the content is rather similar and manipulative. This way, the real choice is actually
reduced to the monopoly of a few sources of information with no major difference in quality. The
verification of the same information from multiple channels ensures the in fact the success of
the manipulation.

Finally, I agree with the theory of Schiller that mass-media is manipulating the public through
five basic myths that structure the content of the information. In this way, mass-media is shaping
our values. Thus the researchers interest in the topic the influence of mass media in shaping
peoples perception

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4

General Objective
To determine the influence of Mass Media to the influence of mass media in shaping
peoples perception

1.5 Specific Objectives

i) To show how the contents of Mass Media affects Ugandans perceptions.
ii) To examine its pervasive impact on the cultural values of Ugandans.
iii) To identify ways of avoiding Media from leading negative perceptions.

1.5

Research Questions
i) How does the Mass Media shapes people perceptions?
ii) What are the Impacts of Mass Media on the shaping of people perceptions?
iii) How can aspects of Mass Media negative perceptions avoided

1.6 Significance of the Study

i)
The research will help in possible dilution, domination and finally absorption of the
African/Ugandan culture which until the present has been characterized with good
neighborliness, respect for elders, virtuousness, community orientation and
collectivism.
ii)

It will enable the government and policy makers to put adequate measures in place to
check the movement of Western television programmes into Uganda.

iii)

Finally, the study adds to the existing literature, and is a valuable tool for students,
academicians, institutions, corporate managers and individuals who want to learn
more about Mass media influence on shaping peoples perception.

1.7 Scope of the Study

Geographical scope: The study will be carried out in Uganda, Kampala District.
Subject scope: the research will review literature related to influence of Mass media in
shaping peoples perception
1.8 Definition of Key Terminologies
i) Mass Media

The mass media are diversified media technologies that are intended to reach a
large audience by mass communication. The technology through which this
communication takes place varies. Broadcast media such as radio, recorded
music, film and television transmit their information electronically. Print media use a
physical object such as a newspaper, book, pamphlet or comics, to distribute their
information. Outdoor media are a form of mass media that comprises billboards,
signs, or placards placed inside and outside of commercial buildings, sports
4

stadiums, shops, and buses. Other outdoor media include flying billboards (signs in
tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting, and AR Advertising. Public speaking and event
organizing can also be considered forms of mass media. The digital media
comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media provide
many mass media services, such as email, websites, blogs, and Internet-based
radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have a presence on the web,
by such things as having TV ads that link to a website, or distributing a QR Code in
print or outdoor media to direct a mobile user to a website. In this way, they can
utilize the easy accessibility that the Internet has, and the outreach that Internet
affords, as information can easily be broadcast to many different regions of the world
simultaneously and cost-efficiently.
Each mass media has its own content types, its own creative artists and technicians,
and

its

own

business

models.

For

example,

the

Internet

includes web

sites, blogs, podcasts, and various other technologies built on top of the general
distribution network. The sixth and seventh media, internet and mobile, are often
called collectively as digital media; and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV,
as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct
mass form of media.
While a telephone is a two-way communication device, mass media refer to medium
which can communicate a message to a large group, often simultaneously. However,
modern cell phones are no longer a single-use device. Most cell phones are
equipped with internet access and capable of connecting to the web which itself is a
mass medium. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or
simply a device used to access a mass medium (the internet). There is currently a
system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites, and
broadcast commercials and advertisements directly to cell phones, unsolicited by the
phone's user. This transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is a form of
mass communication.
Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium. Video games convey the
same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the
experience with one another by playing online. Excluding the internet however, it is
5

questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience

when they play the game separately. It is possible to discuss in great detail the
events of a video game with a friend you have never played with because the
experience was identical to you both. The question is whether this is then a form of
mass communication.
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) such as Run escape
provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe. It is
arguable that the users are receiving the same message, i.e., the game is mass
communicating the same messages to the various players.
ii) Perception
Perception -- seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting, feeling the positions of joints
and the tension of muscles, balance, temperature, pain... -- begins with the stimulation of
sensory neurons. Each sense involves highly evolved cells which are sensitive to a
particular stimulus: Pain receptors respond to certain chemicals produced when tissues
are damaged. Touch receptors involve cells with hairs which, when bent, cause signals
to travel down the cell's axon. Balance, movement, and even hearing involve similar hair
cells. Temperature sensitive neurons response to heat and cold. Taste and smell
receptors respond to environmental molecules in the same way that other neurons
respond to neurotransmitters. And the neurons of the retina respond to the presence of
light or the specific frequency ranges of light we perceive as color.
But perception is more than just passive reception of information. Perception is
an active process: Touch, for example, requires movement - something that nowadays
we call "scanning." Touch includes information about you (e.g. your muscles, joints) as
well as about what you are touching. We can say the same about hearing. We should
really call it listening! The sound itself is intrinsically moving, of course - it is constantly
changing. If it didnt, we would stop hearing it!
And the same is true about vision. Vision involves constant movement - of our eyes,
head, and body, or of the things we see or all of the above. The outer parts of our retina
are particularly sensitive to motion, so when something comes into our field of vision, our
attention is drawn to it. Even the fact that we have two eyes (binocular vision) is a kind of
movement: The two views are slightly different, as if we had moved a few inches to the

left or right. If we kept our eyes and the scene we are looking at perfectly still, everything
would all become white!
We should also keep in mind that perception is not something done with the eyes or the
ears or any specific sense organ. It is a multi-sensory, full bodied thing: "A one-year-old
child standing on the floor of a room will fall down if the walls are silently and suddenly
moved forward a few inches, although nothing touches him."

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The actual literature reviewed for this study are books, journals of communication,
professional publications both published and unpublished works, seminar works, projects,
among others.

2.2 Review of Related Literature

The mass media constantly surround us, frequently inform us, and just as
frequently misinform us and possibly (Heath and Gilbert 1996). Hence, the
influence of mass media is significant since media could be identified as a primary
force (along with direct and indirect experience) in shaping people's views of crime
(Dominick 1978).
Besides the significant effect on fear of crime, mass media has influence on
publics attitudes toward police force at the same time. Noted by Surette (1998),
news media may be the primary source for citizens perceptions of police
legitimacy and routine crime reports generally offer a conflicting portrayal of police
as heroic and professional crime fighters, while simultaneously portraying police as
ineffective and incompetent.
On the grounds of various researches have highlighted the powerful influence of
medias news coverage, there are solid rationales for us to examine the links
between fear of crime and one of media sources: newspapers, and how
newspapers crime news coverage influence publics attitudes toward police
efficiency on crime information releasing.
2.3 Media Effects Models
Before analyzing how public could be affected by media, the evolution of media
effects should be understood first. Scheufele and Tewksbury (2007) stated that
mass media had potentials to produce strong attitudinal effects on readers but
these effects also depended heavily on predispositions, schema, and other
8

characteristics of the readers that affected how they processed the messages
projected in the mass media.
The rise of three models of media effects had received significant attention from
scholars: agenda setting, priming and framing. Agenda setting emphasized mass
media place on particular issues by, for example, enlarging the placement of
coverage, which will affect the importance Discovery SS Student E-Journal Vol.
1, 2012, 215-237216 attributed to these issues by mass audiences (McCombs and
Shaw 1972). That implies the eye-catching content may provide the ease to the
readers while paying attention to those issues in the media and even recalling the
memory afterwards. In addition, many scholars like McCombs (1981), and Rogers
and Dearing (1988) added that the basis of agenda setting comprised the media
do not directly influence peoples opinions or what they think but the agenda of
issues they think about when the media highlighted some issues meanwhile ignore
others.
Priming referred to the changes of the standards that people use to make political
evaluations (Iyengar and Kinder 1987, p. 63). It occurs when the content of news
report suggests to the readers that what they should use as benchmarks for
evaluating on some specific issues, for instance, the performance of governments
(Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007), therefore, it usually being regarded as an
extension of the concept of agenda setting.
There were two reasons for that, first, agenda setting and priming are also based
on memory-based models of information processing. They assumed peoples
attitudes and judgments formation were related to the ease in which associations
could be brought to their minds (Tversky and Kahneman 1973, p. 208). Second, by
making some issues more salient in readers minds (agenda setting), media can
also shape the considerations that people taking into account when they express
their attitudes about the issues (priming) (Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007).
On the other hand, framing differed from the two models while the concept
addressed on how an issue portrayed in the media news can create effects on how
readers perceived it (Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007). In a macro level, it referred
9

to modes of presentation that used by journalists and other communicators to

present information, in a way that resonated with existing underlying schemas
among the readers (Shoemaker and Reese 1996). In a micro level, it
demonstrated how people use information and presentation features regarding
issues as they form impressions (Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007).
2.4 Media Effects and News Production
Accordingly, whether we recognize the effects of media or not, our perception to
this world was heavily influenced by the information provided by the media. Since
the journalists could not cover every single events happened every day, thus, it
was necessary for them to be selective. This process of selection was the first
stage of creating news and that was the reason why news was clearly vulnerable
to distortion (Tuchman 1978).
As a result, news consumers beliefs were the reflection of the exposure to certain
types of reporting in the news media, notably those involving sex or violence,
created a distorted picture of reality (Winkel and Vrij 1990, Marsh 1991). Thus,
Erskine (1974) proposed that public perceived crime as more prevalent than it
actually was and consequently experienced fear that was disproportional to their
actual danger.
Williams and Dickinson (1993) made the same point on medias influence on
publics views on crime as well. Although there are many sources of fear of crime
could be identified, such as being a victim and physical vulnerability (Parker and
Ray 1990), most people have neither been a victim nor a witness of crime.
Consequently, the anticipation of most individuals fear towards crimes was
attributed to indirect sources the mass media could be made.
Besides, the distorted reality that public read from news could be on account of
many crime reports were far from dispassionate, highly graphic, involve
Discovery SS Student E-Journal Vol. 1, 2012, 215-237 217 sensational
portrayals and embellished descriptions (Priyadarsini 1984). Hence,

10

Gordon and Heath (1981) pointed out sex and violence are staples in newspapers
with amount of crime reported being unrelated to the actual crime rate in the locale
(Fishman 1987). For example, violent crimes were much more likely to be reported
than less violent ones, often with important details, such as motive, omitted from
the news report (Heath et al. 1981).
Other than publics perception on crime, it was clear that citizens were many times
presented with conflicting images of police force and their effectiveness, the
portrayal of the police force was rather extreme, as some scholars found out how
the police were presented as being unrealistically effective in their studies (Doyle
1998) but others argued that news media usually focused on failed attempts by
police to control crime and neglected to cover positive crime control efforts (Graber
1980).
Thus, the conflicting images of police force and their effectiveness provided by
news media leaving an interesting question that worth exploring.
2.5 Newspaper and Fear of Crime
News reports were unavoidably bound to convey a twisted reality to their readers,
now the main question is whether people based their own subjective assessments
of the probability of crime on the frequencies of what is being reported in
newspapers (Williams and Dickinson 1993).
Rosenbaum and Heath (1990) hence pointed out a vital factor that apart from
objective environmental conditions that should be responsible for fear of crime: it
was the mass media. Bernard (1992) confirmed the idea in his study as well by
concluding that the increase in news about crime led to higher fear of crime.
However, newspapers differed in the extent of reporting on crime, the readers
perceptions of crime would in turn differ. Scholars like Williams and Dickinson
(1993) further explored the relationships between extent of crime news and fear of
crime, the study illustrated the differences in amount of space and prominence
given to crime of daily newspapers in British. And it found the differences had led
to different levels of fear among readers, in other words, mass medias various
presentations of crime news may cause different degrees of fear of crime.
11

Furthermore, factors that could moderate medias presentation effects on fear of

crime were examined. Heath and Gilbert (1996) proposed those factors may
include randomness, locality and sensationalism of crimes, and self-relevance and
sensationalism of the presentation of crimes. For example, crime news that
included no information about motives raised more fear than those motives were
illustrated in the report.
Therefore, studies of how sensationalism influence fear of crime have developed,
like Stapel and Velthuijsen (1996) compared the effects of vivid and sensational
newspaper reports of car accidents with a pallid presentation of the incidents along
with the same information about the crimes. Consequently, the perceptions of
victimization of a car accident and of regarding car accidents as a serious social
problem were higher among the participants who were provided the vivid and
sensational reports.
William and Dickinson (1993) on the other hand provided a further illustration on
why specific characteristics such as information encoded with images in the news
reports could lead to biases for the readers. For example, people tended to make
assessments based on heuristic principle; it means we all relied on using only the
information which was most readily available for us due to the familiarity, salience
or recentness of the information (Tversky and Kahneman 1973). Information was
more Discovery SS Student E-Journal Vol. 1, 2012, 215-237 218 readily
available to readers when they are presented through more than one mode, such
as accompanying photos to the news reports (i.e. illustration with words as well as
colored photos). As a result, a crime reported in that fashion would be judged as
more likely to occur in the future since readers could recall relevant instances of
the crime easily (Slovic et al. 1977).
Accordingly, it was not surprising that readers had the tendency to overestimate
small frequencies and underestimate large ones, also, tried to exaggerate the
frequencies of some specific issues because of the disproportionate exposure to
those events, especially influential when having memorable characteristics like
sensationalism and vividness (Lichtenstein et al. 1978). Publics false perception of
12

crimes, especially to those serious crimes like sex and violent offences was
constructed due to the extensive media coverage they received.
2.6

Newspaper and Attitudes toward Police

For the effects on attitudes towards police, scholars like Surette (1998) and Marsh
(1991) already confirmed that news media was one of the core sources for publics
perceptions of police legitimacy. Hence, similar to the results of Doyle (1998) that
mentioned before, Lawrence (2000) concluded the news media helped creating
the legitimacy of police, in addition sometimes it might even destroy it.
Weitzers study (2002) discussed the effects on public perception of the police
department implicated in various incidents in Los Angeles and New York City as a
result of the highly publicized incidents related to police misconduct. With the
consideration of the innate influence of those incidents to the public, the findings of
the study indicated celebrated incidents of police misconduct may color publics
attitude towards police (Weitzer 2002). In particular, their attitudes would be
negatively influenced by well-publicized brutality and corruption events of the force.
It might further induce a negative outcome that public would become less
cooperative with the police and tend to believe subsequent allegations of police
misconduct even when the force behaved properly. In the end, the future citizenpolice relationship and efficiency of police investigation will be seriously affected.
Moreover, Chibnall (1975) examined in his study about Fleet Street crime
reporters, it found that media editors unscrupulously publicized and condemned
polices inefficiency on releasing crime information as well. Simmons (1999) added
on Chibnalls study by doubting the ability of press police officers to identify news
since reporters always complained the delayed release of information or the
information was available universally, thus, made it difficult for the reporters to
scoop other news institutions by reporting the latest and exclusive news stories.
As for this study, only the attitudes on Hong Kong polices efficiency on releasing
crime information would be examined since the issue was covered by most of the

13

Hong Kong news media and being discussed by society popularly during the
research period. That is why the issue was worth for exploration.

14

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This study is designed to find out The Influence of Mass Media in Shaping
Peoples Perception case study Uganda (Kampala). This goal cannot be
achieved unless the research work is orderly, imaginative, logical and accurate.
Hence, this chapter is associated with the research method used in carrying out the
work. The pertinent pointed here is that it helps to know which method is
appropriate for the project.
3.1 Research Design
It is an acceptable fact that research design is the basic plan that guide data
collection and the analysis phase of any research work. The design of a research
can be regarded as the frame-work which specifies the type of information to be
gathered including the source of data and the procedure used in collecting them.
Therefore, on the basis of this study, the research design that will be used for
collecting the required information is the survey analysis on the basis of selfadministered questionnaire, interview and personal observation. The analysis of the
data collected will base on descriptive and inferential statistical tools of measuring
data. The primary and secondary data are source of information on the influence the
influence of media in homosexuality popularity case study Uganda (Kampala)
3.2 Area of the Study
The geographical location of this research work will be within Uganda specifically
Kampala District.
The area comprise of about thousand individuals. But based on this study, one
hundred and twenty will be selected for this study using the random sampling
method.
The research will examine the influence of mass media in shaping peoples
perception of Ugandan.

15

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of the study can be said to be animate or inanimate things which a
study was focused. It could be class, school, libraries, towns, local government
area, states, nations or persons the research is interested in getting information for
the study (Nnayelugo: 2001).
In this research study, the population used comprised of individuals in town and
other stake holders that will be selected randomly from different areas of the town
(kampala Town).
3.4 Sampling Design
The researcher will use random sampling in the interest of the time and reliable
information desired
3.5 Sample Size
The sample considered 120 respondents from different parts of Kampala per the
sampling design.
3.6

Instrument Used For Data Collection

Questionnaire, interview and personal observations are to be used for the
collection of the data.
The instruments to be used for the collection of data are meant for selected
individuals in the town which are to be used as a case study of the research work.
The questionnaire will be rightly used to measure the independent and dependent
variables identified in the research question and hypothesis.

3.7

Method of Collecting Data

The data of this research work will be collected through the administration of
questionnaire, interview and personal observation on respondents in the selected
Town. The instrument will be used to elicit demographic data and data for specific
questions for the study.
To ensure accurate data collection, the questionnaires will be distributed directly by
the researcher to the respondents. The interview and personal observation will
also be conducted by the researcher.
16

The above instruments will be used to help in collecting an aggregate amount of

the data to be used for the study.

17

References:
Manohar, Uttara. "Different Types of Mass Media". Buzzle.com. RetrievedNovember
26, 2011.
"Mass media", Oxford English Dictionary, online version November 2010
Potter, W. James (2008). Arguing for a general framework for mass media scholarship.
SAGE. p
"All the worlds a game". The Economist. 2011-12-10. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
Smith, S.E. (4 October 2011). "What is Mass Media?". Conjecture Corporation.
Retrieved November 26, 2011.
Splichal, Slavko (2006). "In Pursuit of Socialized Press". In Berry, David & Theobald
John. Radical mass media criticism: a cultural genealogy. Black Rose Books.
p. 41.ISBN 978-1-55164-246-8.

Walter Lippmann, Public opinion. New York: Macmillan, 1922, p.29.

Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, The agenda-setting function of mass media,
Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 1972, 176-187.
Wayne Wanta and Salma Ghanem, Effects of agenda-setting. In Meta-analyses of
media effects, Jennings Bryant and Rodney Carveth, eds. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum: forthcoming.

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