Aero Gas Turbine Design

ENGINE DIVISION HRD
CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT OF CONTINUOUS LEARNING
Intensive Course on
Aero Gas Turbine Design

(Components & Sub Systems)
2010-11
Shri V.Sundararajan
Ex-Director, GTRE
ENGINE DIVISION, BANGALORE COMPLEX,
HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

BANGALORE 560 093
HALENGINEDIVISIONRESTRICTEDUSAGE&FORINTERNALCIRCULATIONONLY
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
INDEX
Sl.No.
Particulars
PageNo.
GasTurbineEngineAnOverview
Compressor
28
TurboProp&TurboShaftEngines
41
CombustionChambers
46
Turbines
56
ExhaustSystem
64
Afterburning
70
FuelSystem
78
FullAuthorityDigitalEngineControlSystem
86
10
StartingAndIgnitionSystem
107
11
PerformanceDeduction&Prediction
113
12
AltitudeTestingVisVisFlyingTestBedForGasTurbineEngineDevelopment
143
13
AirframeEngineIntegration
149
14
GasTurbineEngineManufacturingTechniques
157
15
PerformanceTestingAndAnalysis
174
16
ClassificationofCriticalityofAeroEngineComponents
177
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
GAS TURBINE ENGINE AN OVERVIEW
Contents
PrincipleofJetPropulsion
ClassificationofGasTurbineEngines
GasTurbineEnginesPrincipleofOperation
GasTurbineEnginesComponentsandSubSystems
EngineTesting
Gasturbinematerials
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
HISTORYOFGASTURBINES
PrincipleofJetpropulsion
JetPropulsionisapracticalapplicationofNewtonsIIILawofmotion
Foreveryforceactingonabodythereisanequalandoppositereaction
Inthecaseofaircraftpropulsionthebodyisatmosphericairthatiscausedtoaccelerate
asitpassesthroughtheengine
APropulsionsystemisamachinethatproducesthrustorpowertopushanobjectforward
TheGasortheworkingfluidisacceleratedbytheengineandreactiontothisacceleration
producesaforceontheengine
ThePropulsionSystem
Propulsion=pro+pellere
pro:beforeorforwards
pellere:meaningtodrive.
Propulsionmeanstopushforwardordriveanobjectforward.
Apropulsionsystemisamachinethatproducesthrusttopushanobjectforward.Agas,or
workingfluid,isacceleratedbytheengine,andthereactiontothisaccelerationproducesa
forceontheengine.
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PurposeofThePropulsionSystem
TheAirplanepropulsionsystemmustservetwopurposes.
The thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the
airplaneiscruising.
Thethrustfromthepropulsionsystemmustexceedthedragoftheairplanefortheairplane
toaccelerate,climbandmaneuver.ThisiscalledasexcessthrustoverdragknownasThrust
Dragi.e.(TD)
PurposeoftheJetPropulsion
During straight and level flight called cruise, the engine must produce sufficient thrust to
balancetheaircraftdrag.
For civil or commercial engines fuel economy or specific fuel consumption is of prime
importancetogetmaximumrangeandendurance.
Specificfuelconsumptionisdefinedas:fuelflow/thrustoftheengine.
Forfighteraircraftapplicationshorttakeoff,fastacceleration,fastrateofclimbandgood
maneuverperformanceareofprimeimportanceforwhichadditionalthrustisrequired.
Excess thrust over drag i.e. ( Thrust Drag ) is used for climbing to higher altitudes or for
accelerating from one mach number to another mach number and also for maneuver for
militaryaircraft.
Mach Number is defined as the ratio of the velocity of the object to the velocity of the
sound.Itisnondimensionalquantity.
Thrust to Weight ratio (T/W) is one of the important figures of merit for fighter aircraft
engines.
AnadditionalfigureofmeritforaircraftisLift/Dragratioi.e.L/Dratio.
AircraftCeiling
Theabsoluteceilingofanaircraftisthataltitudeatwhichtherateofclimbiszero.
RateofClimbisdefiedas(ThrustDrag)/WeightxVelocityoftheaircraft:(TD)/WxV
TheunitofRateofClimbisft/secormeters/sec
TheaircraftcruisesataltitudesincetheS.F.C.decreaseswithaltitude
ThemilitaryaircrafthasanincreasedRateofClimbcomparedtotheCivilaircraft
ForobtainingincreasedRateofClimbafterburnerisemployedinMilitaryaircraft
TheaircraftgenerallycruisesataRPMslightlylowerthanthemaximumRPMsay95to96%
RPMforfuelefficiency
AircraftControlsPitch,RollandYaw
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AeroGasTurbineEngineTechnology
Forthepast4to5decadestheaerogasturbineenginetechnologyhasgrowntremendously
intermsofengineoverallpressure,TurbineentrytemperatureandThrust/Weightratio
TheOverallpressureratiohasgoneupby~9to10times
Turbineentrytemperature(TET)hasdoubled
ThrusttoWeightratiohasincreasedby~2.5times
ThishasresultedinlesserengineAssembliesandSubassemblies,enginepartcounts,major
reductioninenginelengthanddiameter
All these Technology improvements have been made possible by improved
Aerothermodynamics, Computational Fluid Dynamics techniques, Advancement in
manufacturing and Fabrication technologies, Advanced Control Systems and Advanced
materials
ClassificationofGasturbineengine
Theclassificationcanbemade:
BasedontheapplicationofGasturbineengine
BasedonthefluidunderwhichtheGasturbineengineoperates
PropulsionSystemClassification(Applicationbased)
AeroEngines(foraircraftsandhelicopters)
PowerGeneration(100KW1000MW)
Marineengines
IndustrialApplications
CombatVehicles,Automobiles
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PropulsionSystemClassification(Workingfluidbased)
JetandPropellerEngines(Airbreathingengines)
Jetenginegivesalargeaccelerationtoasmallweightofair
Propellerenginegivesasmallaccelerationtoalargeweightofair
GasTurbineEngines:Turbojet
Theturbojet,thesimplestandearliesttypeofgasturbine,isusedprincipallyinhighspeedaircraft
whereitsrelativelysmallfrontalareaandhighjetvelocityareadvantageous.Theturbineextractsonly
sufficientenergyfromthegasstreamtodrivethecompressor,leavingtheremainingenergytoprovide
thethrust.
ExamplesoftheturbojetaretheRollsRoyceOLYMPUS593intheConcordesupersonicairlinerandthe
RollsRoyceVIPERwhichisusedinavarietyofmilitaryaircraft.
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
GASTURBINEENGINES:TURBOFAN
Theturbofanisthemostcommontypeofgasturbineusedforaircraftpropulsiontoday.Partoftheair
enteringtheengineiscompressedfullyandpassedintothecombustionchamber,whiletheremainder,
compressedtoalesserextent,bypassesthecombustionsection,toprovidecoldthrust.Thisbypassflow
rejoinsthehotflowdownstreamoftheturbine,asintheAE3007engine.
Examples of the turbofan are the AE 3007 in the Cessna Citation X and Embraer EMB 145, the Rolls
RoyceRB211intheBoeing747,theRollsRoyce535intheBoeing757,theRollsRoyceTAYintheGulf
streamIVandFokker100,theRollsRoyceADOURintheJaguarandHawk,andtheRollsRoyceRB199in
theTornado.
JetEnginewithhighbypassratio
Bypassratioisdefinedastheratioofthebypassair(coldair)tothecoreair(Gasgenerator
air).
ThisBypassratioisoftheorderof8to9inTurbofanenginesresultingingoodfuelefficiency
namelyGoodSpecificfuelconsumption(SFC).
Theseareofunmixedtype
TwotypesofthrustnamelyColdthrustandHotthrustareproducedandsumofthetwois
thetotalthrust
Enginesizeisbigbecauseofhighbypassratioandgiveslowerspecificthrustandverylow
SFC
SpecificthrustisdefinedasThrustperunitmassflowrate.
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TurbofanEngine
BypassEngine
Thiscanbeconsideredasaturbofanenginewithlow(small)bypassratiointherangeof0.2
to1.
This is quite suitable for military engines where both high thrust and moderate fuel
efficiency(SFC)areofprimeimportance.
Smallbypassratioresultsinsmallersize,highspecificthrustandmoderatelylowSFC.
Theseareofmixedtypei.e.boththecoldandthehotstreamsaremixed.
GE90(Turbofan)Mostpowerfulengineinaviationforthrustproduction
Thrust
:115,300lbs
SFC
:0.25lb/lbt/hr
Overallpressureratio
:42:1
MaximumTurbineinlettemperature
:1750K
Bypassratio
:9
Airmassflow
:3,000lb/sec
Weight
:18,260lbs
Thrusttoweightratio
:6.3:1
Fuelburnduringtakeoff
:3,750gallons/hr
Singlestagefanfollowedby04stageaxialboosterand9stageaxialflowHPcompressor
2stageaxialturbine
HighbypassratiodualshaftTurbofan
GASTURBINEENGINES:TURBOPROP
The turboprop is a turbojet with an additional turbine which uses the energy remaining in the gas
stream, after sufficient energy has been absorbed to drive the compressor, to drive a propeller. The
additionalturbine,calledthepowerturbine,drivesthepropellerthroughashaftandareductiongear.A
smallamountofresidualthrustremainsintheexhaustgasesduringnormaloperation.
Theturbopropisaveryefficientforrelativelylowspeed,lowaltitudeaircraft,
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Example of the turboprop are the AE 2100 used in the SAAB 2000 and IPTN N250, the T56 used in a
variety of military turboprops, the RollsRoyce DART in the British Aerospace 748 and the Fokker F27,
andtheRollsRoyceTYNEintheTransallC160andDassaultBreguetAtlantic.
GasTurbineEngines:TurboShaft
The turbo shaft is effectively a turboprop without a propeller, the power turbine in this case being
coupled to a reduction gearbox or directly to an output shaft. In the same way as the turboprop, the
powerturbineabsorbsasmuchoftheremainingenergyaspossibleandtheresidualthrustisverylow.
Themostcommonapplicationoftheturboshaftisthehelicopter,inwhichtheenginedrivesboththe
mainandtailrotors.Turboshaftsarealsowidelyusedforindustrialandmarineinstallations,including
powerandpumpingstations,hovercraftandships.
ExamplesoftheturboshaftaretheT406intheV22Osprey,theT800intheRAH66Comanche,the250
usedinapproximately75%oftheworld'slighthelicopters,theRollsRoyceGEMintheWestlandLynx
andtheRollsRoyceGNOMEintheWestlandSeaKingHelicopters.
Ramjet
No Rotating parts (i.e. no compressor & turbine) and consists of a duct with a divergent
entry,combustionchamberandconvergentdivergentnozzleexit.
Itcannotbestartedunderstaticconditionandairhastobeforcedintotheairintake
Inotherwordsitisnotselfpropellingatzerovelocity
To initiate the operation the Ramjet must be either launched from airplane in flight or be
givenaninitialvelocitybysomeauxiliarymeans.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
RocketEngines(NonAirbreathingEngine)
DoesnotuseAtmosphericairasworkingfluid
Producesitsownpropellingfluidbythecombustionofliquidorchemicallydecomposedfuel
withoxygenwhichitcarries,thusenablingittooperateoutsidetheearthsatmosphere.
Henceitissuitableonlyforoperationovershortperiods
GasTurbineEnginesPrincipleofOperation
GasTurbineEngineoperatesonathermodynamiccycleknownastheBraytoncycle
Airisdrawnfromatmosphere
Pressurerise(Compression)takesplaceinthecompressor
Highpressureairismixedwithfineatomizedfuelsprayandignitedwithhighenergyspark.
Combustiontakesplaceatconstantpressure
Hotgasesarisingoutofcombustionimpingeontheturbineandrotateitandhencecalled
gasturbine.
The Turbine drives the compressor and Turbinecompressor combination becomes self
sustainingafterstart
SelfsustainingRPMisthatRPMatwhichtheTurbineproducessufficientpowertodrivethe
compressor
Balance pressure energy is converted into velocity in the exhaust nozzle and the rate of
changeofmomentumproducesthethrustwhichisequaltotheMassflowratetimesthe
changeinvelocityfromfronttotherearoftheengine.
Fortakingtheengineuptoselfsustainingspeedanexternalstartingsystemisrequired.
HowaJetEngineworks?
11
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
During compression the work is done on the air which increases the pressure and
temperatureanddecreasesthevolumeoftheair
During combustion fuel is added to the compressed air and burnt. This increases the
temperature and the volume of air while the pressure remains almost constant since the
engineoperatesonaconstantpressurecycle.
Duringexpansionwhentheworkistakenfromthegasstreambytheturbinetodrivethe
compressor,pressureandtemperaturedecreasewhilethevolumeincreases
WorkingCycleofGasTurbineEngine
Similartothatofa4strokepistonengine
In Gas turbine engine combustion occurs at constant pressure whereas in piston engine it
occursatconstantvolume.
InBothcasesthecyclecomprisesofInduction,Compression,Combustionandexhaust.
InPistonenginethecycleisintermittent,pistonbeingconcernedinall4strokes
In Gas turbine engine the cycle is continuous with a separate compressor, combustor,
Turbineandtheexhaustsystem
ComparisonofWorkingCycleofaPistonandTurbojetEngines
Advantagesofgasturbineoverpistonengines
TheContinuousCycleandabsenceofreciprocatingpartsgiveasmootherengineandenable
moreenergytobereleasedforagivensize
Peakpressuresthatoccurinpistonengineareavoided
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
GasTurbineengineComponentsandSubsystems
GasTurbineEngineComponentsandSubsystems
Thegasturbineenginecanbedividedintovariouscomponentsandsubsystems
Thesecomponentsandsubsystemsarealsocalledasenginemoduleswhentheengineis
builtinamodularfashion
Generally those items which perform some thermodynamic process are called as
Componentsandthoseitemswhichaidthesecomponentstoperformthethermodynamic
arecalledasSubSystems
Theaboveisonlyagenericclassificationandtheycanbeinterchangedi.e.thesubsystems
canbecalledascomponentsandviceversa
DefinitionsOfComponentEfficiencies
Isentropicefficiencyofcompressor:
=Idealtemperaturerise/ActualTemperaturerise
Isentropicefficiencyofturbine:
=Actualtemperaturedrop/Idealtemperaturedrop
Combustionefficiency:
=Idealfueltoairratio/Actualfueltoairratio
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
FunctionalConceptofSingleandTwinSpoolEngines
The older engines were single spool engines having a large number of compressor stages
resultinginlargeenginelength,operationalcomplexityandincreasedcost
Since the compression is an adverse pressure gradient process it was felt that the engine
compressor can be split into low and high pressure compressors resulting in two spool
engines
There are a few three spool engines also mainly from Rolls Royce (RR Trent series of
engines,RB199,RB211engines)
The advantage of multi spool ( two and three spool) engines is that it increases the
operationalflexibilityoftheaerogasturbineengines
FunctionalConcept(TwinSpoolEngines)
Inatwinspoolengine,typically
Highpressureturbinegeneratespowertodrivehighpressurecompressor
Lowpressureturbinegeneratespowertodrivelowpressurecompressor
Thrustisobtainedbyexpandingthegasesthroughtheexhaustnozzle
TheLowpressurecompressor,LPshaftandLowpressureturbineformstheLPspool
Thehighpressurecompressor,HPshaftandHighPressureturbineformstheHPspool
Multispooldesign
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PropulsiveEfficiency
PropulsiveEfficiency=PropulsivePower/RateofproductionofKineticenergy
IfVistheentryvelocityandVJistheexitvelocitythenPropulsiveEfficiencycanderivedas
Propulsiveefficiency=2V/(V+VJ)
whichcanbesimplifiedas
2/(1+VJ/V)
Itcanbeseenthatwhenthepropulsiveefficiencyismaximumi.e.equalto1,thepropulsive
thrustiszero.HencetherelationshipbetweenVJandVisacompromisebetweenPropulsive
thrustandPropulsiveefficiency
PropulsiveEfficiency
15
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
16
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Aircraftenginerequirements
ATypicalCompressor
ATypicalCompressor
17
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
CompressorDesignRequirements
Highstageandoverallpressureratio
Lessnumberofstages
Highrateofmassflowperunitfrontalarea
Goodsurgemargin
Optimumpressureratiosplitbetweenlowandhighpressurecompressorstages
Variablegeometry
Goodefficiency
Inletdistortiontolerancecapability
TypicalCombustor
TypicalCombustor3Dsectionalview
18
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
CombustorDesignRequirements
Lowpressureloss
Highheatreleaserateforagivenvolume
Goodtemperaturedistributiontopreventlocaloverheatingofturbineblades
CircumferentialandRadialPatternfactors
StableoperationfromidlingtomaxRPMoftheengine
Goodrelightcharacteristics
Combustorstabilityathighaltitudes
Lessnoiseandpollutionlevel
ATypicalTurbine
TurbineDesignRequirements
Highstagepressureratio
Highstageloading
Lessnumberofstages
Minimumnumberofblades
Highefficiency
AfterBurning
Afterburnerisoneofthethrustaugmentationdevices
InthisprocesstheMomentumthrustisincreased
The afterburner operation increases the thrust of the engine without increasing the inlet
sizeoftheenginei.e.withoutincreasingthemassflowrateoftheengine
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Inthemaincombustoronlyabout30%oftheoxygenintheairisusedandbalanceairis
used for cooling the combustor liner so that the combustion exit temperature i.e. turbine
inlettemperatureisbroughtwithinacceptablelimitskeepingtheturbinematerialinmind
This balance oxygen / air can be mixed with fuel again (after burning) in the afterburner
combustionchambertogetadditionalthrust.ThisisalsocalledasReheat.
Thisadditionalthrustcanbeusedforfastertakeoff,climb,accelerationandmaneuvers
Afterburner combustion efficiency will be poorer compared to main combustor (since
afterburner operation is at lower pressure levels) and hence less fuel efficient. In other
words the SFC with afterburner will be quite high and this restricts the time duration of
afterburnerusage.
All military engines employ afterburning for short burst additional thrust application as
mentionedabove.
R&D efforts are on to increase the main combustor exit temperature itself to a maximum
valueoftheorderof2100Ksothattheusageofafterburnercanbedispensedwith.
TypicalAfterburner
PrincipleofAfterBurning
20
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AfterburnerDesignRequirements
Lowpressureloss
Highthrustboost
Goodcombustionefficiency
GoodFlameStabilisationusingVGutters
EfficientFuelinjection
Goodrelightcharacteristics
Stablereheatoperation
Reheatstaging
SelectionofoptimumblockageratioandL/Dratio
Linerdesigntoallowforthermalexpansion,Antiscreechandtoreducebucklingeffects
GASTURBINESECTIONALVIEW(AEROENGINE)
LP Turbine
Fan Casing
HP Turbine
Annular combustor
Guide vanes
Fan
Bleed Air Cooling

HP Compressor Discs
HP Compressor
LP Compressor Blades
Turbine Discs
Shaf t Coupling
IP shaf t
Inlet Guide vanes
FuelSystemFunctionsoftheFuelsystem
Toprovidetheenginewithfuelinaformsuitableforcombustion
To control the flow to the required quantity necessary for easy starting, acceleration and
stablerunningatallengineoperatingconditions
Theturndownratiobetweenlightupfuelflowandmaximumfuelflowcouldbeabout50
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
In other words the fuel control system should cater for a wide range of fuel flows from
enginelightuptomaximumRPM/Maximumfuelflow
Fuelisfedtothespraynozzlesoratomizersofthecombustorswhichinjectthefuelintothe
combustionchamberintheformofanatomizedspray
The flow rate must very according to the amount of air passing through the engine to
maintaintheselectedenginespeed
To achieve this the controlling devices are fully automatic with the exception of engine
powerselectionwhichisachievedbyamanualthrottleorpowerlever
Ashutoffcockisusedtostoptheengine(alsotostarttheengine)
It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls to prevent the exhaust gas
temperature(EGT),compressordeliverypressureandtheengineRPMfromexceedingtheir
maximumlimits
TheseareintheformofRPMlimiters,EGTlimiter,Compressordeliverypressurelimiterand
PressureRatioLimiter(PRL)
TypicalFuelControlSystem
FullAuthorityDigitalEngineControl(FADEC)system
Overthepast20to25yearsuseofFADECsystemhasbecomeastandardfeature
FADECsystemhasmajorbenefitsintermsof:
Engineperformance
Reducedpilotworkload
Easeofmaintenance
Improvedenginehandling
Improvedfaultdetection
EvolutionofGasTurbineControls
Fullauthorityhydromechanicalorpneumaticcontrolregulatingspeed
Fullauthority analog electronic controls regulating speed and temperature and providing
someBIT
22
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Hybrid controls (fullauthority hydro mechanical or pneumatic controls with supervisory

analogordigitalelectroniccontrolsforfinetuning
Hybrid controls (full authority analog or digital electronic control with full authority hydro
mechanicalbackup)
SinglechannelFADECs
DualchannelFADECs
Diagrammaticarrangementofenginecontrolandinstrumentation
StartingsystemNecessity
Two separate systems are required to ensure that a gas turbine engine will start
satisfactorily
First,provisionmustbemadeforthecompressorandtheturbineassemblytoberotatedup
toaspeedatwhichadequateairpassesintothecombustionsystemtomixwiththefuel
fromthefuelspraynozzles
Secondly,provisionmustbemadeforIgnitionofthefuelairmixtureinthecombustor.
Duringenginestarting,thetwosystemsmustoperatesimultaneously.
ThereareoccasionswhentheStartingandIgnitionSystemsmayoperateindependently
23
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
The Starter alone will have to operate when the engine is undergoing motoring runs
especiallyforenginesunderdevelopment.DuringmotoringrunsIgnitionsystemisisolated
Themotoringrun(withoutignition)consistsofthefollowing:
Dryrun
Wetrun
Duringrun theengineis allowedtotorotateup toaparticular RPMsayabout30to32%
onlywiththeStarteron(withtheshutoffcockclosed;i.e.theenginethrottleisshut)
Thisrunisgiventocheckthefreenessoftherotorsandalsotochecktheswingbackofthe
engine
Thewetrunisgiventocheckthelightupfuelflowbeforetheactualpowerrunisgivenwith
theignitionon
TheIgnitionsystemaloneoperateswhentheenginerelightattemptismadebythepilotat
altitudesi.e.windmillstartsoftheengine
TypesofStarters
ElectricstarterSectionalview
24
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
IgnitionSystem
HighEnergyIgnitionsystemisusedforstartingallenginesandadualsystemisalwaysfitted.
Eachsystemhasanignitionunitconnectedtoitsownigniterplugs.
TwoPlugsarelocatedindifferentpositionsinthecombustionchamber
EachIgnitionUnitreceivesalowvoltagesupplyfromtheaircraftelectricalsystems
The Electrical energy is stored in the unit until a predetermined value the energy is
dissipatedasahighvoltage,highamperagedischargeacrosstheigniterplug
DCIgnitionUnit
PerformanceTestingandAnalysisPreamble
Capabilitiesofanaircraftsystemsaredefinedbytheprescribedneedthattheaircraftmust
meet
Acceptablelevelsofthesecapabilitiesaresubstantiated,demonstratedandqualified
Thisisthroughacomprehensivedevelopmentprocessencompassing:
Design,Testinganddevelopment
Deployment
Maintenance&Logisticssupportplans
Propulsionsystemisoneofthemajorsubsystemsoftheaircraft.
Normallyenginedesignprecedestheaircraftdesign.
Thedevelopmentaircraftisnotflownwithadevelopmentengine.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Normallythedevelopmentaircraftisflownwithaprovenengineandaircraftperformance
andhandlingcapabilitiesareestablished.
Thenthedevelopmentengineistestedinthedevelopmentaircraft.
EngineTesting
Twotypesofenginetestingnamelyproductionenginetestinganddevelopment/prototype
enginetesting
Productionenginetestinginvolvesonlylimitedmeasurementsandengineacceptance
Important parameters are RPM, Thrust, Fuel flow, Compressor delivery pressure, Typical
vibration,engineexhausttemperature
Development/Prototype engine testing involves detailed instrumentation and data
processing
About800parameterslikepressures,temperatures,vibration,strainsignals,coolingflows,
secondaryflowsetcaremeasured.
Engine testing is conducted in a test cell fully equipped to measure all the desired
parameters.
New facilities have been built to simulate conditions encountered at high MACH numbers
andhighaltitudesintheflightspectrum.
Engineperformanceisgenerallydefinedintermsofthrust,fuelflowandairmassflow.
Gasturbineengineperformanceisconsiderablyinfluencedbychangesinambientpressure
andtemperature
Increaseininletpressureisadvantageoustotheenginewhileincreaseininlettemperature
isdisadvantageoustotheengine.
In order to compare the performance of the engine on different dates and at different
placesitisnecessarytocorrecttheperformanceofagivenenginetostandarddaycondition
knownasInternationalStandardAtmosphereSeaLevelStaticConditions(ISASLS).
ThisCorrectionisessentialforcomparingtheperformanceofdifferentengines
In order to correct the engine performance to ISASLS conditions there are two important
correction factors known as Pressure correction factor delta and temperature correction
factorknownastheta
Delta=AmbientPressure(absolute)underenginetest/ISASLSreferencepressure
Theta=AmbienttemperatureinKelvin/ISASLSreferencepressurenamely288K
The test performance of the engine is corrected to ISA SLS conditions and the engine is
acceptedbasedonthecorrectedperformance;thisiscarriedoutforallproductionengines
ISASLScorrectionhastobecarriedoutfordevelopmentenginesalso
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
EngineDevelopmentProcessAnoverview
GasTurbineMaterials
27
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofGasTurbines
AdditionalReferences
TheJetEngineRollsRoyceplc
AircraftGasTurbineEngineTechnologybyIrwinE.Treager
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
COMPRESSOR
CONTENTS
Typesofcompressors.
Advantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferenttypesofcompressors.
Application.
Principleofoperation(centrifugalandaxialtypes).
Flowcontrolandsurgephenomenon.
DesignconsiderationsandTradeoff
Balancing
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Reviewofbasicprinciples
System:Afixedidentitywithanarbitrarycollectionofmatterisknownasasystem
Boundary: The boundary is an imaginary surface which separates the system from its
surroundings
Surroundingsarethosewhichareoutsidethesystem
Systemcanbeclassifiedaseitheranopensystemoraclosedsystem
Opensystem:Whenthereisacontinuousflowofmatteritiscalledanopensystem.Sucha
system is usually depicted by a control volume. It has a fixed space but does not contain
fixedmassofmatter;insteadthereiscontinuousflowofmassthroughit.Thepropertiesof
matter occupying the control volume can vary with time. The surface which encloses a
controlvolumeiscalledcontrolsurface.
Closedsystem:When thereisafixed quantityof matter(fluid orgas),itis calledaclosed
system.However,aclosedsystemcaninteractwithitssurroundingsthroughworkandheat
transfer.Theboundariesofaclosedsystemcontainingthefixedmassofmattercanchange.
State:Conditionofasystem,definedbyitsproperties,isknownasthestateofasystem.
Process:Achangeoraseriesofchangesinthestateofasystemisknownasaprocess.
Pressure: It is the force per unit area, that is pressure at a point surrounded by an
infinitesimal area. Pressure is usually designated by Pascal I SI units. It may also be
expressedinN/m2orbar.
Density:Thedensityofamediumismassofthematter(gas)perunitvolume.
Temperature: When two systems are in contact with each other and are in thermal
equilibrium, the property common to both the systems having the same value is called
temperature.Thustemperatureisameasureofthethermalpotentialofasystem
COMPRESSORS
Compressioniseffectedbyoneortwotypesofcompressors.
One gives centrifugal flow and the other axial flow known as centrifugal compressor and
axialcompressorrespectively.
Bothtypesaredrivenbytheengineturbine.
Compressorisdirectlycoupledtotheturbineshaft.
In the compressor work is done on the air which increases the pressure and temperature
anddecreasesthevolumeoftheair.
Centrifugalcompressoremploysanimpellertoacceleratetheairandadiffusertoprovide
therequiredpressurerise.
The axial compressor is a multistage unit employing alternate rows of rotating (rotor)
blades and stationary (stator) vanes to accelerate and diffuse the air until the required
pressureriseisobtained.
Insomesmallengineapplicationsanaxialcompressorisusedtoboosttheinletpressureto
thecentrifugalcompressor.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSORS
AND AXIAL
Centrifugalcompressorisusuallymorerobustthantheaxialcompressorandisalsoeasierto
manufacture.
30
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Axialcompressorhoweverconsumesfarmoreairthanacentrifugalcompressorofthesame
frontalarea.
Axial compressor can be designed to attain much higher pressure ratio compared to
centrifugalcompressor.
Axial compressor will give more thrust for the same frontal area. In other worlds specific
thrust(thrustperunitfrontalarea)willbemuchhigherinthecaseofaxialcompressor.
COMPRESSORAPPLICATION
Because of the ability to increase the pressure ratio by addition of extra stages, axial
compressorsareemployedinmostoftheengineapplications.
The trend to high pressure ratio which has favored the addition of axial compressors is
becauseoftheimprovedefficiencythatresultswhichinturnleadstoimprovedspecificfuel
consumptionforagiventhrust.
Howevercentrifugalcompressorisstillfavoredforsmallerengineswhereitssimplicityand
ruggednessoutweighanyotherdisadvantages.
Specificfuelconsumptionandpressureratio
CENTRIFUGALCOMPRESSOR(PRINCIPLEOFOPERATION)
TheCentrifugalCompressorconsistsessentiallyofastationarycasingcontainingarotating
impellerwhichimpartsahighvelocitytotheairandanumberoffixeddivergingpassagesin
whichtheairisdeceleratedwithaconsequentriseinstaticpressure.
Thelatterprocessisoneofdiffusion(increaseinpressure)andconsequentlythepartofthe
compressorcontainingthedivergingpassagesisknownasdiffuser.
Impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and air is continuously induced into the
centeroftheimpeller.
Centrifugalactioncausestoflowradiallyoutwardsalongwiththevanestotheimpellertip
thusacceleratingtheairandalsocausingariseinpressuretooccur.
Atanypointintheflowofairthroughtheimpeller,thecentripetalaccelerationisobtained
byapressurehead,sothatthestaticpressureoftheairincreasesfromtheeyetothetipof
theimpeller.
Airleavingtheimpellerpassesintothediffusersectionwherethepassagesformdivergent
nozzlesthatconvertmostofthekineticenergyintopressureenergy.
Theremainderofthepressureriseisobtainedinthediffuser,wherethehighvelocityofthe
airleavingtheimpellertipisreducedtosomewhereintheregionofthevelocitywithwhich
theairenterstheimpellereye
Thenormalpracticeistodesignthecompressorsothathalfthepressureriseoccursinthe
impellerandtheotherhalfinthediffuser
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Inordertomaximizetheairflowandpressureratiothecentrifugalcompressorrequiresto
berotatedathighspeedandhencetheimpellersaredesignedtooperateattipspeedsup
to1,600ft.persecondandthecorrespondingRPMcouldrangefrom60,000to1,00,000
plus.
Byoperatingatsuchhightipspeeds/RPMstheairvelocityfromtheimpellerisincreasedso
thatgreaterenergyisavailableforconversiontopressure.
Inordertomaintaintheefficiencyofthecompressor,itisnecessarytopreventexcessiveair
leakagebetweentheimpellerandthecasing.
Thisisachievedbykeepingtheclearancesassmallaspossible.
ConstructionFeatures(CentrifugalCompressor)
Theconstructionofthecentrifugalcompressorcentresaroundtheimpeller,diffuserandair
intakesystem.
The impeller shaft rotates in ball and roller bearings and is either common to the turbine
shaftorsplitinthecentreandconnectedbyacoupling,whichisusuallydesignedforeaseof
detachment.
Theimpellerconsistsofaforgeddiscwithintegral,radiallydisposedvanesononeorboth
sidesformingconvergentpassagesinconjunctionwiththecompressorcasing.
In order to ease the air from axial flow in the entry duct on to the rotating impeller, the
vanesarecurvedinthedirectionofrotation.
The curved sections may be integral with the radial vanes or formed separately for easier
andmoreaccuratemanufacture.
Diffuser:
The diffuser assembly may be an integral part of the compressor casing or a separately
attachedassembly.
Ineachcaseitconsistsofanumberofvanesformedtangentialtotheimpeller.
The vane passages are divergent to convert kinetic energy into pressure energy and the
inner edges of the vanes are in line with the direction of the resultant flow from the
impeller.
Theclearancebetweentheimpellerandthediffuserisanimportantfactor,astoosmalla
clearance will set up aerodynamic buffeting impulses that could be transferred to the
impellerandcreateanunsteadyflowandassociatedvibration.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Atypicalcentrifugalcompressor
Typicalimpellersforcentrifugalcompressors
AirflowatentrytodiffuserCentrifugalcompressor
33
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AXIALFLOWCOMPRESSOR(PRINCIPLEOFOPERATION)
Inaxialflowcompressor,astageconsistsofarowofrotatingblades(rotor)followedbya
rowofstator(stationary)vanes.
Rotor is turned at high speed by the turbine so that air is continuously induced into the
compressorwhichisthenacceleratedbytherotatingbladesandsweptrearwardsontothe
adjacentrowofstatorvanes.
Pressureriseresultsfromtheenergyimpartedtotheairintherotorwhichincreasestheair
velocity.
Theairisthendecelerated(diffused)inthefollowingstatorpassageandthekineticenergy
translatedintopressure.
The process is repeated in as many stages as are necessary to yield the required overall
pressureratio.
Inthecompressionprocesstheflowisalwayssubjecttoanadversepressuregradientand
thehigherthepressureratiothemoredifficultbecomesthedesignofthecompressor.
Theprocessconsistsofaseriesofdiffusionbothintherotorandstatorbladepassages.
Asinglespoolcompressorconsistsofonerotorassemblyandstatorswithasmanystagesas
necessary to achieve the desired pressure ratio and all the airflow from the intake passes
throughthecompressor.
Multispoolcompressorconsistsoftwoormoreassemblies,eachdrivenbyitsownturbine
at an optimum speed to achieve higher pressure ratios and to give better operating
flexibility.
A twin spool compressor is more suitable for a bypass type engine than a pure jet engine
wherethefrontorlowpressurecompressorisdesignedtohandlealargerairflowthanthe
highpressurecompressor.
Onlyapercentageoftheairfromthelowpressurecompressorpassesintothehighpressure
compressor, the reminder of the air, the bypass flow is ducted around the high pressure
compressor.
Both flows mix in the exhaust system (low bypass ratio engines) before passing into the
propellingnozzle.
This arrangement matches the velocity of the jet nearer to the optimum requirements of
theaircraftandresultsinhigherpropulsiveefficiencyandhencelowerfuelconsumption.
Forthisreason,thepurejetenginewherethebypassratioiszeroisnowobsoleteforall
aircraftbutforthehighestspeedaircraft.
ConstructionFeaturesAxialCompressor
Theconstructionofthecompressorcentersaroundtherotorassemblyandcasings.
Therotorshaftissupportedinballandrollerbearingsandcoupledtotheturbineshaftina
mannerthatallowsforanyslightvariationofalignment.
In compressor designs the rotational speeds is such that a disc is required to support the
centrifugalbladeload.
Where a number of discs are fitted onto one shaft they may be coupled and secured
togetherbyamechanicalfixingbutgenerallythediscsareassembledandweldedtogether,
closetotheirperiphery,thusforminganintegraldrum.
Therotorbladesareofairfoilsectionandusuallydesignedtogiveapressuregradientalong
theirlengthtoensurethattheairmaintainsareasonablyuniformaxialvelocity.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thehigherpressuretowardsthetipbalancesoutthecentrifugalactionoftherotoronthe
airstream.Inordertoobtainthisitisnecessarytotwistthebladefromroottotiptogive
thecorrectangleateachpoint.
Thestatorvanesareagainofairfoilsectionandaresecuredintothecompressororintothe
statorvaneretainingringswhicharethemselvessecuredtothecasing.
Thevanesareoftenassembledinsegmentsinthefrontstagesandmaybeshroudedattheir
innerendstominimizethevibrationaleffectofflowvariationsonthelongervanes.
Itisalsonecessarytolockthestatorvanesinsuchamannerthattheywillnotrotatearound
thecasing.
Methodofsecuringbladestodisc
Atypicalrotorbladeshowingtwistedcontour
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Methodsofsecuringvanestocompressorcasing
Singlespoolcompressor
Twinspoolcompressor
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AIRFLOWCONTROL
Wherehighpressureratiosonasinglespoolisrequired,itbecomesnecessarytointroduce
airflowcontrolintothecompressordesign.
This may take the form of variable inlet guide vanes for the first stage plus a number of
stages incorporating variable stator vanes for the succeeding stages as the spool pressure
ratioisincreased.
As the compressor speed is reduced from its design value these static vanes are
progressively closed in order to maintain an acceptable air angle value onto the following
rotorblades.
Also interstage bleed may be provided but its use in design is now usually limited to the
provision of extra margin while the engine is being accelerated because use of interstage
bleedatsteadyoperatingconditionsisinefficientandwastefuloffuel.
Typicalvariablestatorvanes
EffectofVariablegeometryoperationonCompressorCharacteristics
SURGE
Surging is associated with a sudden drop in delivery pressure of the compressor and with
violentaerodynamicpulsationwhichistransmittedthroughoutthemachine.
Unstable flow in axial compressors could be due to the separation of flow from the blade
surfacescalledstalling.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Unstable flow could also be due to complete breakdown of steady through flow called
surging.
SurgeMarginisdefinedas:
(SurgePressureRatio/OperatingPressureRatio)1x100
CentrifugalCompressorswillhavemoresurgemarginthantheaxialcompressors.s
Surgingincompressors
N3curveoperatingpointA(PA,mdotA)
PointB(PBmdotB)andPointC(PCmdotC)
Increasedpressureandreducedmassflowresultinginveslopeindicatingstableoperation
For points B& C, (abovemdots) the pressure
developed by the compressor matches with
theincreaseddeliverypressureinthepipe.
For points D & E (below mdots) lower
pressures are developed by the compressor.
But the pipe pressure will be higher than
these;+veslopeindicatingunstableoperation
EBCSDE is the surge cycle that is repeated
againandagain
Surging leads to vibration of the engine that
canultimatelyleadtomechanicalfailure
Compressor operation to the left of S is
injurioustotheengineandshouldbeavoided
(+vesloperegion)
StableoperationofthecompressoristotherightofpointS(vesloperegion)
DesignConsiderations
CentrifugalcompressorswereusedinearlyBritishandAmericanfighteraircraftandalsoin
theoriginalCometairlineswhichwerethefirstgasturbinepoweredcivilaircraftinregular
service.
Aspowerrequirementsgrew,however,itbecameclearthattheaxialflowcompressorwas
moresuitableforlargerengines.
Hencetheresultwasthataveryhigh proportionofdevelopmentfundingwasdiverted to
the axial type, leading to the availability of axial compressors with an appreciably higher
isentropicefficiencythanthatcouldbeachievedbytheircentrifugalcounterparts.
Lateritbecameclearthatsmallergasturbineswouldhavetousecentrifugalcompressors
andseriousresearchanddevelopmentworkstartedagain.
Small turboprops, turboshafts and Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) have been made in very
largenumbersandhavenearlyallusedcentrifugalcompressors.
NotableexamplesareP&W,CanadaPT6enginesandHoneywellsmallenginesandalarge
numberofAPUs.
CentrifugalCompressorsarealsousedforhighpressurespoolsinsmallturbofanengines.
Centrifugal compressors are primarily used for their suitability for handling small volume
flowswithhighstagepressureratio.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Other advantages include a shorter length than an equivalent axial compressor, better
resistance to Foreign Object Damage (FOD), less susceptibility to loss of performance by
buildupofdepositsonthebladesurfacesandtheabilitytooperateoverawiderrangeof
massflowatahighparticularrotationalspeed
Bettersurgemarginthanitsaxialcounterpart.
Centrifugalcompressorsarewidelyusedonnaturalgaspipelines,directlydrivenbythefree
powerturbineofthepromemover.
Thesamedesignmethodsareapplicablebutthesemachineswouldnormallyoperateatlow
pressureratiosandatveryhighinletpressures.
Multistagecentrifugalcompressorsmayalsobeusedinhighpressureratioprocessesupto
five stages with intercooling between stages. This will not be suitable for aircraft
applications.
Thesemayfindapplicationsinairseparationplantsandthecompressormaybedrivenby
steamturbinesorelectricmotorsviaaspeedincreasinggearboxes
DesignConsiderations(Centrifugal)
CentrifugalCompressorsarealsousedforhighpressurespoolsinsmallturbofanengines.
Centrifugal compressors are primarily used for their suitability for handling small volume
flowswithhighstagepressureratio.
Other advantages include a shorter length than an equivalent axial compressor, better
resistance to Foreign Object Damage (FOD), less susceptibility to loss of performance by
buildupofdepositsonthebladesurfacesandtheabilitytooperateoverawiderrangeof
massflowatahighparticularrotationalspeed
Bettersurgemarginthanitsaxialcounterpart.
Centrifugalcompressorsarewidelyusedonnaturalgaspipelines,directlydrivenbythefree
powerturbineofthepromemover.
Thesamedesignmethodsareapplicablebutthesemachineswouldnormallyoperateatlow
pressureratiosandatveryhighinletpressures.
Multistagecentrifugalcompressorsmayalsobeusedinhighpressureratioprocessesupto
five stages with intercooling between stages. This will not be suitable for aircraft
applications.
Thesemayfindapplicationsinairseparationplantsandthecompressormaybedrivenby
steamturbinesorelectricmotorsviaaspeedincreasinggearboxes
With increase in overall pressure the specific fuel consumption reduces and in aircraft
applicationstheendeavouristogetashighapressureratioaspossible.
Butthemechanicalcomplexitiesassociatedwithahighnumberofaxialcompressorstages
mayrestrictthepressureratiotoabout40withamutispoolcompressor.
Itisdifficulttogethighpressureratiowithacentrifugalcompressor.
Axialcompressorhasthepotentialforhigherpressureratioandhigherisentropicefficiency
than the centrifugal compressor. But the surge margin is less compared to the centrifugal
compressor.
Another major advantage of an axial compressor is the high mass flow rate possible for a
givenfrontalarea.Inotherwordstheaxialcompressorcanswallowmuchhighermassflow
foragivenfrontalareathanitscentrifugalcounterpartofthesamefrontalarea.
Hencetheaxialcompressorsarebestsuitedforlargecivilengineswhichrequirehighmass
flowandhighpressureratio.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
These potential gains have now been fully realized as the result of intensiveresearch into
theaerodynamicsofaxialcompressors.
Theaxialflowcompressordominatesthefieldforlargethrust/powerrequirementsandthe
centrifugalcompressorisrestrictedtothelowerendofthethrust/powerspectrumwhere
theflowistoosmalltobehandledefficientlybyaxialbalding.
Intheearlydaysthepressureratiooftheaxialcompressorwas5:1andthisrequiredabout
10stages.
Over the years the overall pressure ratios have risen dramatically and some turbofan
engineshavepressureratiosexceeding40:1.
Continued aerodynamic development has resulted in a steady increase in stage pressure
ratiowiththeresultthatthenumberofstagesrequiredforagivenpressureratiohasbeen
greatlyreduced.
As a consequence there has been a reduction in engine weight for a specified level of
performance,whichisparticularlyimportantforaircraftengines.
HoweveritshouldbenotedthathighstagepressureratiosimplyhighMachnumbersand
largedeflectionsinthebladingwhichwouldnotgenerallybejustifiableinanindustrialgas
turbineenginewhereweightisnotcritical.
Industrialunitsbuiltonmuchmorerestrictedbudgetthananaircraftenginewillinvariably
usemoreconservativedesigntechniquesresultinginmorestages.
DesignTradeoff
LargeCivilengines:TradeoffbetweenverylowSFCandlow/mediumSpecificThrust:
Axialcompressorswithlargemassflowsandveryhighpressureratios
Multispool(LPandHP)andlargenumberofstages
Highbypassratio(resultinginverylowSFCandlow/mediumspecificthrust)
HighThrust
Goodsurgemargin
Longrangeandendurance
Longlife
BusinessJets:TradeoffbetweenmoderateSFCandlow/mediumspecificthrust
Axial compressors followed by Centrifugal booster compressors; Normal configuration is a
Fanstagefollowedbyaxialcompressorandacentrifugalcompressor.Theaxialcompressor
precedes the centrifugal compressor since the mass flow per unit frontal area of axial
compressorishighcomparedtocentrifugalcompressorresultinginhighpressureratiowith
mediummassflowwhichischaracteristicofBusinessjets(Smallpassengeraircraft)
Multispoolconfiguration
Highbypassratio(resultinginlowSFCandlow/mediumspecificthrust)
Mediumthrustlevel
Goodsurgemargin
Mediumrangeandendurance
Reasonablelife
MilitaryEngines:Tradeoffmedium/highSFCandhighspecificthrust
Axialcompressorswithmedium/highSFCandhighSpecificthrust
Multispoolwithlargenumberofstages
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Lowbypassratiooftheorderof0.3to0.5resultinginhighspecificthrustandmediumSFC
Sincethemassflowsarecomparativelylowcomparedtothelargecivilenginesthethrust
levelsarebetweenBusinessjetsandlargecivilengines
Shortradiusofaction(Twicetherange)
Shortendurance
Reasonablelife
SmallGasTurbineEngine
Small Gas Turbine Engines invariably employ Centrifugal Compressors with high stage
pressureratio
MainlyintendedforUAVsandGasTurbineStarter(JetFuelStarter)
Lowmassflows
MediumSFC
Mainly straight jets and some small engines will have axial compressor in front of the
Centrifugalcompressorandmayalsohavebypassconfigurationforfuelefficiency(LowSFC)
Shortlife
BALANCING
Thebalancingofacompressorrotororimpellerisanextremelyimportantoperationinits
manufacturing.
Inviewofthehighrotationalspeedsandthemassofmaterialsanyunbalancewouldaffect
therotatingassemblybearingsandengineoperation.
Balancingofthesepartsiseffectedonaspecialbalancingmachine.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TURBO PROP & TURBO SHAFT ENGINES
42
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Turbopropengine
Aswithallgasturbineengines,thebasicpowerproductionintheturbopropisaccomplished
in the gas generator or core of the engine, where a steady stream of air drawn into the
engineinletiscompressedbyaturbocompressor.Thehighpressureairisnextheatedina
combustion chamber by burning a steady stream of hydrocarbon fuel injected in spray or
vaporform.Thehot,highpressureairisthenexpandedinaturbinethatismountedonthe
samerotatingshaftasthecompressorandsuppliestheenergytodrivethecompressor.By
virtueoftheairhavingbeenheatedathigherpressure,thereisasurplusofenergyinthe
turbinethatmaybeextractedinadditionalturbinestagestodriveausefulload,inthiscase
apropeller.
VariationsinTurbopropengines
Alargevarietyofdetailedvariationsarepossiblewithinthecore.Thecompressormaybean
axialflow type, a centrifugal (that is, radialflow) type, or a combination of stages of both
types(thatis,anaxicentrifugalcompressor).Inmodernmachines,thecompressormaybe
splitintwosections(alowpressureunitfollowedbyahighpressureunit),eachdrivenby
its own turbine through concentric shafting, in order to achieve very high compression
ratiosotherwiseimpossibleinasinglespool.
Hybridenginethatprovidesjetthrustandalsodrivesapropeller.Itissimilartotheturbojet
exceptthatanaddedturbine,behindthecombustionchamber,worksthroughashaftand
speedreducing gears to turn a propeller at the front of the engine. Because of
improvementsinturbojetdesign,theturboprop,whichislessefficientathighspeeds,lost
muchofitsimportanceinthe1960s,thoughitisstillusedforrelativelyshortrangeaircraft.
TypicalDiagram
ShaftHorsePower
A turboprop engine is a type of gas turbine engine used in aircraft. Most of a turboprop
engine'spowerisusedtodriveapropeller,andthepropellersusedareverysimilartothe
propellers used in piston or reciprocating enginedriven aircraft (with the exception that
turbopropsusuallyuseaconstantvelocitypropeller).
43
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Applications
A turboprop engine is similar to a turbojet, but has additional stages in the turbine to
recovermorepowerfromtheenginetoturnthepropeller.Turbopropenginesaregenerally
used on small or slow subsonic aircraft, but some aircraft outfitted with turboprops have
cruisingspeedsinexcessof500km(926km/h,575mph).
TypicalComponents
Initssimplestform,aturbopropconsistsofanintake,compressor,combustor,turbineand
apropellingnozzle.Airisdrawnintotheintakeandcompressedbythecompressor.Fuelis
then added to the compressed air in the combustor. The hot combustion gases expand
through the turbine. Part of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor. The rest goes through the reduction gearing to the propeller. Further
expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to
atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the
thrustgeneratedbyaturboprop,theremaindercomesfromtheconversionofshaftpower
tothrustinthepropeller.
Businessjets
Turboprops are very efficient at modest flight speeds (below 450 mph), because the jet
velocityofthepropeller(andexhaust)isrelativelylow.Duetothehighpriceofturboprop
engines, they are mostly used where high performance ShortTakeoff and Landing (STOL)
capability and efficiency at modest flight speeds is required. In a civilian aviation context,
themostcommonapplicationofturbopropenginesaresmallcommuteraircraft.
Technologicalaspects
Inaturbopropmuchofthejetthrustissacrificedinfavorofshaftpower,whichisobtained
byextractingadditionalpower(tothatnecessarytodrivethecompressor)fromtheturbine
expansionprocess.Whilethepowerturbinemaybeintegralwiththegasgeneratorsection,
many turboprops today feature a Free Power Turbine, on a separate coaxial shaft. This
enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed. Owing to the
additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is fairly
low. Consequently, the exhaust jet produces (typically) less than 10% of the total thrust,
includingthatfromthepropeller.
Turbopropengine
Theactualpercentageofthrustwillvarywithahostoffactorssuchasspeed,altitude,and
temperature.
The turboprop will deliver more thrust, up to medium speeds, than either the turbojet or
turbofan.
Also,astheturbopropclimbstohigheraltitudes,themassofairbeingacceleratedbythe
propellerdecreasesduetothedecreaseinairdensity.
Components
PropellerAssembly
Majorityofthrust(90%)isaresultofthelargemassbeingacceleratedbythepropeller
Bladesareinstalledintothehub
44
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thehub(barrelassembly)isthenattachedtothepropellershaft
The pitch change/dome assembly is the mechanism that changes the blade angle of the
propeller
Turboshaftengine
ItisaGasturbineenginewhichpowersarotatingacylindricalshafttorotatetheHelicopter
rotor
A turbo shaft engine is a form of gas turbine which is optimized to produce shaft power,
ratherthanjetthrust.
In principle a turbo shaft engine is similar to a turbojet, except the former features
additional turbine expansion to extract heat energy from the exhaust and convert it into
outputshaftpower.
Ideally there should be little residual thrust energy in the exhaust and the power turbine
shouldbefreetorunatwhateverspeedtheloaddemands.
The general layout of a turbo shaft is similar to that of a turboprop, the main difference
beingthelatterproducessomeresidualpropulsionthrusttosupplementthatproducedby
theshaftdrivenpropeller.
Anotherdifferenceisthat withaturboshaftthemaingearboxis partofthevehicle (e. g.
helicopterrotorreductiongearbox),nottheengine.
Virtuallyallturboshaftshavea"free"powerturbine,althoughthisisalsogenerallytruefor
modern turboprop engines. At a given power output, compared to the equivalent piston
engine,aturboshaftisextremelycompactand,consequently,lightweight.
Thenameturboshaftismostcommonlyappliedtoenginesdrivingships,helicopters,tanks,
locomotivesandhovercraftorthoseusedasstationarypowersources
Today almost all engines are built so that powertakeoff is independent of engine speed,
usingthefreeturbinestage.Thishastwoadvantages:
Itallowsahelicopterrotororpropellertospinatanyspeedinsteadofbeinggeareddirectly
tothecompressorturbine.
Itallowstheenginetobesplitintotwosections,the"hotsection"containingthemajorityof
the engine, and the separate powertakeoff, allowing the hotsection to be removed for
easiermaintenance.
Thisleadstoslightlylargerengines,butforthespeedrangesservedbytheseenginesitis
consideredtobeunimportant.
Today practically all smaller turbine engines come in both turboprop and turbo shaft
versions,differingprimarilyintheiraccessorysystems.
45
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
SchematicDiagram
Thecompressorspoolisshowningreenandthefree/powerspoolisinblue.
GearedFan
Asbypassratioincreases,themeanradiusratioofthefanandLPturbineincreases.
Consequently,ifthefanistorotateatitsoptimumbladespeedtheLPturbinebladingwill
runslow,soadditionalLPTstageswillberequired,toextractsufficientenergytodrivethe
fan.
Introducing a reduction gearbox, with a suitable gear ratio, between the LP shaft and the
fan,enablesboththefanandLPturbinetooperateattheiroptimumspeeds.Typicalofthis
configuration are the long established Honeywell TFE731 and the recent Pratt & Whitney
AdvancedTechnologyFanIntegrator(ATFI)demonstratorengine(nowtheGearedTurbofan
46
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
COMBUSTIONPROCESS
FUELSUPPLY
VARIOUSTYPESOFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBERS
COMBUSTIONCHAMBERPERFORMANCE
EFFECTOFOPERATINGVARIABLESONCOMBUSTORPERFORMANCE
MATERIALS
COMBUSTORCFD
RIGTESTINGOFTHECOMBUSTOR
47
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
COMBUSTIONCHAMBER
Has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel, supplied through the fuel spray
nozzles,withtheextensivevolumesofairsuppliedbythecompressor.
Releasetheheatinsuchamannerthattheairisexpandedandacceleratedtogivesmooth
streamofuniformlyheatedgasatallconditionsrequiredbytheturbine.
Thistaskshouldbeaccomplishedwiththeminimumpressurelossandwiththemaximum
heatreleaseforthelimitedspaceavailable
Amount of fuel added in the combustion chamber depends on the temperature rise
requiredacrossthecombustionchamber.
However maximum temperature is limited by the materials of turbine rotor and nozzle
guidevanes.
Airhasalreadybeenheatedbytheworkdoneduringcompression.
A temperature rise across the combustion chamber is required since the thrust or shaft
powerproducedbytheengineisafunctionofturbineentrytemperature.Thecombustion
chambershouldalsobecapableofmaintainingstableandefficientcombustionoverawide
rangeofengineoperatingconditions.
COMBUSTIONPROCESS
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a typical velocity of
about150meters/sec.
Since the velocity [or Mach number] is too high for combustion, there is a necessity to
diffusetheairi.etodecelerateitandraiseitsstaticpressure.
Ifthevelocityisnotreducedanyfuellitwillbeblownaway.
Hence a region of low velocity has to be created in the combustion chamber, so that the
flamewillremainalightthroughouttherangeofengineoperatingconditions.
Innormaloperationtheoverallfuel/airratioofacombustionchambervariesfrom0.01to
0.025.
Howeverthefuel(aviationturbinefuel,aparticularformofkerosene)willburneffectively
atfuel/airratioofabout0.067(Stoichiometricratio).
Hencethereisarequirementofintroducingtheairinthecombustionchamberinstages.
Threestagescanbedistinguished.
Around20%ofthecompressedairisintroducedaroundthejetoffuelknownastheprimary
zonetoprovidethenecessaryhightemperatureforrapidcombustion.
About30%ofthecompressedairisintroducedthroughtheholesintheflametubeinthe
secondaryzonetocompletethecombustionprocess.
Finally in the tertiary or the dilution zone the remaining air is mixed with the products of
combustiontocoolthemdowntothetemperaturerequiredatinlettotheturbine(turbine
inlet temperature). This temperature acceptable to the turbine Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGV)
dependsontheturbinematerialaswellasthebladecoolingtechnique.
Sufficient turbulence must be promoted so that the hot and cold streams are thoroughly
mixedtogivethedesiredoutlettemperaturedistributionwithnohotstreakswhichwould
damagetheturbineblades.
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates combustion and the flame is then self
sustained.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Combustionoccurspracticallyatconstantpressureexceptforasmallpressureloss(about
5%6%).
Though the design of combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably the airflow distribution used to effect and maintain combustion is always
similartowhatisdescribedabove
Anearlycombustionchamber
Flamestabilizingandgeneralairflowpattern
FUELSUPPLY
Fuelsupplytothecompressedairstreamisthroughtheinjectionofafineatomizedspray
intotherecirculatingstreamthroughspraynozzles
Fuelnozzledesignplaysamajorpartincombustionchamberperformance.
Not only must the fuel nozzle atomize and distribute the fuel, but it must also be able to
handleawiderangeoffuelflows.
Therearetwotypesoffuelatomizersnamelypressurejetatomizerandairblastatomizer.
49
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
In a pressure jet atomizer there are two stages of fuel injection namely primary and
secondary.
Primary stage is used for light up and up to reaching idling speed. Then at a particular
pressureknownasthecrackingpressure,thesecondarystagecracksopenwhichtakescare
of the requirement of wide range of fuel flows depending on the engine RPM and flight
condition.
Alloftheoperatinganddesignvariablesmustbetakenintoaccountwhentheatomizeris
designedandmanufactured.
Final configuration of the combustion chamber at best is a compromise to achieve the
desired operating characteristics since it is impossible to design and manufacture a given
combustion chamber that will have 100% combustion efficiency, zero pressure loss,
maximumlife,minimumweight,minimumfrontalarea,allatthesametime
TYPESOFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBERS
CANNULARCOMBUSTOR
CANANNULARCOMBUSTOR
ANNULARCOMBUSTOR
Multiplecombustionchamber
Chambersaredisposedaroundtheengineandcompresseddeliveryairisdirectedbyducts
topassintotheindividualchambers.
Eachchamberhasaninnerflametubearoundwhichthereisanaircasing.
Separate flame tubes are interconnected to allow each tube to operate at the same
pressureandallowcombustiontopropagate.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Canannularcombustionchamber
Bridges the gap between cannular

andannularcombustionchamber.
Anumberofflametubesarefitted
insideacommonaircasing.
Annularcombustionchamber
Consist of a single flame

tube completely annular in
form which is contained in
aninnerandoutercasing.
Widely used combustion
chamber.
Main advantage is that for
the same power output the
length is short (only 75% of
canannular).
Very good heat release rate
withcompactsize.
Minimumpressureloss.
Elimination of combustion
propagation problems from
chambertochamber.
Results in considerable
saving of weight and
productioncost.
Advantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferenttypesofcombustionchambers
Inthecantype,individualcansaremountedinacirclearoundtheengineaxis
Oneofthemaindisadvantagesofcannularcombustoristhattheydonotmakethebestuse
oftheavailablespaceandthisresultsinalargediameterengine
Ontheotherhandtheburnersareindividuallyremovableforinspectionandfuel/airratios
areeasiertocontrolthaninannulardesigns
The annular combustor is essentially a single chamber made up of concentric cylinders
mountedcoaxiallyabouttheengineaxis
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thelatestcombustorscombinethebestfeaturesofannularandcanannularconfigurations
Annular combustors have less surfacetovolume ratio than comparable cannular
combustorsandhencelesscoolingairisrequired
Annular combustor weight is less, while at the same time there is an improvement in
combustorperformance
Thisarrangementmakes morecompleteuseofavailablespace, haslowpressureloss,fits
wellwiththeaxialcompressorandturbineandfromatechnicalviewpointhasthehighest
efficiency
The annular combustor has a disadvantage because structural problems may arise due to
thelargediameter,thinwallcylinderrequiredwiththistypeofcombustor
Theproblemismoresevereforlargerengines
There is also some disadvantage in that the entire combustor must be removed from the
engineforinspectionandrepair
The canannular design also makes good use of available space but employs a number of
individually replaceable cylindrical inner liners that receive air through a common annular
housingforgoodcontroloffuelandairflowpatterns
The canannular arrangement has the added advantage of greater structural stability and
lowerpressurelossthanthatofthecantype
COMBUSTIONCHAMBERPERFORMANCE
Should be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a wide range of operating
conditionswithoutincurringalargepressureloss.
Incaseofflameextinctionitshouldbepossibletorelight.
The flame tube and fuel spray nozzles should be mechanically reliable and have good
structuralintegrity.
Shouldhavelowpressurelossoftheorderof5%6%.
Shouldhavehighheatintensityrateforagivenvolume.
IMPORTANTFACTORSAFFECTINGCOMBUSTORDESIGN
Acceptablecombustoroutlettemperaturetotheturbinenozzleguidevanes.
Goodtemperaturedistributionsoastopreventlocaloverheatingofturbineblades.
Stableoperationoverawiderangefuel/airratiosfromfullloadtoidlingconditions.
Formationofcarbondeposits(coking)shouldbeavoided.
Avoidanceofsmokeintheexhaustisofmajorimportance.
Less pollution level namely production of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) carbon monoxide (CO)
andunburnthydrocarbons(UHC).
Effectofoperatingvariablesoncombustorperformance
Theoperatingvariablesare:
Pressure
Inletairtemperature
Fuel/airratio
Flowvelocity/Machnumber
52
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Combustionefficiency
Asthepressureoftheairenteringthecombustorincreasesthecombustionefficiencyrises
andlevelsofftoarelativelyconstantvalue
Thepressureatwhichthislevelingoffoccursisusuallyabout1atmosphere(atm),butthis
mayvarysomewhatwithdifferentcombustorconfigurations
Astheinlettemperatureisincreased,combustionefficiencyrisesuntilitreachesavalueof
substantially100percent
Withincreaseinfuel/airratiocombustionefficiencyfirstincreases,thenlevelsoffwhenthe
mixtureinthecombustionzoneisclosetotheidealvalueandthendecreasesasthefuel/air
ratiobecomestoorich
Anincreaseinfuel/airratiowillresultinincreasedpressurelossbecauseincreasingfuel/air
ratioscausehighertemperatureswithacorrespondingdecreaseingasdensity
In order to maintain continuous flow the gases must travel at higher velocities and the
energyneededtocreatehighervelocitiesmustcomefromanincreaseinpressureloss
Increasingtheflowvelocitybeyondacertainpointreducescombustionefficiencybecause
itreducesthetimeavailableformixingandburning
Stableoperatingrange
Thestableoperatingrangeofacombustoralsochangeswithvariationsinpressureandflow
velocity
As the pressure decreases, the stable operating range becomes narrower until a point is
reachedbelowwhichburningwillnottakeplace
As the flow velocity increases, the stable operating range again becomes narrower until a
criticalvelocityisreached,abovewhichcombustionwillnottakeplace
Increasingthetemperatureoftheincomingchargeusuallyincreasesthefuel/airratiorange
forstableoperation
Inaddition,astheflowvelocityisincreased,theburnerpressurelosswillrise,mainlydueto
higherexpansionlossesastheairflowsthroughtherestrictingormeteringholesintheliner
Temperaturedistribution
The temperature distribution of the combustor exit is also affected by changes in the
operatingvariables
Reducingthepressurebelowasetpointtendstoupsettemperatureuniformity
On the other hand, for a given size combustor, more uniform temperatures may be
obtainedbycreatingbettermixingofthecoldandhotgasesattheexpenseofanincreasein
pressureloss
Withincreaseinfuel/airratioandflowvelocitytheexittemperaturestendtobecomeless
uniformbecausemoreheatisreleasedandthereislesstimeformixing
Starting
Startingisusuallyeasierwithhightemperature,highpressureandlowvelocity
Inaddition,thereisanoptimumfuel/airratio,aboveorbelowwhichignitionofthefuelair
mixtureisincreasinglydifficult
The light up fuel/air ratio is better arrived at based on low RPM engine test trials
supplementedbyanalysisofstatingcharacteristics
53
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Light up/Relight characteristics, Combustor stability, Temperature profile (radial and

circumferential),Pressureloss,Efficiencyandmechanicalintegrityarewellassessedduring
altitudetestingoftheengine
Carbondeposits
The operating variables have some effect on the accumulation of carbon deposits in the
combustor but their effect may vary with different types and configurations of the
combustor
Generally deposits get worse with increasing temperatures and pressures, until a point is
reachedwheretheybegintoburnoff
Increase in fuel/air ratio has a tendency to increase deposits, probably because the
proportionofoxygeninthecombustionzonebecomestoolowtoburnthefuelcompletely
Inaddition,changesinfuel/airratiosmaychangethelocationofcarbondepositswithinthe
combustor
Also properties of fuel have a significant effect on carbon accumulation and combustor
performanceandmustbeconsideredinthedesignofthecombustor
Temperatureandcoolingrequirements
Changes operating variables have a direct effect on the temperature and cooling
requirementsoftheliner
Withincreaseinpressureandtemperatureoftheincomingcharge,moreheatistransferred
fromtheburninggasestotheliner,partlybyradiationthroughtheinsulatingblanketofcool
airandpartlybyforcedconvectionandthelinertemperaturegoesup
Withincreaseinfuel/airratiocombustiontemperaturesbecomehigherandagaintheliner
temperaturegoesupmainlyduetoradiation
Ontheotherhand,anincreaseinflowvelocityoutsidethelinertendstoincreaseexternal
convection,therebyreducingthetemperatureoftheliner
COMBUSTIONSTABILITY
Means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain alight over a wide range of
operation.
Bothleanandrichlimitstotheair/fuelratiobeyondwhichtheflameisextinguished.
An extinction is most likely to occur in flight during a glide or dive with the engine idling
when there is a comparatively high air flow and only a small fuel flow i. e a very weak
mixturestrength.
Operatingrangedefinedbythestabilityloopmustcovertheair/fuelratiosandmassflowof
thecombustionchamber.
54
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Combustionstabilitylimits
Materials
The containing walls and internal parts of the combustion chamber must be capable of
resistingtheveryhighgastemperatureintheprimaryzone.Inpractice,thisisachievedby
usingthebestheatresistingmaterialavailable,theuseofhighheatresistantcoatingsand
bycoolingtheinnerwalloftheflametubeasaninsulationfromtheflame
Thecombustionchambermustalsowithstandcorrosionduetotheproductsofcombustion,
creepfailureduetotemperaturegradientsandfatigueduetovibrationalstresses
CombustorCFD
Understandingofcombustorperformanceparametersanddesignobjectives
Appreciationofdesigninputsfromcompressor(upstream)andturbine(downstream)
Appreciationofcombustorgeometryandcrosssection
Knowledgeofcompressorandturbineinterfacedimensions
Identificationofcombustorelementstobemodelled
Knowledgeofboundaryconditionsandtheirsettings
Understandingofflightenvelopeasapplicabletocombustordesign
Knowledgeofdynamicsimilarityparametersandscalingeffects
UnderstandingtheCFDcode
Knowledge of input and output parameters of the code and where to obtain the input
parameters
Discretisationofcombustorgeometrykeepingthecodeinputsinview
CorrelationmethodologyofrigtestresultswithCFDanalysis
Intheeventofshortfallinperformanceabilitytolookforcorrectiveactions
Rigtestingofthecombustor
Rigtestingofthecombustorincludesthefollowing:
Sectorial (90 degree) testing of the combustor; in this type of testing the mass flow
requirementsofthecombustorwillbeless.
FlowvisualizationtestusingaPerspexmodelofthecombustor.Inbothoftheabovetests
thedynamicsimilarityparameterslikeReynoldsnumberandMachnumberaresimulated
Full scale testing of the combustor in a specially built combustor test with detailed
instrumentationanddataacquisition
55
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Theparameterswhicharestudiedduringrigtestingofthecombustorare:
Pressureloss
Temperatureprofile(bothradialandcircumferential)
Combustionefficiency
Combustorstability
After establishing these parameters on the rig these are again correlated during full scale
enginetestinginsealeveltestbedandaltitudetestfacility
DesignConsideration
Almost all Civil and Military engines employ annular because of the various advantages
discussedearlier
AfewsmallexperimentalenginesemployCantypecombustors
Small Gas Turbines employ Reverse flow combustor because of the advantage of smaller
shaftlength
GenerallytheCombustoroutlettemperaturesofCivilaerogasturbineengineswillbelower
thanthetheirMilitarycounterpart
TypicalvaluesforMilitaryenginesareabout1850kwhereasforCivilenginesitwillbelower
byabout150to200degrees
IncivilenginesthemainconsiderationsareNoiseandPollutionlevels
56
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TURBINES
CONTENTS
Introduction
BasicFeatures
ExpansionProcess
ConstructionFeatures
CompressorTurbineMatching
Balancing
DesignOptions
57
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
INTRODUCTION
Basicfunctionofaturbineistoprovidethepowertodrivethecompressorandaccessories
andinthecaseofturbopropthepropeller.
It does this by extracting a portion of the pressure and kinetic energy from the high
temperaturecombustiongasesandexpandingthemtoalowerpressureandtemperature.
Intheexpansionprocessintheturbinethepressureandtemperaturearereduced.
Highstressesareinvolvedinthisprocessandforefficientoperationtheturbinebladetips
mayrotateatspeedsofabout500mtrs/sec.
Theturbineentrytemperaturecouldbeashighas1850k.
In a typical engine about 75% of the power produced internally is used to drive the
compressorandthebalanceleftisusedtoproducethenecessarythrust.
It does all this in a space smaller than the average automobile engine and with a
considerableadvantageinweight.
In order to produce the driving torque the turbine may consist of several stages each
employingonerowofstationarynozzleguidevanesandonerowofmovingblades.
Thenumberofstagesdependsupontherelationshipbetweenthepowerrequiredfromthe
gasflow,therotationalspeedatwhichitmustbeproducedandthediameteroftheturbine
permitted.
Thenumberofshaftsandthereforethenumberofturbinesvarieswiththetypeofengine.
High Pressure ration engines usually have two shafts driving high and low pressure
compressors.
On high bypass ratio fan engines that feature an intermediate pressure system another
turbine may be interposed between high and low pressure turbines thus forming a three
spoolsystem.
Onsomeenginesdrivingtorqueisderivedfromafreepowerturbine.
This method allows the turbine at its optimum speed because it is mechanically
independentoftheotherturbineandcompressorshafts.
The mean blade speed of a turbine has considerable effect on the maximum efficiency
possibleforagivenstageoutput.
For a given power output the gas velocities, deflections and hence losses are reduced in
proportiontothesquareofthehighermeanbladespeeds.
Stressintheturbinediscincreasesasthespeedandhencetomaintainthesamestresslevel
athigherspeedthesectionalthicknessandconsequentlyweightmustbeincreased.
Forthisreasonthefinaldesigniscompromisebetweenefficiencyandweight.
Engines operating at higher turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient and
haveanimprovedpowertoweighratio.
The design of nozzle guide vane and turbine blade passages is based on aerodynamic
considerations and to obtain optimum efficiency compatible with compressor and
combustordesignbladesarebasicallyofaerofoilshape.
There are impulse, reaction and combination of the two known as impulsereaction
turbines.
In the impulse type the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed nozzle
guide vanes, which because of their convergent shape increase the gas velocity whilst
reducingthepressure.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thegasisthendirectedontotheturbinebladeswhichexperienceanimpulseforcecaused
bytheimpactofthegasontheblades.
Inthereactiontype,thefixednozzleguidevanesaredesignedtoalterthegasflowdirection
withoutchangingthepressure.
Theconvergingbladepassagesexperienceareactionforceresultingfromtheexpansionand
accelerationofthegas.
Normallygasturbineenginesdonotusepureimpulseorpurereactionturbinebladesbut
theimpulsereactioncombination.
Theproportionofeachprincipleincorporatedinthedesignofaturbineislargelydependent
on the type of engine in which the turbine is to operate but in general it is about 50%
impulseand50%reaction.
Impulsetypeturbinesareusedforcatridgeandairstarters.
Comparisonbetweenapureimpulseturbineandanimpulsereactionturbine
BASICFEATURES
Theaxialflowturbineconsistsoftwomainelementsnamelyasetofstationaryvanesanda
setofturbinerotors(rotating).
Thestationarypartoftheturbineassemblyconsistsofarowofcontouredvanessetatan
angle to form a series of small nozzles that discharge gases onto the blade of the turbine
wheel.
The stationary vane assembly is usually referred to as the turbine nozzle and the vanes
themselvesarecalledasnozzleguidevanes.
Thenumberofturbineshaftsvarieswiththetypeofengine.
High pressure ratio engines usually employ two shafts i. e. Two turbines namely high
pressureandlowpressureturbinesdrivingthehighpressureandlowpressurecompressors
respectively.
ThehighandlowpressureshaftswillrotateatdifferentRPMsbuttheyareaerodynamically
coupled.
59
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
A spool is a combination of compressor and turbine. For eg: low pressure spool and high
pressurespool.
Aerodynamiccouplingmeansthatthepressure,temperatureandmassflowcomingoutof
the low pressure compressor should be compatible with that of the high pressure
compressor.
TypesofTurbines
With a few exceptions Gas turbine manufacturers have concentrated on the axialflow
turbine.
The radialinflow turbine has the advantage of ruggedness and simplicity and is relatively
inexpensiveandeasytomanufacturewhencomparedwiththeaxialflowtype.
The expansion ratios obtainable with radial turbines are higher compared to the axial
turbines.
Howevertheisentropicefficiencyofradialturbineislowerthanthatofaxialturbine.
Because of the high expansion ratios possible with radial turbines they are used in
turbochargers
Henceforallaircraftapplicationsaxialturbinesused.
Theisentropicefficiencyobtainablewithaxialturbinescouldbeashighas90%whereasthe
correspondingvaluewithradialturbinewillbearound75%to80%butwithhighexpansion
ratio.
EXPANSIONPROCESS
The turbine depends for its operation on the transfer of energy between the combustion
gasesandtheturbine.
Thetransferisnever100%becauseofthermodynamicandmechanicallosses.
Thegasarisingoutofthecombustionprocessforcesitswayintothenozzleguidevanesof
theturbinewherebecauseoftheconvergentshapeitisaccelerated.
Atthesametimethegasflowisgivenaspinorwhirlinthedirectionofrotationofthe
turbinebladesbythenozzleguidevanes.
Onimpactwiththebladesandduringthesubsequentreactionthroughtheblades,energyis
absorbed,causingtheturbinetorotateathighspeedandsoprovidethepowerfordriving
thecompressor.
Thetorqueorturningpowerappliedtotheturbineisgovernedbytherateofgasflowand
theenergychangeofthegasbetweentheinletandtheoutletoftheturbineblades.
Thedesignoftheturbineissuchthatthewhirlwillberemovedfromthegasstreamsothat
theflowattheexitfromtheturbinewillbesubstantiallystraightenedouttogiveanaxial
flowintotheexhaustsystem.
Excessive residual whirl reduces the efficiency of the exhaust system and also tends to
producejetpipevibrationwhichhasadetrimentaleffectontheexhaustconesupportsand
struts.
It will be seen that the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are twisted, the blades
havingastaggeranglethatisgrateratthetipthanattheroot.
Thereasonforthetwististomakethegasflowfromthecombustionsystemdoequalwork
atallpositionsalongthelengthofthebladeandtoensurethattheflowenterstheexhaust
systemwithauniformaxialvelocity.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thedegreeofreactionvariesfromtheroottotip,beingleastattherootandhighestatthe
tipwiththemeansectionhavingthechosenvalueofabout50%.
Thelosseswhichpreventtheturbinebeing100%efficientareduetoanumberofreasons.
A typical uncooled threestage turbine would suffer a 3. 5% loss because of aerodynamic
lossesintheturbineblades.
Afurther4.5%losswouldbeincurredbyaerodynamiclossesinthenozzleguidevanes,gad
leakage over the turbine blade tips and exhaust system losses; these losses are of
approximatelyequalproportion.
Thetotallossesresultinanoverallefficiencyofapproximately90to92%
Atypicalturbinebladeshowingtwistedcontour
Construction
Thebasiccomponentsoftheturbinearethenozzleguidevanes,theturbinebladesandthe
turbinedisc.
Therotatingassemblyiscarriedonbearingsmountedintheturbinecasingandtheturbine
shaftiscommontothecompressor.
Thenozzleguidevanesareofanaerofoilshapewiththepassagebetweenadjacentvanes
formingaconvergentduct.
61
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thevanesarelocatedintheturbinecasinginamannerthatallowsforexpansion.
Thenozzleguidevanesareusuallyofhollowformandmaybecooledbypassingcompressor
deliveryairthroughthemtoreducetheeffectofhighthermalstressesandgasloads.
TypicalNozzleGuideVanesshowingtheirshapeandlocation
TurbineDiscsandBlades
Theturbinediscsareusuallymanufacturedfromamachinedforgingwithanintegralshaft
orwithaflangeontowhichtheshaftmaybolted.
Thediscalsohasarounditsperimeter,provisionforattachmentoftheturbineblades.
Inordertolimittheeffectofheatconductionfromtheturbinebladestothediscaflowof
coolingairispassedacrossbothsidesofeachdisc.
Theturbinebladesareofanaerofoilshape,designedtoprovidepassagesbetweenadjacent
bladesthatgiveasteadyaccelerationoftheflowuptothethroatwheretheareaissmallest
and the velocity reaches that required at the exit to produce the required degree of
reaction.
Theactualareaofeachbladecrosssectionisfixedbythepermittedstressinthematerial
usedandbythesizeofanyholeswhichmayberequiredforcoolingpurposes.
High efficiency demands thin trailing edges to the sections, but a compromise has to be
madesoastopreventthebladescrackingduetothetemperaturechanges duringengine
operation.
The method of attaching the turbine blades to the turbine disc is of considerable
importance since the stress in the disc around the fixing or in the blade root has an
importantbearingonthelimitingrimspeed.
Thefirtreefixingisusedinthemajorityofgasturbineengines.
Thistypeoffixinginvolvesveryaccuratemachiningtoensurethattheloadingissharedby
alltheserrations.
Thebladeisfreeintheserrationswhenthebladeisstationaryandisstiffenedintherootby
centrifugalloadingwhentheturbineisrotating.
A gap exists between the turbine blade tips and casing (tip clearance) which varies in size
duetothedifferentratesofexpansionandcontraction.
62
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
In order to reduce the loss of efficiency through the gas leakage across the blade tips, a
shroudisoftenfitted.
Thisismadeupbyasmallsegmentatthetipofeachbladewhichformsaperipheralring
aroundthebladetips.
Anabradablelininginthecasingmayalsobeusedtoreducegasleakage.
Active Clearance Control (ACC) is more effective method of maintaining minimum turbine
tipclearancethroughtheflightenvelope.
Airfromthecompressorisusedtocooltheturbinecasingandwhenusedwithshroudless
turbineblades,enableshighertemperaturesandspeedstobeused.
Variousmethodsofattachingbladestoturbinediscs
CompressorTurbineMatching
The flow characteristics of the turbine must be carefully matched with those of the
compressortoobtainthemaximumefficiencyandperformanceoftheengine.
IftheNozzleguidevanesallowedtoolowaflowthenabackpressurewillbuildupcausing
thecompressortosurge.
Toohighaflowwouldcausethecompressortochoke.
Ineitherconditionalossofefficiencywouldveryrapidlyoccur.
ThematchingofthecompressorcharacteristicstothatoftheturbineisknownasOffdesign
performancepredictionandisquitecomplexinmultispoolengines.
Balancing
Thebalancingofaturbineisamextremelyimportantoperationinitsassemblyprocedure.
Inviewofhighrotationalspeedsandtheofmaterials,anyunbalancecouldseriouslyaffect
therotatingassemblybearingsandengineoperation.
Becauseofthehighrotationalspeeds,anyunbalanceinthemainrotatingassemblyofagas
turbine engine is capable of producing excessive vibration and stresses which increase as
thesquareoftherotationalspeed.
Balancingiseffectedonaspecialbalancingmachine.
63
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
The two main methods of measuring and correcting unbalance are single plane (static)
balancingandtwoplane(dynamic)balancing.
With single plane balancing, the unbalance is only in one plane i. e. centrally through the
componentat90degreestotheaxis.
For compressorturbine assembly two plane balancing is adopted since it is dynamic
balancing.
Atwinturbineandshaftarrangement
DesignOptions
In summary axial turbines are selected for aircraft gas turbines because of their high
isentropicefficienciesandmoderateexpansionratioscomparedtoradialturbines.
Dependingontheapplicationsalargecivilenginecanhave3stageaxialturbinetorelieve
thehighturbinestageloadingduetoaverylargefan.
GenerallyMilitaryAerogasturbinesemploysinglestageaxialturbines.
GenerallyallCivilandMilitaryenginesemployminimumoftwospools.
Radial Turbines are used in Turbochargers because of their high stage expansion ratios
althoughatthecostofmoderatetolowisentropicefficiencies.
AlsoRadialTurbinesareusedinIndustrialGasTurbines.
AtradeoffisrequiredbetweenmultispoolsandtheirassociatedRotorDynamicsproblems.
64
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
EXHAUST SYSTEM
65
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PURPOSEOFEXHAUSTSYSTEM
Purpose of exhaust system is to pass the turbine discharge gases to atmosphere at jet
velocityVjandintherequireddirectiontoprovidetheresultantthrust.
Thevelocityandpressureoftheexhaustgasescreatethethrustintheturbojetengine;but
ontheturbopropellerengineonlyasmallamountofthrustiscontributedbytheexhaust
gases because most of the energy has been absorbed by the turbine for driving the
propeller.
Hencethedesignoftheexhaustsystemexertsaconsiderableinfluenceontheperformance
oftheengine.
Theexhaustnozzleareaaffectstheturbineentrytemperature,massflow,velocity,exhaust
temperatureandpressureoftheexhaustjet.
Thetemperatureofthegasenteringtheexhaustsystemwillbebetween550to850deg.C.
or higher depending on the type of the engine and with the use of afterburner the
temperaturecanbeashighas1800deg.C.Thereforeitisnecessarytousematerialsanda
formofconstructionthatwillresistdistortionandcrackingandpreventheatconductionto
theaircraftstructure.
Theuseofathrustreverserandatwopositionpropellingnozzleentailsamorecomplicated
system.
A fully variable exhaust nozzle actuated by the Digital Electronic Control Unit (DECU) is
employed in most of the modern military engines to optimize the engine performance at
mostoftheflightconditions.
Thelowbypassenginemayalsoincludeamixerunittohaveathroughmixingofthehot
andcoldgasstreams.
Howevermixingofthehotandcoldgasstreamsisgenerallyemployedinlowbypassratio
militaryenginestoimprovethepropulsiveefficiencyandenginespecificfuelconsumption.
Abasicexhaustsystem
66
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Alowbypassairmixerunit
Exhaustsystemwiththrustreverser,noisesuppressorandtwopositionnozzle
67
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
EXHAUSTGASFLOW
Gas from the engine turbine enters the exhaust system at high velocities which produce
highfrictionlosses.
Hencetheflowvelocityshouldbereducedbydiffusion.
This is accomplished by having an increasing passage area between the exhaust cone and
theouterwall.
Thiszonealsopreventstheexhaustgasesfromflowingacrosstherearfaceoftheturbine
disc.
ItisusualtomaintaintheexitMachnumberoftheexhaustsystemtoabout0.5.
Additionallossesoccurduetotheresidualwhirlvelocityinthegasstreamfromtheturbine.
Inordertoreducetheselosses,theturbinerearstrutsintheexhaustunitaredesignedto
straightenouttheflowbeforethegasespassintothejetpipe.
The exhaust gas pass to atmosphere through the propelling nozzle which is a convergent
duct,thusincreasingthegasvelocity.
During most engine operating conditions the exit velocity reaches the speed of sound in
relationtotheexhaustgastemperatureandthepropellingnozzlethensaidtobechoked.
Thatisnofurtherincreaseinvelocitycanbeobtainedunlessthetemperatureisincreased.
Astheupstreamtotalpressureisincreasedabovethevalueatwhichthepropellingnozzle
becomes choked the static pressure of the gases at exit increases above atmosphere
pressure. This pressure difference across the propelling nozzle gives what is known as
pressurethrustandiseffectiveovernozzleexitarea.
Thisadditionalthrustisoverandabovethethrustobtainedduetothemomentumchange
ofthegasstream.
Withtheconvergenttypeofnozzleawastageofenergyoccurssincethegasesleavingthe
exitdonotexpandrapidlyenoughtoimmediatelyachieveoutsideairpressure.
Some high pressure ratio engines use with advantage a convergent divergent nozzle to
recoversomeofthewastageenergy.
The nozzle utilizes the pressure energy to obtain a further increase in gas velocity and
consequentlyanincreaseinthethrust.
Theexitoftheconvergentsectionbecomesthethroat,withtheexit propernowbeingat
theendoftheflareddivergentsection.
Whenthegasenterstheconvergentsectionoftheexhaustnozzle,thegasvelocityincreases
withacorrespondingfallinstaticpressure.
Thegasvelocityatthethroatcorrespondstothelocalsonicvelocity.
As the gas leaves the restriction of the throat and flows into the divergent section, it
progressivelyincreasesinvelocitytowardstheexit.
Thereaction tothisfurtherincreasein momentumisapressure forceacting ontheinner
wallofthenozzle.Acomponentofthisforceactingparalleltothelongitudinalaxisofthe
nozzleproducesfurtherincreaseinthrust.
The propelling nozzle size is extremely important and must be designed to obtain the
correctbalanceofpressure,temperatureandthrust.
Withasmallernozzlethesevaluesincrease,butthereisapossibilityofenginesurgewith
toolowanozzlediameter.
A fixed area propelling nozzle is only efficient over a narrow range of engine operating
conditions.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Inordertoincreasethisrangeavariableareaexhaustnozzlemaybeused.
Thistypeofexhaustnozzleisusuallyautomaticallycontrolled(byDECU)andisdesignedto
maintainthecorrectpressureandtemperatureatallengineoperatingconditions.
Withafterburningavariableareaexhaustnozzleisamust.
Thisafterburningincreasesthemomentumthrustfurtherwithoutincreasingthesizeofthe
engine.
However the Specific Fuel Consumption with the afterburning is quite high and hence the
afterburneroperationisemployedonlyinmilitaryenginesandthattooforshortdurations
oftheorderof05to08minutes.
The bypass engine has two streams to eject to atmosphere, the cool bypass airflow and
thehotturbinedischargegases.
Inalowbypassratioenginethetwoflowsarecombinedbyamixerunitwhichallowsthe
bypassairtoflowintotheturbineexhaustflowinamannerthatensuresthoroughmixingof
thetwostreams.
Themixerunitconsistsofanumberofchutesthroughwhichthebypassairflowsintothe
exhaustgases.
Inhighbypassratioenginestwostreamsareexhaustedseparately.
The hot and cold nozzles are coaxial and the area of each nozzle is designed to obtain
maximumefficiency.
Constructionandmaterial
The exhaust system must be capable of withstanding the high gas temperature and is
thereforemanufacturedfromnickelbasealloys.
It is also necessary to prevent any heat being transferred to the surrounding aircraft
structure.
Thisisachievedbypassingventilatingairaroundthejetpipeorbylaggingthehotsectionof
theexhaustsystemwithaninsulatingblanket.
Eachblankethasaninnerlayeroffibrousinsulatingmaterialcontainedbyanouterskinof
thinstainlesssteel,whichisdimpledtoincreaseitsstrength.
Inaddition,acousticallyabsorbentmaterialsaresometimesappliedtotheexhaustsystem
toreducetheenginenoise.
Aninsulatingblanket
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Highbypassratioengineexhaustsystems
Designoptions
InSummary
Generally in military engines, upto about 22:1 overall pressure ratio Convergent exhaust
nozzlesareemployed.
Where overall pressure ratio is in excess of about 25:1 ConvergentDivergent exhaust
nozzles can be gainfully employed to increase the momentum thrust but this will involve
additionalweightandenginecontrolcomplications.
Theadditionalweightcanbeoffsetbyincreaseinthrustandthecontrolcomplicationscan
beeffectivelytackledbyDECU,whichisdoneinallmodernfighteraircrafttoday.
Howevercivilenginesbeinghighsubsonicenginesemploygenerallyonlyconvergentnozzle.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
AFTERBURNING
CONTENTS
Introduction
Typicalpartsoftheafterburner
Requirementsoftheafterburner
Principleofoperationoftheafterburner
Thrustincrease
Fuelconsumption
Rigtestingofafterburner
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Introduction
Afterburning(or)reheatisamethodofaugmentingthebasicthrustofanenginetoimprove
theaircrafttakeoff,climbaccelerationandcombatperformance.
Majorityoffighterenginesemployafterburnerforshortburstadditionalthrustapplication
asmentionedabove
The increased thrust could be obtained by the use of a larger engine, but as this would
increase the weight, frontal area and overall fuel consumption, afterburning provides the
bestmethodofthrustaugmentationforshortperiods
Afterburningoperationconsistsoftheintroductionandburningoffuelbetweentheengine
turbine and exhaust nozzle, utilizing the unburned oxygen in the exhaust gas to support
combustion
Theresultantincreaseinthetemperatureoftheexhaustgasgivesanincreasedvelocityof
thejetleavingthepropellingnozzleandthereforeincreasestheenginethrust
Theafterburner,whoseoperationismuchlikeaRamjet,increasesthrustbyaddingfeelto
theexhaustgasesaftertheyhavepassedthroughtheturbinesection
As the temperature of the afterburner flame can be in excess of 1800deg, C., the burners
areusuallyarrangedsothattheflameisconcentratedaroundtheaxisofthejetpipe
Thisallowsaproportionoftheturbinedischargegastoflowalongthewallofthejetpipe
andthusmaintainthewallatasafevalue
The area of the afterburning jet pipe is larger than that of a normal jet pipe for the same
engine,toobtainareducedvelocitygasstream
Inordertoprovideforoperationunderallconditions,anafterburningjetpipeisfittedwith
eithertwopositionoravariableareapropellingnozzle.
The nozzle is closed during nonafterburning operation, but when afterburning is selected
the gas temperature increases and the nozzle opens to give an exit area suitable for the
resultantincreaseinthevolumeofthegasstream
This prevents any increase in pressure occurring in the jet pipe which would affect the
functioningoftheengineandenablesafterburningtobeusedoverawiderangeofengine
speeds
Thethrustofanafterburningengine,withoutafterburninginoperation,isslightlylessthan
that of a similar engine not fitted with afterburning equipment; this is due to the added
restrictionsinthejetpipe.
Theoverallweightoftheenginewithafterburningisalsoincreasedbecauseoftheheavier
jetpipeandafterburnerequipment
Afterburningisachievedonlowbypassenginesbymixingthebypassandturbinestreams
beforetheafterburnerfuelinjectionandstabilizersystemisreachedsothatthecombustion
takesplaceinthemixedexhauststream
Typicalpartsoftheafterburner
Afterburnerconsistsofthefollowing:
Engineorturbinedrivenafterburnerfuelpump
Afterburnerfuelcontrol
Pressurizingvalveinthecaseofmultistageoperation
Spraynozzlesorspraybars
Ignitionsystem
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Flameholders/stabilizers
Variableareaexhaustnozzle
Screechliner
Interfaceconnections
Requirementsoftheafterburner
Largetemperaturerise:Thetemperatureriseislimitedbytheamountofairthatisavailable
andthematerial
Lowdryloss:Theenginedoessufferaslightpenaltyinthrustduringcoldoperationdue
principallytotherestrictioncausedbyflamestabilizersandfuelspraynozzles/spraybars.
Wide temperature modulation: This is necessary to obtain higher degrees of afterburning
forbettercontrolofthrust
Principleofoperationofafterburner
The gas stream from the engine enters the jet pipe at a velocity of 250 to 400 mtrs per
second,butthisvelocityisfartoohighforastableflametobemaintained.
Hence the flow is diffused before it enters the afterburner zone, i. e the flow velocity is
reducedandthepressureisincreased.
However,asthespeedofburningkeroseneatnormalmixtureratiosisonlyafewfeetper
second,anyfuelliteveninthediffusedairstreamwouldbeblownaway.
Thereforeaformofflamestabilizer(Vgutter)islocateddownstreamofthefuelburnersto
providearegioninwhichturbulenteddiesareformedtoassistcombustionandwherethe
local gas velocity is further reduced to a figure at which flame stabilization occurs whilst
combustionisinoperation
Anatomizedfuelsprayisfedintothejetpipethroughanumberofburners,whichareso
arrangedastodistributethefuelevenlyovertheflamearea
Principleofafterburning
Combustionistheninitiatedbyacatalyticigniter,whichcreatesaflameasaresultofthe
chemicalreactionofthefuel/airmixturebeingsprayedontoaplatinumbasedelement,by
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
an igniter plug adjacent to the burner, or by a hot streak of flame that originates in the
combustionchamber;thislattermethodisknownashotshotignition
Once combustion is initiated, the gas temperature increases and the expanding gases
acceleratethroughtheenlargedareapropellingnozzletoprovideadditionalthrust
Methodsofafterburningignition
Principleofoperation
Thesparkorflamethatinitiatescombustionmustbeofsuchintensitythatalightupcanbe
obtainedatconsiderablealtitudes
For smooth functioning of the system, a stable flame that will burn steadily over a wide
rangeofmixturestrengthsandgasflowsisrequired
Themixturemustalsobeeasytoigniteunderallconditionsofflightandcombustionmust
bemaintainedwiththeminimumlossofpressure
Mostafterburnerswillproduceabout50percentthrustincrease,butwithacorresponding
threefoldinfuelflow
Sincethespecificfuelconsumptionandfuelflowareconsiderablyhigherduringthereheat
operationascompared todrymodeofoperation,reheatisusedonlyforthetimelimited
operationoftakeoff,climbaccelerationandcombat
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Afterburningratherthanwaterinjectionasamethodofthrustaugmentationisextensively
usedin,butnotlimitedto,fighteraircraftbecauseofhigherthrustaugmentationpossible
AfterburnersystemFeatures
Burners
Theburnersystemconsistsofseveralcircularconcentricfuelmanifoldssupportedbystruts
insidethejetpipe
Fuel is supplied to the manifolds by feed pipes in the support struts and sprayed into the
flame area, between the flame stabilizers, from holes in the downstream edge of the
manifolds
TheflamestabilizersarebluntnosedVsectionannularringslocateddownstreamofthefuel
burners
Jetpipe
Theafterburnerjetpipeismadefromaheatresistantnickelbasedalloyandrequiresmore
insulationthanthenormaljetpipetopreventtheheatofcombustionbeingtransferredto
theaircraftstructure
The jet pipe may be of a double skin construction with the outer skin carrying the flight
loadsandtheinnerskinthethermalstresses
Aflowofcoolingairisoftenintroducedbetweentheinnerandouterskins
Provisionisalsomadetoaccommodateexpansionandcontractionandtopreventgasleaks
atthejetpipejoints
Typicalafterburningjetpipe
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Typicalafterburningjetpipesandpropellingnozzles
Screechliner
Ascreechoranthowllinerfitsintotheinnerwalloftheduct
Thelinerisgenerallycorrugatedandperforatedwiththousandsofsmallholes
The liner prevents extreme high frequency and amplitude pressure fluctuations resulting
fromcombustioninstabilityortheunsteadyreleaseofheatenergy
Screech results in excessive noise, vibration, heat transfer rates and temperatures that
causerapidphysicaldestructionoftheafterburnercomponents
Thescreechlinertendstoabsorbanddampenthesepressurefluctuations
Theanthowllineralsoimprovescoolingattherearoftheafterburner
Propellingnozzle
The propelling nozzle is of similar material and construction as the jet pipe, to which it is
securedasseparateassembly
Atwopositionpropellingnozzlehastwomovableeyelidsthatareoperatedbyactuatorsto
giveanopenorclosedposition
Avariableareapropellingnozzlehasaringofinterlockingflapsthatarehingedtotheouter
casingandmaybeenclosedbyanoutershroud
Theflapsareactuatedbyhydraulicorpneumaticactuatorstoclosedoropenposition
Thecontroloftheflappositionandtherebynozzlepositionisbyacontrolunit
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Controlsystem
It is essential that two functions namely fuel flow and propelling nozzle area must be
properlycoordinatedforsatisfactoryoperationoftheafterburnersystem
Thesefunctionsarerelatedbymakingthenozzleareadependentuponthefuelfloworvice
versa
The pilot controls the afterburner fuel flow or the nozzle area in conjunction with a
compressordelivery/jetpipepressuresensingdevice(pressureratiocontrolunit)
The pressure ratio control unit ensures the pressure ratio across the turbine remains
unchangedandthattheengineisunaffectedbytheoperationofafterburning,regardlessof
thenozzleareaandfuelflow
When the afterburner fuel flow is increased, the nozzle area increases and when the fuel
flowisreducedthenozzleareaisdecreased
Sincelargefuelflowsarerequiredforafterburning,anadditionalfuelpumpapartfromthe
mainfuelpumpisused
Thepumpisusuallyofthecentrifugalfloworgeartypeandisenergizedautomaticallywhen
afterburningisselected
The system is fully automatic and incorporates fail safe features in the event of an
afterburnermalfunction
Someoftheafterburnerapplicationsemployexhausttemperature/inlettemperatureratio
controlinsteadofapressureratiocontroltomaintainthesamejetpipetemperatureasthat
ofdryoperation
Thrustincrease
The increase in thrust due to afterburning depends solely upon the ratio of exhaust gas
temperaturebeforeandaftertheextrafuelisburnt
Neglectingsmalllossesduetotheafterburnerinstallationandgasflowmomentumchanges,
thethrustincreasemaybecalculatedasfollows:
Assuming an exhaust temperature of 640 deg. c (913K) before afterburning and with
afterburningof1269deg.c(1542K),thenthetemperatureratiois1542/913=1.69
Thevelocityofthegasstreamincreasesasthesquarerootofthetemperatureratio
Hencethejetexhaustvelocityisincreasedby30percentandtheincreaseinstaticthrustis
also30percent
Staticthrustincreaseofupto70percentisobtainablefromlowbypassratioenginesfitted
withafterburningequipmentandhighforwardspeedsandathighforwardspeedsseveral
timesthisamountofthrustboostcanbeobtained
Highthrustboostscanbeachievedonlowbypassenginesbecauseofthelargeamountof
oxygenintheexhaustgasstreamandtheinitialtemperatureoftheexhaustgases
Itisnotpossibletogoonincreasingtheamountoffuelburntinthejetpipebecausethejet
pipe would not withstand the high temperatures that would be incurred and complete
combustioncannotbeassured
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Typicalthrustaugmentationduetoafterburning
Fuelconsumption
Afterburning always incurs an increase in specific fuel consumption and is therefore

generallylimitedtoperiodsofshortduration
Additionalfuelmustbeaddedtothegasstreamtoobtaintherequiredtemperatureratio
Sincethetemperaturerisedoesnotoccuratthepeakofcompression,thefuelisnotburnt
as efficiently as in the main combustor and hence a higher specific fuel consumption is
inevitable
Whenthisadditionalfuelconsumptioniscombinedwiththeimprovedrateoftakeoffand
climb, it is found that the amount of fuel required to reduce the time taken to reach
operationalheightisnotexcessive
Rigtestingofafterburner
Afterburnerrigtestingiscarriedoutonascaledmodeltostudythefollowingparameters:
Afterburnercoldloss
Afterburnerhotloss
Afterburnercombustionefficiency
Thrustboost
Lightupcharacteristics
Amajorportionofafterburnertestingiscarriedoutduringsealevelandaltitudetestingof
theenginetostudytheperformance,relightcharacteristics,accelerationcharacteristicsand
mechanicalintegrity
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
FUEL SYSTEM
79
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Aeroenginecontrols
Turbineenginefuels
JetAwhichisKerosene
JetBablendofkeroseneandgasoline
JetA1usedforoperationatextremelylowtemperatures
JetAandJetBarethemostcommon
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Fuelcontrolisan"intelligent"componentthatdoestheworkoncetheflightcrew"tellsit
whattodo"
Thishistoricalperiodisfurtherdividedintofourcontrolsdevelopmentalphasesasfollows:
Startupphase,1942to1949
Growthphase,1950to1969
Electronicphase,1970to1989
Integrationphase,1990to2002
FuelSystemFunction
TheFuelsystemmustdeliverFueltotheEngine:
IntheRightAmount
Pumps
FuelMeteringControl
IntheRightPlace
FlowDivider
Manifolds
Nozzles
AttheRightTime
ShutoffValve
ElectronicEngineControl
81
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Fuelsystem
Fuel is usually introduced by an atomized spray, the amount of which is controlled
automaticallydependingontherateofairflow.
Sothesequenceofeventsforincreasingthrustis,thethrottleopensandfuelspraypressure
isincreased,increasingtheamountoffuelbeingburned
Thismeansthatexhaustgasesarehotterandsoareejectedathigheracceleration,which
meanstheyexerthigherforcesandthereforeincreasetheenginethrustdirectly
It also increases the energy extracted by the turbine which drives the compressor even
fasterandsothereisanincreaseinairflowingintotheengineaswell.
It is the rate of the mass of the airflow that matters since it is the change in momentum
(massxvelocity)thatproducestheforce.
However,densityvarieswithaltitudeandhenceinflowofmasswillalsovarywithaltitude,
temperatureetc.
Thismeansthatthrottlevalueswillvaryaccordingtoalltheseparameterswithoutchanging
themmanually.Thisiswhyfuelflowiscontrolledautomatically
Theinputsareusuallyfrompressureandtemperatureprobesfromtheintakeandatvarious
pointsthroughtheengine.
Also throttle inputs, engine speed etc. are required. These affect the high pressure fuel
pump.
Usuallythereare2systems,onetocontrolthepressureandtheothertocontroltheflow
Thefuelsystemassociateddirectlywiththepropulsionsystemconsistsof:
Afuelpump
Afuelcontrol
Fuelmanifolds
Fuelnozzles
Afuelfilter
Heatexchangers
Drains
Apressurizinganddumpvalve.
Allareexternaltotheengineexceptthefuelnozzles.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Afuelcontrolinthesimplestformconsistsofaplainmeteringvalvetoregulatefuelflowtotheengine.
Ahydromechanicalfuelcontrolconsistsofthefollowingmaincomponents,butitisnotlimitedtoonly
supplyingfueltonozzle
Inolderengines,thefuelcontrolishydromechanical,whichmeansthatitoperatesdirectlyfrom
pressureandmechanicalspeedphysicallyinputintothecontrolunit.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Fuelcontrolunit(FCU)
Thiselementissomethinglikeamechanicalcomputer.
It determines the output of the fuel pump by a system of valves which can change the
pressureusedtocausethepumpstroke,therebyvaryingtheamountofflow.
Takethepossibilityofincreasedaltitudewheretherewillbereducedairintakepressure.
Inthiscase,thechamberwithintheFCUwillexpandwhichcausesthespillvalvetobleed
morefuel.Thiscausesthepumptodeliverlessfueluntiltheopposingchamberpressureis
equivalenttotheairpressureandthespillvalvegoesbacktoitsposition.
When the throttle is opened, it releases i. e. lessens the pressure which lets the throttle
valvefall.Thepressureistransmitted(becauseofabackpressurevalvei.e.noairgapsin
fuel flow) which closes the FCU spill valves (as they are commonly called) which then
increasesthepressureandcausesahigherflowrate.
The engine speed governor is used to prevent the engine from overspeeding. It has the
capabilityofdisregardingtheFCUcontrol.
Itdoesthisbyuseofadiaphragmwhichsensestheenginespeedintermsofthecentrifugal
pressurecausedbytherotatingrotorofthepump.
At a critical value, this diaphragm causes another spill valve to open and bleed away the
fuelflow.
Fuelpump
Fuel pumps are used to raise the fuel pressure above the pressure in the combustion
chambersothatthefuelcanbeinjected.
Fuelpumpsareusuallydrivenbythemainshaft,viagearing.
ADDITIONALFUNCTIONSOFFUELSYSTEM
Apart from providing fuel to the engine, the fuel system is also used to control propeller
speeds,compressorairflowandcoollubricationoil
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
The fuel system consists of the fuel control, speed governors, fuel pumps, starting fuel
nozzles,mainfuelsystemflowdivider,mainfuelmanifold,andvaporizingtubesornozzles.
Fuelisconductedbetweenthesecomponentsbyflexibleorrigidlines.
Thefuelsystemmustsupplyclean,accuratelymeteredfueltothecombustionchambers.
Allfuelsystemshavebasicallythesamecomponents;howthesespecificunitsdotheirjobs
differsradicallyfromoneenginetoanother.
Somesystemsincorporatefeaturesthatarenotnecessarytothemeteringoffuel,suchas
fuelandoilheatexchangers,useoffuelpressuretooperatevariableinletguidevanes,and
compressorbleedmechanisms.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE

CONTROL SYSTEM
87
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Introduction
Overthepast10to15yearsuseofFullAuthorityDigitalEngineControl(FADEC)systemhas
becomeastandardfeature
FADECsystemhasmajorbenefitsintermsof:
Engineperformance
Easeofmaintenance
Improvedfaultdetection
Controlwasachievedintheearlyenginesusing:
Hydromechanicaldevices
Thrustwasdemandedandmaintainedapproximatelyconstantbypilotintervention
onthethrottleusingtheengineRPMandexhausttemperatureforguidance
Thisobviouslyhadlimitationintermsofenginehandlingandahighpilotworkload
EvolutionofFADECsystem
Introduction of electronic control which provided closedloop around RPM and exhaust
temperatureimprovedtheenginehandling
Thisallowedaccelerationanddecelerationwithoutfearofsurgeorflameout
The direct mechanical input of the throttle to the fuel control unit is still present in this
system
AsaspinofftheFADECsystemwasdeveloped
The FADEC system has the throttle input to the Digital Electronic Control Unit (DECU) and
therequiredfuelflowiscalculatedfortheprevailingambientandengineconditionsandthis
flowisdemandedofthefuelsystem
InadditiontotheenginehandlingbenefitsFADECsystemoffersimprovementsinefficiency
and lower maintenance due to the simplicity of the system, compared to the
Hydromechanicalsystemofthesamefunctionality
EvolutionofGasTurbineControls
Fullauthorityhydromechanicalorpneumaticcontrolregulatingspeed
FullauthorityanalogelectroniccontrolsregulatingspeedandtemperatureandprovidingsomeBIT
Hybridcontrols
(fullauthorityhydromechanicalorpneumaticcontrolswithsupervisoryanalogordigitalelectronic
controlsforfinetuning)
Hybridcontrols
(fullauthorityanalogordigitalelectroniccontrolwithfullauthorityhydromechanicalbackup)
SinglechannelFADECs
DualchannelFADECs
88
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Typesofcontrol:Supervisory
SupervisorycontrolOperatordirectlycontrolsaprimarycontrolparameter;thesupervisory
controlregulatesotherparameterstoprovideprocesscontrol
Examplesofsupervisorycontrol:
Automobileenginepower(gaspedalsetsairflowviathrottleplate,controlschedulesfuel
injectorflowforproperair/fuelratio
Automobile power setting (steering wheel sets direction; power steering merely assists
motion
Typesofcontrol:FullAuthority
FullAuthoritycontrolOperatorrequestsareinputstothecontrol;thecontrolregulatesall
aspectsoftheprocesstoobtainthedesiredoutput
ExamplesofFullAuthoritycontrol:
Automobile cruise control, Home heating system, Blender or mixer speed, Gas turbine
FADECsystem
ATDE (Advanced Technology Demonstrator Engine) control requirements includes 8
proportional controls and 1 discrete function viz. Augmentor fuel flow, Gasgenerator fuel
flow, compressor stator vane angle, fan inlet guide vanes, core exhaust nozzle area, duct
streamexhaustnozzlearea,highandlowpressureturbineinletvaneangle,startbleed(on
off)
Digitalcontrolsystemchallenge
Themainfunctionofthecontrolsystemistocontrolthefuelflowtotheengine,suchthatit
operatesatoptimumefficiencythroughoutitsflightenvelope
Thiscoversawiderangeofforwardspeedsandatmosphericconditions
Indoingthisthecontrolsystemmustprovidecarefreehandlingforthepilot
For the military engines this means that the pilot is expected to demand wide ranges of
thrust,withfastresponse,withoutsurge,flameout,stall,Overspeedandovertemperature
TheDigitalenginecontrolunithasenabledtheaboverequirementstobemet.
The Digital Engine Control resulted in significant improvements over the earlier
hydromechanicalsystems:
Improvedenginehandlingandresponse
Improvedfaultdetectionandaccommodation
ReducedPilotworkload
Intheearlyengineswithhydromechanicalfuelcontrolsystempilotwasthemainfactorin
thecontrolloop
Closeattentiontotheenginespeedandexhausttemperaturewasrequiredthroughvisual
indication in the cockpit and constant throttle adjustment resulted in creating significant
distractiontothetaskofflyingtheaircraftandobservingexternalfactors
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Itwasalsoverylimitingasenginetechnologyimprovedandmaterialsusedintheengines
allowedtemperatureandmechanicallimitstobepushed
TheFADECsystemfreedthepilotfromtheseactivitieswiththeinclusionofenginespeed,
fuelflowandexhausttemperature
Oneofthemajoraimsofcontrolengineersistoimprovethehandlingoftheengine
ThefeedbackfromtheengineinaFADECsystemenablesthe controlsystem toknowthe
RPM,Exhausttemperature,internalpressuresandconditionoftheengine
Maintainingaccurateandsmoothfuelflowisdifficulttoachievemanuallyandleadstovery
complicatedfuelsystems
UtilizingmoreinputsfromtheengineandaircraftenablestheFADECsystemtodemandthe
optimumfuelflow
AlsowiththeFADECsystemthephysicallimitsoftheenginecanberespected
This means that the throttle response can be optimized without fear of Over speed or
surge/flameout
Improvedfaultdetectionandaccommodation
WithaHydromechanicalsystem,iftherewasafaultontheengineitwasusuallyreported
by the pilot in terms of a change in the engine behaviour or worse still a part would fail
withoutwarning
FADEC systems have increasingly sophisticated fault detection and fault accommodation
logic
Thisisachievedthroughhavingsensorsthatcan,forexample,providepositionfeedbackon
thefuelmeteringunit
Thiscanthendetectifthefuelflowthatisachievedisdifferentfromthatdemanded
Faultaccommodationcouldbesomethingsuchasusingalgorithmstocalculateapressureif
thesignalislost
Increasinglyadvancedfailuredetectionlogicallowsthespecificitemcausingtheproblemto
beidentified
Thus FADEC system and engine monitoring system can take the fault accommodation and
detectiontolevelsthatsignificantlyimprovethesurvivabilityoftheaircraft
Advancesininterrelatedfieldsofgasturbine
Aerothermodynamics, Computational techniques, Design methodology, Fabrication and
Controlsystem
T/W ratio accompanied by reliability and optimum performance requirements dictate the
needforclosemonitoringandcontroloftheengine
Numberofcontrolvariablesincreasedfrom2to12
TypeofcontrolgraduatedfrompurelyHydromechanicaltoFADEC
Present trend to incorporate active clearance control, surge control, builtinredundancy
andFaulttolerancecontrol
ControlofRPMachievedthroughmodulationoffuelflowbyPLAoperation
Differentfuelflowsrequiredtomeetthevariouslegsoftheaircraftmission
FuelflowshouldbemadeasafunctionofaltitudeandMachnumber
90
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Trendsincontrolcomplexity
Fuelflowcontrolrequirement
Thrust control modes help in obtaining the required engine performance at all operating
conditionsi.e.steadystateperformance
Transient control modes help in obtaining satisfactory engine performance at all specified
conditionsofoperation(startingwithouttemperatureovershoots,withoutsurgeorflame
out,slamthrottlemovementetc)
Physicallimitingmodesenablesafeoperationoftheenginewithinthelimitsofthevarious
subsystemsoftheengine
Alltheabovetobeachievedthroughuseofasinglecontrolleverbythepilot
Fuelsystem
Toprovidetheenginewithfuelinaformsuitableforcombustion
To control the flow to the required quantity necessary for easy starting, acceleration and
stablerunningatallengineoperatingconditions
Fuelisspreadtothespraynozzlesoratomizersofthecombustorwhichinjectthefuelinto
thecombustionchamberintheformofanatomizedspray
The flow rate must vary according to the amount of air passing through the engine to
maintaintheselectedenginespeed
To achieve this the controlling devices are fully automatic with the exception of engine
powerselectionwhichisachievedbyamanualthrottleorpowerlever
Ashutoffcockisusedtostoptheengine
It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls to the exhaust gas temperature,
compressordeliverypressureandtheengineRPMfromexceedingtheirmaximumlimits
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TypicalFuelControlSystem
Limitationsofhydromechanicalfuelsystem
ControlLawchangesnoteasy
Additionalcontrollawscannotbeincorporatedeasily
Lessflexibilityofengineoperationinsteadystateandtransient
FADEC:FullAuthorityDigitalEngineControl
FADECsystem
FADECsystemcomprisesofamechanicalpump,meteringvalve,interfacevalveanddigital
electroniccontroller
Allthecontrollawsandlimitrequirementsaresoftwarechangeableandembeddedinthe
controller
ADVANTAGES
Controllaweasilychangeable
Dependableforinterfacingwithaircraftdigitalcontrolsystem
Additional control laws could be incorporated by providing spare memory in design stage
itself
Complexcontrollawscouldbegeneratedthroughsoftwareprogram
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TypicalControlSystemFunction
Starting
Steadystatethrust,speedorpowercontrolinresponsetooperatorinputsviamodulation
offuel,variablegeometryandbleed
Automaticlimitsprotection(underspeed,overspeed,overtemperature)
Stabletransientoperation(nosurges,noflameouts,noovertemp.)
Systemfaultdetectionandaccommodation
Transmitdatatoapplication(RS422,MILSTD1553,ARINC429)
Independentoverspeedprotection
Controlsystemrequirements
Thecontrolsystemhastoensure:
StresslimitscausedbyOverspeedofrotorassembliesandmaximumcombustionchamber
pressurearenotexceeded
Temperaturelimitsinhotsectionarenotexceeded
Enginelimitsofcombustionblowoutorinstabilityarenotexceeded
Optimum thrust control during the various regimes of engine operation, such as takeoff,
cruise,loiterandidle
Properstartingsequencewithoutabnormalexcessintemperature,surgeandexcessivetime
Rapid power changes and proper accelerations within time limits and a/c installation
compatibility
ControlsystemArchitecture
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Choiceofcontrolvariables
Fanstatorsandcompressorstators
Mainengineandafterburnerfuelflows
Forwardbypasstransfervalve
Forwardvariableareabypassinjector
Rearvariableareabypassinjector
HPturbineNGVthroatarea
LPturbineNGVthroatarea
Exhaustnozzlethroatarea
TurbofanApplications
Turbofancontrolrequirements:
Control engine thrust in response to pilot/airframe inputs (usually N1 or engine pressure
ratio)
Maintainminimumcustomerbleedlevelsforcabinpressurizationandairframeantiice
Integratewithaircraftautopilotandautolandsystems(ARNIC429)
Controlengineandnacelleantiicesystems
Controlthrustreverseronaircraftsoequipped
Automaticpowerreservesystemontwinapplications
IndependentOverspeedprotectionsystem
Providemotiveflowforaircraftfuelsystem
Variablecycleenginecontrolvariables
Controllaws&logics
Control laws cover the aspects of engine control from starting to shut down in the flight
envelope
Controlstructuresandlogicsarebasedonspecificenginerequirementswhicharegenerally
givenintheformofschedulesandfunctionaltables
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Controlsystemengineerformulatesthenecessarycontrollogicsandstructuretomeetthe
definedrequirements,thusresultinginevolutionofcontrollaws
Controlvariables
Typicalcontrolvariablesinanaircraftgasturbineengineare:
Fanstatorvariablegeometryangle
Compressorstatorvariableangle
Mainenginefuelflow
Afterburnerfuelflow
Controldesignapproach
Linearmodeloftheengineandthehydromechanicalfuelsystem
Arriveatacontrolstructurefromthespecificationsandidentificationofindividualloops
Integrationofallcontrolloopsandensuringstableoperation
Developmentofcontrollawsoftware
Integration of the controller with the nonlinear models of hydromechanical system and
engineHardwareintheloopsimulation
Tuningthecontrollertomeetthespecifications
Enginecontrolsystem
Mainenginecontrolsystemcatersto:
Fuelschedulingandautomaticignitionduringthestartingphase
FuelschedulingtotaketheengineuptoidlespeedandfromidlespeedtomaximumRPM
Surge free acceleration and flameout free deceleration from idle to maximum dry and
maximumreheatandviceversa
Flameoutdetection(mainandreheat)andautomaticrelightfacility
Fuelschedulingduringarmamentgasingestion
Reheatcontrolsystemcatersto:
Reheatinitiation
Reheatstaging
Reheatfuelflowmodulationforpartialreheatoperation
Reheatonandoffsequence
Nozzlecontrolsystemcatersto:
Variation in the final exhaust nozzle area scheduled by the power lever angle (PLA) and
trimmingthenozzleforoptimumperformance
Variableguidevanecontrolsystemcatersto:
Varying the geometry of the inlet guide vanes and stator blades as a function of the
correctedRPMbothforcompressorandfan(ifvariablegeometryisprovided)
Controlsystemreliability
Successful development and application of electronic controls require a dedication to

reliabilityfromtheprograminception
SoftwareisanimportantpartofDigitalElectroniccontrol
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Structuredprogrammingtechniques,developmentofsophisticatedsystemsanddebugging
enhancementsarethekeyelements
Control system should be capable of meeting the mission reliability of the flight control
system
Reliability built through suitable redundancy and verified by accelerated environmental
testing
Independentverificationandvalidationisakeyelementincontrollawdevelopment
EngineControlLaw
ControlLaws
Controltheenginethewayitwantstobecontrolled:
Talktoyourcustomertounderstandhowtheenginewillbeusedandoperated
WorkwithyourPerformanceandOperabilityEngineerstounderstandthewaytheengine
runsintheapplicationanddetermineacontrolstrategy
For propulsion engines, NDOT/P1 or NDOT/DELTA is a good control strategy for a FADEC
(correctedcorespeedrateofchange)
APUsandotheruniqueapplicationsmaybenefitfromotherstrategies
WewilluseaNDOT/DELTAexampletoshowacontrollawstructure
WhyNDOT?
Lightoff to shutdown, it is the way an engine runs; NDOT/DELTA vs NH/RTHETA defines a
surgeboundary.Transientperformancemaximizedwithoutbandaids!
Providesconsistent,repeatableperformancetotheoperator
Morepredictable/repeatableresponsetooperatorcommandsinvariedconditions
Improvestransientsynchingofengines
FuelflowandbleedcanbecontrolledbyNDOT
EasilyandaccuratelycontrolledbyaFADEC
WhynotNDOT
Doesntautomaticallydotherightthinginasurge
Blowoutprotectionnotoptimal
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
ClosedLoopControl
Controlaccuracymuchlessdependentonaccuracyoftheinitialcalibration
Outstandingabilitytomaintaindesiredstateevenwithexternaldisturbancesorchangesin
thecontrolledprocess
Moreexpensiveandcomplexthanopenloopcontrols;usedwhenaccuracyisimportantor
cannotbemaintainedbyhumanbeing
Hastendencytowardsoscillationandinstability
Enginecontrolrequirement
Properstartingsequencewithoutabnormal/excesstemperature,surgeorexcessivetime
Thrustshouldbecontrolledduringgroundidle,takeoff,climb,cruise,loiterandflightidle
Trouble free transients for large PLA movements with rapid thrust response over the
completeflightenvelop
Software limiters to be provided for reliable protection against exceeding design RPM,
temperatureandpressurelimits
Controlimplementations
Analogcontrols(hydromechanical,pneumatic,analogenginecontrols):
Monitorsandregulatesprocesscontinuously
Theenvironmentoruniverseexistsatalltimes
Control performance varies with environment and control component variations (wear,
thermalgrowthetc)
Expensivetochangethedesign
Inexpensivetobuildforsimplecontroltasks
Digitalelectroniccontrols(Hardwireddigitallogiccircuitsormicroprocessorbasedsystemsrunning
softwareprograms):
Theenvironmentoruniverseexistsonlyatafinitenumberofconditions
The environment or universe exists only at discrete time intervals (microprocessor based
systems
More repeatable performance; less susceptible to control component or environmental
changes(nowear,notemperaturesensitivity)
Betterabletocommunicatewithotherdevicesorsystems
Lessexpensivethananalogcontrolsformorecomplextasks
Abletodotasksthatanalogsystemscannotdo
Microprocessorbasedsystemseasilychanged(itisonlysoftware)
DigitalElectronicControlUnit(DECU)
DECU controls the main fuel flow, reheat fuel flow, variable geometry position, exhaust
nozzlepositionandanyothercontrolfeatureprovidedintheFADECsysteminaccordance
withthecontrollawsembeddedintoit
Based on the independent inputs like altitude, Mach number, PLA, engine state and
hydromechanicalstate,controlstheengineovertheflightenvelope
FlightenvelopeistheplotofaltitudeversusMachno
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
DECUisaninterfacebetweentheengineandthehydromechanicalsystem
Realtime,safetycritical,embeddedsystem
Twoidenticalunitsindualredundantconfigurationformeetingthereliabilityrequirements
Onehealthyunitcontrolstheenginewhiletheotherhealthyunitwillbehotstandby
Changeovertostandbyunitisautomaticondetectionandconfirmationofafault
Insomecasesonfailureofbothunitswhichisquiteremote,thesystemgoestofailfreeze
modeandamanualbackupisprovided
In some cases a single digital control unit with a full fledged hydromechanical backup is
provided
Allcriticalsensorsareduplicatedforeachcontrolunit
DECUispoweredbydedicatedalternator
OverallSystemDesignAspects
Tosupportduallanephilosophywithtwoembeddedcontrollers,onecontrollertocontrol
theengineandtheotherbeinginhotstandbymode
Enginemountedcontrollers
ControllerstobepoweredasperMILSTD704D
Controller to communicate with Engine monitoring System on Standard
communicationprotocolslikeMILSTD1553Bbus,RS485
Toperformhealthmonitoringfunctionsalongwithcontrolfunctions
HardwareandSoftwareDesignAspects
Weight
ThermalManagement
EMIprotection
Vibrationprotection
ComponentSelection
Environmentalcondition
Choiceofprocessor(speed&storagecapacity)
SoftwaredevelopmenttocomplywithMILstd
Toolstoassistcontrollawdevelopment
BuiltInTestsupport
GenerationofRequirements
Systemrequirements
Technicalrequirements
Hardwarerequirements
Softwarerequirements
Environmentalrequirements
Performancerequirements
Packagingrequirements
Compatibilityrequirements
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Interchangeabilityrequirements
Reliabilityrequirements
Maintainabilityrequirements
Safetyrequirements
Costrequirements
SystemDesignphase
TestsconductedonBreadboard/Prototypemodel
Unitwisefunctionaltest
Physicalverificationtest
Weightrelaxation
Componentselection
(Certaincomponentscouldbeofcommercialgrade)
ElectricalIsolationtest
Powerconsumptiontestwithsimulatedloads
Datavalidationandmeasurementtests
Speedinterfacetests
Pressureinterfacetests
Thermocoupleinterfacetests
RTDinterfacetests
Pilotleverresolverinterfacetests
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
LVDT/RVDTfeedbacktransducerinterfacetests
DigitalI/Ointerfacetests
ControllerDriveoutputinterfacetests
EHSVdriveswithsimulatedload
Solenoiddriveswithsimulatedload
Alllampinterfacecheckswithsimulatedlamploads
Modeselectiontest
ControllermodetoManualfuelcontrollermode&viceversa
SalientFeaturesofTestRig
Integration,verificationandvalidationplatformforcontrolsystem
Interfacestocontrollerunit/units
Cockpitinterfaces(hardwired)
Communicationinterfaces
Batterybackedpowersupplyforcontrolsystem
Simulationofengineandemulationofenginemountedtransducersignals
Simulation/Emulationofthehydromechanicalsystemsincludingfeedbacktransducersignals
Simulationofcontrollaws
Application software for coordinating the testing and monitoring in different operating
modes
Acquisitionandrecordingofdata
Onlinedisplaysforeaseofmonitoring
Fullyuserconfigurable
Printoutsandplot
Embeddedsoftwaredownloadcapability
OperatingModes
Operating Mode
Description
Objectives
Mode1
Offline Software Simulation
Enabling the testing of control

law against the engine model
Mode2
Closed loop test of controller

HMU emulation H/W& engine
simulation
Validation of controller H/W

with built-in control laws
Mode3
Open loop testing with

controller H/W&HMU H/W
Validates fuel flow schedules

and enables calibration curves
Mode4
Closed loop tests with engine

simulation model,controller
H/W&S/W,HMU H/W in SRF
rig
Validates the control system

H/W
Mode5
Engine run monitoring
Monitors performance of the

control system and the engine
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
GroundTestingonEngine(NormallyAspirated)
IntegratedtestingoftheDECUinEngineenvironmentundernormallyaspiratedconditions
Lanechangeovertest
Slamtestsontheengine
Stepresponsetests
Intentionallanechangeovertest
FailuremodetestsGroundTesting
DECUlanechangeovertests
Intentionallanechangeover
Automaticlanechangeover
ElectricalPowerfailuretests
Failfreezetests
TestingoftheDECUontheEngineundersimulatedflightconditions
TestinginAltitudeTestFacility(ATF)
TestinginFlyingTestBed(FTB)
Flighttestingintheapplicationaircraft
ModelqualificationtestsontheEngine
EngineTestsduringSimulatedFlightTesting
PerformancetestsandEndurancetests
EstablishingFlightidlescheduleatdifferentaltitudeconditions
SlamandChoptests
Stepresponsetests
Lanechangeovertest
Manualfuelcontrolchecks
Windmillstart
Spooldownstarts
Starterassistantstart
Combustorrelighttests
Combustorstabilitytests
Failfrozenlogictests
PowerOffTakeandCustomerbleedairtests
Documentation
TechnicalRequirements
ControlLawrequirements
ControllawImplementation
SystemrequirementsSpecificationdocument
SystemDesignDocument
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SystemInterfaceControlDocument(ICD)
IV&V
PATDocument
Hydromechanicalsystemcalibrationdocument
DECUQualificationTestplan
DECUQualificationTestSchedules
IntegratedEnvironmentalTestingofDECUonEngine(GroundandSimulated)
QualificationTestComplianceandProductionrelease
DualChannelFADECSystems
Twoidenticalchannels(hardwareandsoftware)(inoneortwoboxes)
Channelscommunicateviaacrosschanneldatalinkandhardwireddiscretes
Criticalsensorsareredundant(separateordualwound);oneforeachchannel
Certainsensorsmayberedundantineachchannel(2speedsperchannel)
Criticaleffectorsareredundant(usuallydualwound);onecoilforeachchannel
Noncriticalsensorsandeffectorsmaybesplitupamongchannels
MayormaynothaveaseparateEngineMonitoringUnit(EMU)
Operation:
Both channels read their sensors and calculate control outputs continuously, but the
outputsofthenoncontrollingchannelaredisabled
Channels alternate on each run, usually switching just before idle on a start to check
switchovermechanism(ChAstarts>switchtoB.Onnextstart,ChBstarts>switchtoCh
A)
Channels share data over crosschannel link, so single failures and many multiple failures
canbehandledviasoftwareaccommodationwithoutlosingsystem
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
HardwareFaulttolerance
Toprovidecompletelyindependentelectroniccomponentsforeachofthetwoengines
Redundancyofthemajorelectroniccomponentsforeachengine
Redundancyofmostsensorsandallactuatorsoneachengine
Providingselectivecrossutilizationofredundantexternalequipment
AnalogElectronicControls
Mathematical relationship between inputs and outputs are differential equations (LaPlace
transforms),justasthecontrollawdesignis
DifficulttoimplementcomplexcontrollawsoranytypeofBIT
Performancetendstodriftwithtimeandtemperature
Sensors
Sensorsconvertmechanicalsignalstoelectricalsignals
Likethegovernmentwithstatistics,FADECsoftwarecanaddsensorreadings,raisethemto
thenthpowerortakethecuberoot
Butjustrememberthatthesereadingscameinthefirstplacefromsomemechanicaldevice
or system that may not be much better at sensing what is truly happening than the lazy
watchmanwhojustputsdownwhathepleases
Typicalsensors:
SpeedorRPM(Pulseprobes)
Temperature(RTDs,Thermocouples)
Pressure(Transducer,capacitance,straingaugeetc)
Position(RVDTs,LVDTs,Phasedisplacement)
Stagesofcontrolsystemtesting
Enginemodel,hydromechanicalsystemanddigitalcontrollerallinsoftwaremode
Enginesoftwaremodelwithactualhydromechanicalsystemandactualcontroller
Engine,hydromechanicalsystemanddigitalcontrollerallinhardwaremode
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Rollofenginesimulationinenginedevelopment
Usefulforcontrollawdevelopment
Aidsintestingofenginecontrolsysteminrealtimeforfunctionalityandreliabilitythrough
Hardwareintheloopsimulation
Faultdiagnosisandrectificationofproblemsarisingduringandafterenginedevelopment
Helpsinminimizingdevelopmentrisk,timeandcost
Hardwareintheloopsimulation
Simulationrigfacilitytosimulateenginerunningconditions(bothongroundandinflight)
Engine resides as a real time model and the hydromechanical system, variable geometry
controlsystem,nozzlecontrolsystemanddigitalcontrollerallinhardwaremode
Providesvaluableinputs,highersenseofconfidence,ensuresgreatersafetyandminimizes
costlytestinghours
CertificationorQualification
Forpurposesofthisdiscussion,FADECsystemcertificationorqualificationistheprocessneededto
convincetheregulatoryagencies,militarycustomersorotherentitiesthataproductmeetscertainbasic
designandperformancestandards.
Mostcertificationstandardshavemanylevelsofcertification:
Theleveldependsontheinstallationenvironmentandapplication
Theleveldeterminesthemannerinwhichthecomponentorsystemcanbeused
Afewexamples:
Software(DO178Blevel15;criticalityoffailurelevels)
Temperature/altitude(DO160CcategoriesA1F3;componentexposurelevels)
Saltspray(DO160CcategoriesXorS;componentexposurelevels)
Lightning(AC20136levels15;threatlevels)
EMIcategories(DO160CcategoriesTZ;threatlevels)
Powerinputquality(DO160C;powertypeandqualitylevels)
WhatFADECCertification/Qualificationisnt
Itisnotspecificcustomerordesignrequirements
Itisnotdesignassurancetestingorverification(DAT/DAV)
Design assurance testing/verification is what we do to insure that the product we
bringtomarket:
Issafe
Meetsallthestandards(design,performance,qualityetc)ofaproductwe
asacompanywishtosell,includingallcustomerrequirements
DAT/DAV should be separate from certification or qualification where
practical
Itisnotproductacceptancetesting
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
QualificationTests
ENVIRONMENTAL
HIGHTEMPERATURE
LOWTEMPERATURE
THERMALSHOCK
HUMIDITY
COMBINEDTEMPERATURE,ALTITUDEANDHUMIDITY
RAINDRIP
SALTFOG
DUST
RANDOMVIBRATION
SINUSOIDALVIBRATION
ACCELERATION(Structural&Functional)
FUNGUS
FLUIDCONTAMINATION
EXPLOSIVEATMOSHERE
EMI/EMCTESTS
LIGHTNINGTESTS
StandardsDevelopmentandQualification
MILSTD704D(Electricalpowercharacteristics)
MILSTD1553B(Communicationstandard)
DODSTD2167D(Softwaredevelopment)
MILSTD810D(Environmentaltestmethods)
MILE5400(ElectronicEquipmentAirborne)
MILE454(StandardgeneralrequirementsofElectronicequipments)
MILSTD461C/462(EMIcharacteristics)
MILSTD785(Reliability)
MILSTD470A(Maintainability)
MILSTD882B(Safetyrequirements)
MILSTD202F(TestmethodsforElectronicandelectricalcomponents)
FADECTechnologyTrends
WherewillthebiggestadvancesinFADECsystemsoccur?
Controlelectronics,Softwarealgorithmsandcontrolstrategies,FADECsystemarchitecture,
Allelectric accessory drives, Advanced fuel metering devices, New controlled systems,
Fiberopticsensorsandcommunications
TrendsinFADECelectronics:
Faster processors, More complex components, Lower power components, Multichip
modules,Useofcommercialgradeplasticparts
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
FADECSystemArchitecture
DistributedControlsystem
TheDistributedControlSystemhasanumberofadvantages:
Reducedweight
Improvedavailability
Improvedfaultisolation
Reductioninlifecyclecosts
Reductioninpilotworkload
Distributedcontrolscanofferrealbenefitsinfaultdetectionandmaintenance
WithexistingsystemsifafaultoccursthentheEECcanflagthefaultbutforexample,ifthe
feedbackfromtheFuelmeteringunitislostitisdifficulttoidentifywhetheritistheposition
transducer,theharnessortheinterfaceintheEECthathasfailed
Withadistributedsystemthereisintelligenceateachendofthedatabusthatconnectsthe
system
Hence if there is a failure in the FMU it will be isolated to that accessory immediately
because the EEC will still be receiving and sending data to the other smart nodes on the
databusbutwillseeafaultwiththeFMU
Distributed control system results in significant reduction in the engine harness mass and
volume
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Honeywellcontext
AS907program:Bombardiercontinentalbusinessjets
AS977program:BAEsystemsavroRJXregionaljets.
UniquespecialfeaturesofAS900/AS977FADECsoftware:
Engineconditiontrendmonitoring(ECTM)
Fanandenginecoreoverspeedprotectionsystem
Input&outputdevicesharing
AS907thrustreversercontrol
AS907smartbleedsystem
AS907crossenginedatasharing
Oilpressureindicatorandlowoilpressure(LOP)alarm
Integratedflightpropulsioncontrol
Historicallyprimarymeansofimprovingengineperformancewerethroughimprovementsin
componentefficiencies,increasedcycletemperaturesandpressureratios
Since the limits on these parameters are being approached, primary means for enhancing
overallaircraftperformancewillbethroughvariabilityintheenginecycleitselfwithsmart
sensors
Theabovewillplaceahighdemandonmultivariablecontrolsystem
There are many exciting and demanding challenges for the next generation of engine
controlsbutiftherequirementsfromthecustomersaretobefulfilledtheyarechallenges
thatwillhavetobemet
Hencetherewillbeadditionalcriteriatojudgetheadequacyofthecontrolsystem
Thusintegratedflightpropulsioncontrolsystemisbecomingareality
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STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEM
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Startingsystem
Necessity
Twoseparatesystemsarerequiredtoensurethatagasturbinestartssatisfactorily
Firstlyprovisionmustbemadeforthecompressorandtheturbineassemblytoberotated
to a speed at which adequate air passes into the combustion system to mix with the fuel
fromthefuelspraynozzles
Secondlyprovisionmustbemadeforignitionofthefuelairmixtureinthecombustor
Duringtheenginestartingthetwosystemsmustoperatesimultaneously
Yet it must also be possible to motor the engine over without ignition for maintenance
checksandtooperateonlytheignitionsystemforrelightingduringflight
Thefunctioningofbothsystemsiscoordinatedduringastartingcycleandtheiroperationis
automaticallycontrolledaftertheinitiationofthecyclebyanelectricalcircuit
Thetypeandpowersourceforthestartervariesinaccordancewiththeengineandaircraft
requirement
Someuseelectricpower
Othersuseairorhydraulicpressure
Amilitaryaircraftrequirestheenginetobestartedintheminimumtimeandwhenpossible
tobecompletelyindependentofexternalequipment
A commercial aircraft however requires the engine to be started with the minimum
disturbancetothepassengersandthemosteconomicalmeans
Whicheversystemisusedreliabilityisofprimeimportance
The purpose of a starter is to produce a high torque and transmit to the engine rotating
assembly in a manner that provides smooth acceleration from rest upto a speed at which
the gas flow through the engine provides sufficient power for the engine turbine to
takeover.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TypesofStarters
Electricstarter:
Usedonsometurbopropandturbojetengines
Starterisusuallyadirectcurrent(D.C)electricmotorcoupledtotheenginethrough
a
reduction gear and ratchet mechanism or clutch which automatically disengages after the
enginehasreachedtheselfsustainingspeed.
Cartridgestarter
This is sometimes used on military engines and provide a quick independent method of
starting.Thestartermotorisbasicallyasmallimpulsetype turbinethatis driven by high
velocitygasesfromaburningcartridge.Thepoweroutputoftheturbineispassedthrough
areductiongearandanautomaticdisconnectmechanismtorotatetheengine.
Airstarter
UsedonmostmoderncommercialandsomeMilitaryengines.
Ithasmanyadvantagesovertheotherstartingsystemsasitiscomparativelylight,simple
andeconomicaltooperate
Anairstartermotorhasaturbinerotorthattransmitspowerthroughareductiongearand
clutchtothestarteroutputshaftthatisconnectedtotheengine
Thestarterturbineisrotatedbyairpressuretakenfromanexternalgroundsupplyfroman
AuxiliaryPowerUnit(APU)carriedintheaircraft
The air supply to the starter is controlled by an electrically operated control and pressure
reducingvalvethatisopenedwhenanenginestartisselectedandisautomaticallyclosedat
apredeterminedstarterspeed
TheclutchalsoautomaticallydisengagesastheengineacceleratesuptoidlingRPMandthe
rotationofthestarterceases
Gasturbinestarter
Thisisusedforsomejetenginesandiscompletelyselfcontained
Ithasitsownfuelandignitionsystem,startingsystem(usuallyelectricorhydraulicsystem)
andselfcontainedoilsystem
This type of starter is economical to operate and provides a high power output for a
comparativelylowweight
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thestarterconsistsofasmall,compactgasturbineengineusuallyfeaturingaturbinedriven
centrifugal compressor, a reverse flow combustor and a mechanically independent free
powerturbine
The free power turbine is connected to the main engine via a two stage reduction gear,
automaticclutchandoutputshaft
Oninitiationofthestartingcycle,thegasturbinestarterisrotatedbyitsownstartermotor
until it reaches selfsustaining speed, when the starting and ignition systems are
automaticallyswitchedoff
Acceleration then continues upto a controlled speed, at the same time as the gas turbine
starterengineisacceleratingtheexhaustgasisbeingdirectedvianozzleguidevanesupto
thefreepowerturbinetoprovidethedrivetothemainengine
Oncethemainenginereachesselfsustainingspeedacutoffswitchoperatesandshutsoff
thegasturbinestarter
Asthestarterrunsdown,theclutchautomaticallydisengagesfromtheoutputshaftandthe
mainengineacceleratesuptoidlingRPMunderitsownpower
Hydraulicstarter
Thisisusedforstartingsomesmalljetengines
Inmostapplicationsone oftheenginemountedhydraulic pumpsisusedandisknownas
hydraulicpump/starteralthoughotherapplicationsmayuseaseparatehydraulicmotor
Methodsoftransmittingthetorquetotheenginemayvarybutatypicalsystemwouldbea
reductiongearandclutchassembly
Power to rotate the pump/starter is provided by hydraulic pressure from a ground supply
unitandistransmittedtotheenginethroughreductiongearandclutch
Thestartingsystemiscontrolledbyanelectriccircuitthatalsooperateshydraulicvalvesso
that on completion of the starting cycle the pump/starter functions as a normal hydraulic
pump
Importantaspectsofatypicalstarter
PortionofthetorquefromzeroRPMtolightupspeediscalledmotoringtorque
This is due to the aerodynamic drag of the compressors and friction drag in the rotating
components
Speed at which the motoring torque curve intersects the starter output torque is called
motoringspeed
On light up some torque is developed by the engine turbine but not enough to equal the
torquerequiredbythecompressor
Theenginespeedatwhichtheengineturbineisabletofurnishonlyenoughtorquetothat
required by the compressor is called selfsustaining speed; but nothing extra for engine
acceleration
From selfsustaining speed to idle speed, the excess torque available from the engine is
usefulforfurtheraccelerationoftheengine
Startermustassisttheengineaboveselfsustainingspeedtoavoidhotorhungstarts
Thiswillalsoimprovethetimetoreachidlespeed
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Factorsforselectionofstarter
EnginelightupRPM
EnginemotoringRPM
Timetolightup
TimetoreachidleRPM
IdleRPM
StartercutoffRPM
Directionofrotationofthestarter
Size,envelopeandweightrequirements
Powertobeabsorbedbythestarter
Ignitionsystem
Highenergyignitionisusedforstartingalljetenginesandadualsystemisalwaysfittedfor
reliabilityandredundancy
Eachsystemhasahighenergyignitionunitconnectedtoitsownigniterplug,thetwoplugs
beingmountedindifferentpositionsinthecombustionsystem
Each high energy ignition unit receives a low voltage supply controlled by the starting
systemelectricalcircuitfromtheaircraftelectricalsystem
The electrical energy is stored in the unit until at a predetermined value the energy is
dissipatedasahighvoltageamperagedischargeacrosstheigniterplug
Ignitionunitsaredesignedtogiveoutputswhichmayvaryaccordingtotherequirements
Ahighvalueoutputisnecessarytoensurethattheengineobtainsasatisfactoryrelightat
highaltitudesandissometimesnecessaryforstarting
However under certain flight conditions such as icing or takeoff in heavy rain or snow it
may be necessary to have the ignition system continuously operating to give automatic
relightshouldflameextinctionoccur
Forthisconditionalowvalueoutput(e.g3to6joules)isfavourablebecauseitresultsina
longerlifeoftheigniterplugignitionunit
Hencetosuitallengineoperatingconditionstheuseofacombinedsystemgivingahighand
lowvalueoutputsisfavourable
Such a system will consist of one unit emitting a high output to one igniter plug and a
secondunitgivingalowoutputtoasecondigniterplug
Howeversomeignitionunitsarenowcapableofsupplyingbothhighandlowoutputs,the
valuebeingpreselectedasrequired
Relightingrequirement
Thejetenginerequiresfacilitiesforrelightingshouldtheflameinthecombustionsystembe
extinguishedduringflight
Howevertheabilityoftheenginetorelightwillvaryaccordingtothealtitudeandforward
speedoftheaircraft
Within the limits of the flight envelope the air flow through the engine will rotate the
compressorataspeedsatisfactoryforrelighting
Allthatisrequiredtherefore,providedthatfuelsupplyisavailable,istheoperationofthe
ignitionsystem
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Thisisprovidedforbyaseparateswitchthatoperatesonlytheignitionsystem
Typesofenginestartingwithignition
Therearethreetypesofenginestarting:
Starterassiststart
Spooldownstart
Windmillstart
Starterassiststart
This type of engine start is carried out either on ground or in flight with an externally
mountedstarteri.ethestarterassistingtheenginestart
Spooldownstart
This type of start is carried out when engine flames out i. e. the combustor flame is
extinguished
As the engine is spooling down the ignition button is pressed and an engine relight is
attempted
Windmillstart
Thistypeofenginestartisalsoattemptedwhentheengineflamesout
WhenthespooldownstartfailsthepilotgetsintoadiveandtheengineRPMincreasesdue
to ram effect. At this time the pilot presses the ignition button and tries to Relight the
engine
Normally the flight altitude upto which starter assist will be tried is restricted to about
25000feetandthisenablestomeetinflightstartrequirements
Allthethreetypesofstartsmentionedabovearecarriedoutasapartofenginetestingin
altitudetestfacility
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PERFORMANCE DEDUCTION &

PREDICTION
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ALTITUDE TESTING VIS--VIS FLYING

TEST BED FOR GAS TURBINE ENGINE
DEVELOPMENT
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Introduction
Theultimateaimindevelopmentenginetestingistomounttheentireengineinthesame
flowfielditwouldencounterinflightthroughoutitsoperatingrange
The successful development of an aero engine depends on how best all the resources of
pastflightexperiencecouldbemadeuseofinordertoprovideinitialdesigninformationfor
theengineanditscomponents
Obviously it may not be possible or desirable to test each individual component within
availabletimeframeofanengineproject
Thedevelopmentprogrammecouldincludetheevaluationofoverallrequirementslike
Selectivecomponenttestinginenvironmentalcondition
Normallyaspiratedenginetesting
Flighttestingofthecompleteengine
Atmosphericconditions
AircraftIntakecharacteristics
Forwardspeedoftheaircraft
Aircraftoperatingbehavior.
Enginesoperatingcharacteristics
Theseinfluenceseparatelyorjointlytheperformanceandmechanicalintegrityoftheengine
An improvised vehicle to undertake the flight evaluation is absolutely essential for the
successfuldevelopmentofanaeroengine
Thisvehiclecouldbeintheformof:
AnAltitudeTestFacility(ATF)
FlyingTestBed(FTB)
Botharecapableofsimulatingtheflightconditions
Whiletalkingaboutthesimulatedtestconditions,itistobenotedthatthroughallthetest
development process, whether a component test, normally aspirated testing, altitude test
facilityorflyingtestbed,theoperatingconditionsareasimulationofwhatmightoccurin
theactualaircrafttowhichtheengineisdesignated
TheAltitudeTestFacilitycanberegardedasanextensionofSealeveltestbedoperatingat
varyingpressuresandtemperatures
Flyingtestbedsareusedinordertofamiliarisethepilotswiththehandlingqualitiesofthe
engineandalsotoconductcertainspecialtestslikenegativeg,fuelandoilsystemchecks,
zerogchecksetcinordertoassessthecapabilityoftheengine
AltitudeTestfacility(ATF)
In an altitude test facility a special test bed is set up wherein the total pressure, total
temperature and ambient pressure corresponding to any flight condition (Mach Number,
altitude and ambient condition) are simulated so that the engine under test will be
operatingundercorrespondingflightconditionsincludingtheambientpressureintowhich
theenginewillbeexhausting
Thealtitudetestfacilitycancaterforspecialengineassembliesaswellasengineintakesin
ordertomeettherequirementsofavarietyofengines
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
The simulated flight test can be conducted in an altitude test facility in order to provide
experimentalresultswhichwilldeterminetheoperationalandperformancecharacteristics
oftheenginesystems
Provisionofsuchfacilityshortensthetimerequiredforactualflighttestandtherisksand
expensesofflighttestarealsominimised
The capital cost in respect of the altitude test facility will involve installations of engine
handlingmachinery,heavydutycompressors,fuelandassociatedwatersystems
Itiswellknownthatalmosteverycountrywhichisconcernedwiththedevelopmentofaero
gasturbinehassetupitsownaltitudetestfacilityintheinterestofspeedyandeconomical
developmentoftheengine
TheinitialcapitaloutlayandfutureoperatingcostsofATFshouldbecommensuratewitha
highlevelofutilisationoftheplant
Inordertoachievethisobjectivetheinitialdesignconceptofthefacilityshouldtakeinto
accountthefeatureslikeflexibilityofoperation,designsimplicityforeasymaintenanceand
economicaluseofpowerandlabour
Theotherendfacilitieswhichrequireconditionedairshouldalsobekeptinmindinorder
toexploitthefullpotentialoftheplant
FlyingTestBed(FTB)
Flyingtestbedprogramsareconductedinordertoevaluateengineoperationonaproven
aircraftwherethetestengineisnottheprimepowerplant
In this facility actual testing of the engine is carried out in an aircraft designated as Flying
TestBedinordertosimulatetheflightconditionstoalimitedextentInview
In view of the limitation of the flight characteristics of the aircraft intended as FTB, the
entireflightspectrumcannotbecoveredbythistestbed
The FTB programmes generally include tests such as engine operability, vibration
characteristics, air starting capability, inlet distortion, altitude performance, takeoff
performance,bearingloads,controlandsensoroperationetc.
FeaturesofATF
In order to have a high level of utilisation of the ATF plant commensurate with the initial
capitaloutlayandfutureoperatingcosts,theATFshouldhavefeatureslike:
Adequateairmassflowandthrustcapabilitiestosimulatetheentireflightenvelope
oftheenginebothinrespectofengineinletandexhaustconditions
Flexibleprogrammingofcell
Efficientdataacquisitionandprocessingsystem
Elaborate instrumentation set up to study various aspects of development engine
testing
Efficientcommunicationsystem
Two types of engine installation in ATF are employed in order to simulate the flight
conditions
Theseareconnectedjetinstallationandfreestreaminstallation
It is possible to carry out over 90 percent of development testing in connected jet
installation
Thisisasimplerinstallationandtheflightconditionscanbecontrolledmoreaccurately
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Inthistypeofinstallationtheflightsimulationisachievedbyproducingtheaircraftintake
conditions for a particular flight speed and altitude in the forward plenum chamber and
ductingtheairviaanairmetertotheenginefrontface
Therearpartofthecellinwhichtheengineisinstalledisexhaustedtothealtitudepressure
required
Thustheengineissubjectedtotheidenticalramratioandintaketemperatureasinflight
In the case of free stream installation the engine plus pod or the aircraft nacelle
incorporatingtheairintakeisinstalledinthecellandpartofthebulkheadandairmeterare
replaced by an approach duct and nozzle designed to produce the representative air
velocitiesovertheintaketocreatetheflightconditions
Thecellisexhaustedtotherequiredaltitudepressuresoastoallowfortrueexpansionof
thegasatthefinalnozzleandobtainpressureratiosacrosstheengine
FeaturesofFTB
InrespectofFTBtesting during theengineFlight Prototypestagethefollowingfeatures

aredesirable:
Acompleteengineinstallationshouldbeasnearaspossibletotheproposedaircraft
The development engine should not be a prime mover which will allow a flight
clearancetobeobtainedatamuchearlierstage
Alargeaircraftispreferableasitallowsspaceforinstrumentationandmulticrew
Thelargeraircraftalsopermitsstableaircraftconditionswhilstseverehandlingon
thetestengineisbeingcarriedout
However actual integration of the engine under development with the FTB aircraft poses
limitations in respect of speed and altitude envelope, asymmetric thrust, structural
modificationsetc
TypesoftestswithATFandFTBAcomparison
InrespectofenginehandlingbothATFandFTBcouldbeused.
However in order to meet different ISA dry conditions, ATF is more suitable because it is
quickerandpermitsimmediateadjustmentorinvestigation.
Itisgenerallynecessarytogetfinalapprovalintheappropriateaircraft
In order to carry out development testing in respect of altitude characteristics of the fuel
systemandcontrols,bothATFandFTBcouldbemadeuseof
ButduetothegreaterrangeofoperatingconditionsandtransientrecordingequipmentATF
ismoresuitableandinvestigationcanbecarriedoutimmediately
In order to carry out engine performance and combustion efficiency checks both ATF and
FTBcouldbeused
HoweverATFismoresuitableandfaster
FTBwouldnotbeabletoestablishdatumchecksandwouldtakelongertime
ThoughtheeffectofvaryingintaketemperatureandpressurecouldbestudiedinATFand
FTB,ATFwouldbefasterandthefinalresultswiththeFTBmightnotbeaccurate
In respect of cyclic endurance tests for life development or mechanical integrity only ATF
willbesuitableanditmaynotbepossibletouseFTB
Though the reheat development work can be carried out both in ATF and FTB, ATF is the
mostsuitableonefordevelopmentwork
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TheATFcanprovidethemeansofdevelopingthereheatsystemseparatelyfromtheengine,
immediatecomputationofresultsandmeanstodirectlyvieworphotographtheflame
InordertocarryoutenginerelightingchecksbothATFandFTBcouldbeused
However ATF provides a quicker and safer means of investigating or determining the
enginesrelightenvelopeatvariousenvironmentalconditions
Inrespectofnegativegfuelandoilsystemchecks,zerogchecksetcthesecanbedoneonly
inFTB
Development tests like the effect of hot or cold fuel, engine heat rejection, cold starting,
bearing loads and wear, power offtakes, operating ceiling etc can be carried out more
accuratelyandquicklyinacontrolledfashioninanATF
NotwithstandingtheapparentmeritsoftheATF,thecomplementaryfacilityofaFTBwould
benecessaryinviewoftheadvantageandeasieravailability
It would also familiarise the test pilot with the handling qualities of the engine under
development
AltitudeTestFacilitiesabroad
ATFabroad
GeneralElectric,USA
PrattandWhitney,USA
ArnoldEngineeringDevelopmentCenter,USA
RollRoyce,UK
DefenceResearchAgency,UK
CEPr,France
Snecma,France
CentralInstituteofAviationMotors,Russia
TypicalcapabilitiesofATFare:
Altitude:20to30km
Machno.2to3
Thrust30,000to35,000KG
FlyingTestBedsabroad
InUSA
B52Bomber
F102
Boeing747100
InUK
AvroVulcanBomberforOlympus593andotherdevelopmentengines
InFrance
ConvertedCaravelleaircraftforM53engine
InRussia
TU116Bomberaircraft
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Costaspect
In order to set up a comprehensive and contemporary ATF the approximate cost will be
about1500crores
ItwillnotbecosteffectivetoestablishanATFunlesssimultaneousdevelopmentofvarious
typesofenginesisundertaken
Especially with a situation wherein the development of only one type of engine is
contemplated,itwillbehighlycosteffectivetohiretheATFabroadinordertoconductthe
altitudetestingoftheengine
The cost estimate for FTB essentially depends on the choice of the basic aircraft, ground
replay equipment, aircraft modification details, onboard instrumentation and telemetry
etc.
ConcludingRemarks
Itisabsolutelyessentialthattheengineunderdevelopmentwillhavetoundergosimulated
testinginanAltitudeTestFacility
However,certainspecialtestslikenegativegfuelandoilsystemchecks,zerogchecksetc
cannotbeperformedintheATFandthesetestswillhavetobeconductedonaFTB
In respect of the development tests, ATF can provide a quicker and accurate means of
carryingoutthetests
Inmanycasesofenginedevelopment,bothmodesofflighttestingnamelyATFandFTBare
complementaryandacloseliaisonisessential
Itwouldappearthatbothtypesoftestingwillberequiredforalongtimetocome
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AIRFRAME- ENGINE INTEGRATION
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Introduction
Advances in aircraft performance depend heavily upon improved and properly integrated
Propulsionsystems
Historically new engines and aircraft are developed concurrently, but the design and test
cycleofenginesystemsislongerthanthatoftheaircrafttheypowerbecauseofdemanding
flightqualification,reliabilityanddurabilityrequirements
Consequentlytheenginehardwaredevelopmentprocessstartsfirstsothatthesuccessof
theentireprogramoftenhingesonenginedesigndecisionsmadeearlyintheprocess
Efficient and powerful gas turbine engines are mandatory for high performance military
aircraft.
The power plant has played a major role in the aircraft system and ability to develop
successful cost effective high performance aircraft has been made possible only through
significantimprovementsinthepropulsionsystem.
Theengine,airinlet,andjetexhaustnozzleandassociatedelementsmustbethoughtofas
atotalsystem,whichisakeycomponentinaircraftconfigurationandperformance.
Itisalsonecessarytocloselyintegratetheairframeandpropulsionsystemtoreducedrag
andweightsoastoimproveperformance.
Criticaltothedesignofefficientairvehiclesystemsisthedesigntheaerogasturbineengine
exhaustnozzle
Aircraft exhaust nozzles serve two primary functions. First they must convert the engine
backpressure to provide the correct and optimum engine performance which is
accomplishedthroughnozzleexhaustareavariations
Second they must efficiently convert the potential energy of the exhausting gas to kinetic
energy by increasing the exhaust velocity which is accomplished through efficiently
expandingtheexhaustgasestotheambientpressure
Since the exhaust nozzle provides the integration between the propulsion and aircraft
systems,itsdesignmustalsoconsiderinstalledorthrustminusdragperformance
Additionaldesignchallengesareintroducedbytherequirementforfeaturessuchasthrust
vectoringandreversing
Nolongercananenginedesignerignorefactorsofaircraftperformance.
Similarly,theaircraftdesignermustconsiderenginecharacteristicsandpossibletradeoff.It
isnotpossibletothinkintermsofoptimizingapropulsionpackageandthenattachingittoa
separately optimized airframe. The two parts must be designed in conjunction and fully
integratedinallaspects.Thisclosecouplingofconstituentelementsplacesanewemphasis
onblendingofpropulsionwithairframe.
Requirements of engine installation and mechanical interfacing with the various
constituentsoftheaircraftsystemarethemostobviousandapparentaspectsofairframe
engineintegration.
Theworkrequiredforachievingtheaimisbrieflyindicatedbelow:
Air intake, engine mounting, nozzle arrangement, ventilation and drainage, engine
accessandremoval,structuralarrangementsfortransferofthrusttotheairframe.
Engineaccessories,startingsystem,enginecontrolelements,instrumentation.
Engine offtakes, secondary power, installed engine performance, losses due to
engineaccessories.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
THERMODYNAMICCOMPATIABILTYANDMISSIONREQUIREMENTS
Thecombinedrequirementsofhighperformanceandmissionflexibility(orthermodynamic
compatibility)necessitiesanewapproachtointegration.
Thetraditionalprocessofselectinganenginecyclebasedonuninstalledperformanceand
thenapplyingefforttominimizetheinstallationpenaltiesisobsolete.
Advanced technology engines incorporate features such as transonic/ supersonic
compressors,highintensitycombustors,higherturbineinlettemperaturemadepossibleby
useofcooledturbinebladesandexoticmaterials,efficientafterburnersandbetternozzle
systems,leadingtohigherspecificthrust.
Use of advanced materials and structural concepts and new fabricating techniques have
contributedtomuchhigherthrustweightratiosfortheseengines.
Modular constructional features have also been introduced to improve maintenance and
achievehigheroperatingefficiency.
Theintroductionofhighercompressorpressureratiosanduseofvaryingdegreesofbypass
havecontributedtoloweringofspecificfuelconsumption.
Theimprovementsnotedabovearenotallsimultaneouslyachievable.
Thus from the engine designers point of view the study of the closely integrated air
frame/enginesystemperformanceachievesaddedsignificance.
Therearenumerousmissionsforwhichanaircraftenginecouldbesuccessfullydesigned.
Inthecaseofmilitaryaircraftforexample,theapplicationmaybepurelyeitherfortheair
superiorityroleorforcloseairsupport/strike.
There is also the current trend towards combining these roles to achieve multi mission
capability.
The aircraft/power plant combination for such application requires separate approaches
andoptimumsolutionforonerequirementneednotproveeffectivefortheother.
Hence the choice of engine cycle would be evolved through an optimization process
involvingminimumrequirements,combatconditionsandaircraftcharacteristics.
Methodology
Based on a set of requirements and measured with figures of merit for the system, the
airframeandengineagenciesconductparametricstudiestoidentifypromisingconcepts.
Althoughthesestudiescanbesomewhatindependent,aminimumofinformationmustbe
exchanged,suchas:
Thrustrequired/available
Propulsionsystemdimensionsandweight
Inlet/Nozzlecharacteristics
Thrust/Dragbookkeepingprocedures
As the aircraft and propulsion systems become better defined, detailed information exchange
and joint working arrangements between airframe and propulsion agencies enhance the
abilitiestooptimizethesystemasawhole.
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Tasks must be shared between the two agencies in the spirit of finding the best solution to
achieveacompatibleairframeenginecombinationforthesuccessofthetotalflyingplatformas
aneffectiveweaponsystemcapableoffulfillingitsroleefficientlyandsafely.
StepstoAchieveCompatibility
Thekeystepstoachievementofcompatibilitycanbesummarizedasfollows:
Recognitionofpotentialproblemareas(bothengineandaircraft)andthevoidsthatexistin
availabledata.
Cleardelineationofresponsibilitiesbetweentheaircraftandengineagencies.
Initiation of the program with a design for the airframe and the engine which have a
reasonablelevelofinherentstabilitymargin.
Identification of key program decision dates with joint integrated test program to provide
datatopermitthedecisions.
Extensive,earlyanalysisandtesting,plusflexibilityonbothsidesoftheinterfacesbetween
theengineandtheaircrafttoreadilyadjustforunforeseenproblems.
Open and frank working arrangements between the various agencies concerned so as to
achievecompatibilityinthemosteconomicalandexpeditiousway.
Approach
Theintegratedsystemapproachcontinuesfromtheconceptualphaseintothedesignphasetoensurea
compatible engine/aircraft system for operational service. The needs of compatibility can be grouped
intobasicallythreeareas:
Mechanicalinterfacingandinstallationaspects
Thermodynamicandmissionrequirements
Aerodynamiccompatibilityinsteadystateanddynamicengineandairframetransients.
Performance
The Cycle parameters are: Over all pressure ratio, Turbine entry temperature, by pass ratio and
afterburnertemperatureinthecaseofmilitaryengines
Aircraft:Pointperformance
Missionperformance
Pointperformance
SustainedTurnRate(STR)
SpecificExcessPower(SEP)
TransonicAcceleration
Sizing
Enginesizing:
Initiallytheenginesizeisbasedonthecomponentdesignanddevelopmentaldatabaseavailablewith
thedesignerintermsof:
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Overallpressureratio
Turbineentrytemperature
Bypassratio
Reheattemperature
Forexample,onecanworkoutfortransonicaccelerationrequirementat11Kmaltitude.
Whatisthethrustrequirementknowingtheaircraftdragcharacteristics.IfthisvalueisXKg,
thentheISASLSthrustrequirement(firstorderofapproximation)canbeX/0.4=2.5X.With
this,onecanarriveattheenginesizenamelyfrontaldiametersincemassflowratewillbe
known. With this first order value the core profiles of the aircraft are worked out. For
workingouttheinstalledperformanceoftheengine,thefollowingfactorsshouldbetaken
intoaccount:
ThefollowingaretobeprovidedByAircraftDesignAgency
INTAKEDUCTLOSS
EXTERNALBLEEDFORCUSTOMERSERVICES
POWEROFFTAKEFORAIRCRAFTGEARBOX
These inputs are obtained from aircraft design agency. With the installed performance of
theenginethecoremissionprofileperformanceoftheaircraftisworkedout.Shortfallsare
identified. Corner points where thrust increase is required are recognized. With constant
interactionwiththeaircraftdesignagencytheagencysizingisarrivedat.Oncethefrontal
dia (based on mass flow requirement)is arrived at, the annular flow diagrams of all
componentsareworkedout.Componentsizingisdonebasedonvariousconsiderations,rig
testinputsotherdevelopmentexperience.
Integrationaspects
Thefollowingaretheimportantaspectsofairframeengineintegration:
Integratedaircraftengineperformance
Engineinstallationandmounting
SecondaryPowerSystem
Theintegratedaircraftengineperformanceinvolvesworkingouttheinstalledperformance
oftheenginetakingintoaccountIntakeDuctLoss,CustomerbleedandPowerofftake.
The installed performance of the engine involves a penalty on the engine performance in
termsofreductioninthrust,increaseinsfcandexhaust/turbineinlettemperature.
Normallytheengineinstallationisthroughathreepointmounting,twointhefrontandone
intherear.
The secondary power system addresses the aircraft accessories power requirements for
operation of the various control surfaces (hydraulic) power and also the aircraft electrical
powerrequirements.
Issuespertainingto1,2and3areaddressedthrougha)EngineModelSpecificationandb)
Interface Control Document (ICD). This is mutually agreed document between the Engine
andAircraftDesignagencies.
BasicFunctionoftheEngine
GenerateThrust
Generatebleedairforefficientoperationoftheengineandaccessoriesoverawiderangeof
operations
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Drivetheenginemountedcomponentsthroughthegeardrivemodule
DigitalElectronicControlUnit(DECU)actsasalinkbetweentheengineandtheaircraft
Depending on the pilots commands, DECU is responsible for fuel scheduling, air bleed
control,engineaccessoriesactivationandcockpitinformation
The main inputs to the DECU are the engine sensor signals, aircraft parameters and the
derivedparametersfromflightguidancesystem
TheControlunithasamainactuatingunitknownasHydromechanicalUnit(HMU)whichis
inchargeifinjectingandatomizingtheproperamountoffuelintothecombustionchamber
TheDECUisaninterfacebetweentheengineandtheHMU.
GenerationofPropulsivepower
Theengineisstartedbyanelectricalcommandfromthepilot
DuringthistimethepilotengagesthestartswitchandsetsthePowerLeverAngle(PLA)to
idle(predetermined)position(inangles)
ThentheDECUcommandstheFuelSystemtointroduceaminimumfuelflowrateandhold
ituntiltheconditionsonexhausttemperatureandengineshaftspeedaresatisfied
ThisissupposedtobetheLightupandIdlePhasesoftheenginerun.Thecorresponding
fuelflowsareknownasLightupfuelflowandIdlefuelflow.
During acceleration the DECU provides the control signal after computing the target shaft
speed of the core engine based on the demand (based on PLA position) and actual speed
(running/idlespeed)
Normallytheaccelerationfuelflowisabout30%morethantheSteadystatefuelflowsat
differentRPMs.Ahighervalueislikelytoresultinenginesurgeduringengineacceleration
WhiledoingthistheDECUactivatesthebleedcontrolaftercalculatingthecompressorsurge
protectionparameter.Thismaynotbenecessaryinalltypesofengines
Similarlyduringdecelerationtherateofdecelerationissetandaminimumfuelflowrateis
maintaineddependingontherateandambienttemperature.Thedecelerationfuelflowis
about25to30%lowerthanthesteadystatefuelflowatdifferentRPMs.Alowervalueis
likelytoresultinengineflameout.
During steady state operation of the aircraft, the engine thrust is controlled through the
flightschedulemapthattransformsthePLApositiontothetargetenginespeed,takinginto
accountthealtitude,outsideairtemperature
Interactionofmultipleenginestoaircraft
Thetotalthrustrequiredtoacceleratetheaircraftisgeneratedbyagroupofengineswhich
arecontrolledbytheirownDECU
Inordertomaketheoperationsmooththepilotisallowedtoselectoneoftheenginesasa
primaryunitandsynchronizetheRPMoftheotherenginesinamasterslavesetup
This option helps in preventing the engine vibrations (thereby aircraft vibrations) and
throttlestaggering
The pilot engages the DECU and selects one of the engines as the master to activate this
mode
ThentheDECUofthemasterenginesynchronizestheslaveenginestothemasterengineby
commandingtheirDECUstomatchtheRPMstothatofthemaster.
TheDECUaccomplishesthistaskcomputinganewtargetRPM(FanRPMincaseofturbofan
engines),whichallowsthelowpressuregovernorstoadjusttheRPMsoftheslaveengines
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Bleedair
Thesecondaryairfromthecompressorexitoftheengineisusedfortwopurposesnamelyi)
ExternalbleedorCustomerBleedusedforaircraftpurposesandii)InternalBleedusedfor
coolingthehotpartsoftheenginelikeNozzleGuideVanes,TurbineRotorblades,Turbine
Discetc.
This internal bleed is not a loss to the engine cycle since it is recovered back at different
locations of the engine after cooling the hot end parts of the engine. The typical internal
bleedisfrom15to18%ofthecompressorexitair
WhereastheExternalbleedorCustomerbleedisalosstotheenginecyclesincethisairis
onceforallbledandnotrecoveredbackunlikeinternalbleed.
Every 1% of customer bleed air results in a loss of approximately 1% loss in Thrust with
correspondingincreaseinSpecificFuelConsumptionandExhaustTemperature.
Hencethisbleedairmustbekepttotheminimumthoughitisinescapable.
TheadvantageofAllElectricenginelieshere.
The engine bleed system ensures efficient operation of the engine over a wide range by
controlling the system airflow during various phases of the engine operations like start,
acceleration,decelerationetc.
It is also used to provide the necessary air pressure to operate diverse array of aircraft
systemsaswellascateringtocustomerdemands.
Normallytheenginebleedistakenoutfromthehighpressurecompressorstage.
Sometimes if low pressure and low temperature air is required for aircraft purposes the
bleedistakenfromtheFanorLowpressurecompressorexit.
The bleed system is pneumatically actuated and controlled by the fuel control unit of the
engine.
The actuator effects control over a metal band which opens or closes holes in the high
pressurecontrollercasing.
Themaincontrolunitistheelectroniccontrolunitwhichactivatesthebleedair
Thehighpressurebleedairisusedforthefollowingpurposes:
Provides antiicing capabilities to nosecowl, aircraft outerwing section, aircraft
innerwingsection,aircrafttailplanesectionandengine.
Bleedforfirstairconditionerpack
Bleedairforsecondairconditionerpack
Thehotairfortheantiicingsystemisusuallytakenfromthebleed.
Itisductedthroughpressureregulatingvalvestothepartsrequiringantiicing
Thespentairisgenerallyventedoverboard.
Theantiicingmaybecontinuousorcontrolledbythecontroller.
Accessories
The Gas generator turbine produces the power to drive the compressor and also the
accessoriesmountedontheenginegearbox.
Theaccessorysystemscanbelistedasfollows:
HighPressureFuelpump
LowpressureFuelpumporbackuppump
Hydraulicpump
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Oilpumps(bothSuctionandPressurepumps)
Starter
AircraftelectricalGenerator
Enginehandturnaccess
DedicatedalternatorinthecaseofFADECsystem
In the past there used to be a single gear box mounted on the engine which would have
bothengineandaircraftaccessories
The main problem with this type of arrangement was that the operational flexibility and
maintainabilityissuesweremore.
InotherwordsifanyoftheaircraftaccessorylikeHydraulicpumporGeneratorwasfaulty
thentheentiregearboxhadtoberemovedandtheproblemhadtobeattended.
With the Concept of Splitting the Engine and Aircraft gear boxes separately the problem
couldbesolvedtoagreatextent.
The present day engines use the concept of engine and aircraft gear boxes connected
throughaPowerTakeoff(PTO)shaft.
In this arrangement the Gas Generator Turbine in addition to driving the high pressure
compressorproducespowertodrivetheengineandaircraftaccessoriesalso.
Withthisarrangementthemaintenanceproblemscouldbereducedtoagreatextent.
Alsotheenginegearboxcouldtakecareoftheemergencysituationintheaircraftgearbox
andviceversa
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
GAS TURBINE ENGINE MANUFACTURING

TECHNIQUES
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TheGasTurbineEngineTypicalTemperatureLevels
CONSTITUTION
12 to 14 MODULES
800 to 850 Sub. ASSY.
22000 to 23000 PARTS
MATERIALS
NICKEL BASED
SUPER ALLOYS
TITANUIM
ALLOYS
STAINLESS
STEELS
ALUMINIUM
ALLOYS
PROCESSES
TOLERANCES
ENGINE AXIS
MULTI-AXIS CNC
ALIGNMENT : 0.
MACHINING
15mm FIR
EB WELDING
INVESTMENT CASTING TIP CLEARANCE : 1mm
ON 700mm DIA.
EDM / WIRE CUT
DIMENSIONAL
VACUUM HEAT
TOLERANCES : 5 TO
TREATMENT
50m
PLASMA COATING
SHOTPEENING, ETC
GasTurbine
A Gas Turbine is a power plant in which Thermal Energy is converted into Mechanical
Energy.
GasturbineAeroEngineisamultidisciplinaryengineeringmarvel.
FUNCTIONS
Highrotationalspeedswithcloseclearance
Highoperatingtemperatures
AerodynamicdesignChallenges
Highthrust/weightratio
Highfatigueresistance
Highreliability
REQUIREMENTS
Closetolerancesondimensionandweight
Useofhightemp.exoticMaterials
Intricateshapes
Finesurfacefinish
Excellentintegrityofcomponent/material
StateoftheArtTechnology
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Gasturbineparts
ChallengesEncountered:
Sculpturedshapedparts
Varyingthinwalledsections
Complexprofiles
AccurateDimensions
SpecialCuttingtools
Fixturingproblems
Unpredictablematerialbehaviour
ConsistentQualityandRepeatability
CharacteristicsofTi6Al4Valloy
LowThermalConductivity
Gumminessofchips
LowModulusofElasticity
DimensionalInstability
ChemicalReaction
CharacteristicsofInconel718
HighShearStress
Highworkhardeningcapacities
Hardabrasiveparticles
Lowthermalconductivity
Gummyandstrongtendencytoweld
DimensionalInstability
(Brandedasdifficulttomachinematerial)
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
LPCOMPRESSOR
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HPCOMPRESSOR
COMBUSTOR
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
LPTURBINE
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
ProductdevelopmentProcess
SOMECASESTUDIES
COMPRESSORDISC
High Pressure Compressor Disc Stage VI

Compressor
Inconel718
NickelBaseSuperalloy
ContinuouslyVaryingCrossSection
NoMismatchesallowed
SurfaceFinishCriteria
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
DEVELOPMENTS
SpecialCuttingTools
RoundTeeLockInsert
OptimizedCuttingparameters
Fixturingsystem
MachiningofDisc
1.Turning
TwoSetup
Balance
Machining
Technique
Toolwear
2.Inspection
WorkInspectionProbes
ProbeCompensation
3.Drilling/Milling
Positionaltolerance
DrillPeckingcycle
BreakageofDrill
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
MachiningofSeals
ProblemsencounteredinMachining
Inconel718
LimitationofTooloffsetManipulation
LimitationofDepthofcut
SurfaceFinishRequirement
CloseDimensionalTolerances
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
MachiningOfTurbineCasing
TurbineCasingInconel718
CloseGeometrical&DimensionalTolerances
NoMismatchesallowed
ThinwalledCrossSection
SurfaceFinish
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
ExhaustConeCasing&CompressorCasingNo.2
ComplexInternalFeatures
EllipticalSurfaces/Struts
RightAngleTangentialapproach
StatorBladeHoles
Prismaticshapes
MachiningofEllipticalstrutsonExhaustcone
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
CompressorCasingNo.2Machining
TipGrindingofCompressorRotor&Stator
CompressorstageI&IIrotor
TipGrindingofCompressorIIIstageRotor
TipGrindingofCompressorIV,V&VIStageRotor
TipGrindingofStator(3S,4S&5S)BladesonCNCVerticalTurnMillCenter
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
ComplexAeroEngineParts
COMPRESSORDISC
S/ACOMP.IV,V,VIDRUM
S/AFANII&IIIDRUM
CASINGTURBINE
CASINGTURBINE
S/ACOMP.I&IIDRUM
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ENGINE DIVISION HRD
CASINGCOMPRESSOR
CASINGDIFFUSER
SPLITCASING
COMPRESSORCASING
CASINGINTERMEDIATEOUTER CASINGDIFFUSER
CASINGBELLMOUTH
CASINGJETPIPE
174
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
PERFORMANCE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
175
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Introduction
Thecapabilitiesofanaircraftsystemaredefinedbytheprescribedneedorthreatthatthe
weaponsystemmustmeet
Acceptable levels of these capabilities are substantiated, demonstrated and qualified
throughacomprehensivedesign,testanddevelopmentanddeployment
Sincethisprocessextendsthroughthedevelopmentphase,thedevelopmentprocessmust
alsoincludeenginemaintenanceandlogisticsupportplans
Weaponsystemneedandthreatpicturearegivenbythedefenceagency
Targetdocumentisprepared
Afterdetaileddiscussionthisgetsconvertedtospecificrequirements
Propulsionsystemisoneofthemajorsubsystemsoftheintegratedweaponplatform
Normallyenginedesignprecedestheaircraftdesign
Thedevelopmentaircraftisnotflownwithadevelopmentengine
Normallythedevelopmentaircraftisflownwithaprovenengineandaircraftperformance
andhandlingareestablished
Thenthedevelopmentengineistestedinthedevelopmentaircraftforintegratedairframe
engineperformanceassessmentandenginehandling
EngineDevelopment
Developmentproblemsarenumerousinnature,somemechanicalandothersaerodynamic
From the time that the system concept originates to the time that the powerplant is
introducedinserviceitcouldmeanaspanof10to15years
Conceptualdesign,demonstratorversion(FETT),fulldevelopmentqualification,IOCandFOC
aretheimportantstagesofenginedevelopment
Enginemaintenanceandlogisticsupports
Modularconstructionoftheengine
Enginehealthmonitoring
Exceedancelimits
Enginedevelopmenttriangle
EngineTesting
Twotypesofenginetestingnamelyproductionenginetestinganddevelopment/prototype
enginetesting
Productionenginetestinginvolvesonlylimitedmeasurementsforengineacceptance
Important parameters measured during production engine testing are RPM, thrust, fuel
flow, compressor delivery pressure, typical vibration, engine exhaust pressure and
temperature
Development/Prototype engine testing involves detailed instrumentation and data
processing
About 800 parameters like pressures, temperatures, vibration, cooling/secondary flows,
strainsetcaremeasuredduringdevelopmentenginetesting
176
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Engine testing is done in a test cell fully equipped to measure all the desired operating
parameters
Testing of large modern engines has become a real problem in that the amount of air
requiredbytheenginewasnotreadilyavailablewiththeexistingequipment
NewfacilitieshavehadtobebuilttosimulateconditionsencounteredathighMachnumber
andhighaltitudes
Inmanycasesthishasbeenasdifficultasdevelopmentoftheengineitself
TypicalTestCell
Atypicalsealevelenginetestbedwillbeprovidedwithcrosssectionalareatogiveairflow
through the test bed of about 6m/sec and an inlet to give a smooth flow of air into the
engine
Thetestbedwillbeprovidedwithmeansofloadingthehydraulicpumpsandtheelectrical
alternator
Also will be a range of measuring equipment to cover about 1000 parameters of steady
state,transientanddynamicinformation
All performance parameters are gathered electronically, complete with correction factors
andcalibrationcurvesappliedpriortothecalculationofengineperformanceandreadout
of corrected data at terminals in the engineering department to enable decisions to be
madewhilethetestisinprogress
Engineperformanceisgenerallydefinedintermsofengineairflow,fuelflowandthrust
Thrust is usually measured by mounting the engine in a frame work which itself is
suspendedfromthefixedstructurebymeansofflexure
This arrangement enables the engine in its framework to move freely only in the axial
direction
Theamountofaxialmovementisrestrainedandtheresultingforceisnormallymeasuredby
astraingaugeloadcell
Theairintaketotheengineisgenerallyabellmouthoraventuridesignedasanairmeter
The bellmouth/airmeter has to be calibrated against another standard or by carefully
traversingthethroatwithpitotprobeandestablishingtheflowcoefficientwhichisdefined
astheratiooftheactualmassflowtotheisentropic(ideal)massflow
Therearetwotypesoffuelflowmeasurement,oneknownasturbineflowmeterandthe
otherbulkmeter
Theflowmeterhasaminiatureturbinesuspendedinatubethroughwhichfuelflows
Theotherisreferredtoasabulkmeterhasapositivedisplacementimpeller
Theimpellerisrotatedinproportiontotheflowrate
Foraccuratefuelflowmeasurementsturbineflowmetersareemployed
177
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Classification of Criticality of Aero Engine

Components
178
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Principle
Componentsareclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingpoints:
Functionalsignificanceintheengine.
Aftereffectthattheirfailuremighthaveontheengine/theaircraft
Theenvironment.
Thecriticalityofthecomponentscanbeclassifiedintothreecategories
Class1
Thecomponentsofsignificanceduetoitsfunctionintheengine.Thefailureofcomponentsin
service,eitheratGroundorinflightisliabletohaveadangerouseffectontheaircraft.
SubcategoryA:
Mainrotatingcomponentwithlimitedlife
SubcategoryB:
Allothercomponentswhetherrotatingornot,inconformitywiththebasicdefinitionofthe
category
Class2
Componentofsignificanceduetoitsfunctionintheengine.
Thefailureofwhichisliabletoendangerimmediatesafetyoftheenginewithouthaving
dangerouseffectontheaircraft.
Class3
Thefailureofthecomponentdoesnotendangerinanimmediateway,northeoperationof
engineortheaircraft.
CriticalityofAeroEngineComponentsSingleEngine(Turbofan)Application
Class1
Sl.No.
NomenclatureofComponent
Fanrotorblades
Fanstatorblades
Bulletnose(Rotating)
Fancasing(Crack)
Fanshaft
Fandisk
Compressorrotorblades
Compressorstatorblades
Compressordrum
179
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Sl.No.
10
Compressorshaft
11
Intermediatecasing(Crack)
12
Combustorcasing(Crack)
13
Turbinerotorblades
14
Turbineshaft
15
Turbinedisk
16
Transmissionbearings
17
Pairofmainbevelgears
18
GearsofGearbox(Selective)
19
Mainfuelsystem
20
Oilsystem
21
Hydraulicsystem
22
Electricalsystem
Sl.No.
Compressorcasings
Mainburners
Bypasscasing(Crack)
Turbinecasing
TurbineNGVs
Afterburnerfuelflowmanifolds
Afterburnerfuelsystem
SI.No.
Swirlers
LinersofCombustor
AfterburnerVgutters
Exhaustnozzlebarrel
Convergentdivergentexhaustnozzlealongwithpetals
Class2
Class3
180
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
TwinEngine(Turbofan)Application
Class1
SI.No.
FanRotorblades
Fanshaft
Fandisk
Compressorrotorblades
Compressordrum
Compressorshaft
Turbineshaft
Turbinedisk
SI.No.
FanStatorblades
Bulletnose(Rotating)
Fancasing(Crack)
Compressorstatorblades
Compressorcasing
Intermediatecasing(Crack)
Combustorcasing(Crack)
Mainburners
Bypasscasing(Crack)
10
Turbinecasing
11
Turbinerotorblades
12
TurbineNGVs
13
Afterburnerfuelflowmanifolds
14
Transmissionbearings
15
Pairofmainbevelgears
16
GearsofGearbox(Selective)
17
Mainfuelsystem
18
Afterburnerfuelsystem
19
Oilsystem
20
Hydraulicsystem
21
Electricalsystem
Class2
181
ENGINE DIVISION HRD
Class3
SI.No.
Swirlers
Linersofcombustor
AfterburnerVgutters
Exhaustnozzlebarrel
Convergentdivergentexhaustnozzlealongwithpetals
182

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ENGINE DIVISION HRD

CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT OF CONTINUOUS LEARNING