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Introduction.
It has long been known that the presence of water will degrade
the strength of silicate glasses and many other ceramic materials (Shand, 1958; Mould, 1959). Exposure to an aqueous
environment has also been found to affect the mechanical performance of dental ceramics. Sherrill and O'Brien (1974) demonstrated that the fracture stress of feldspathic and aluminous
dental porcelains decreased by nearly 30% when the samples
were broken in water. Southan and Jorgensen (1974) showed
that the ability of a dental porcelain to sustain a static load in
water decreased as the duration of load application increased.
The effect of aqueous exposure and other aspects of dental
porcelain mechanical behavior have been the subject of an
extensive review by Jones (1983), who also lists decreasing
strength with decreasing stress/strain rate as further evidence
for the detrimental role played by water.
The process of strength degradation of ceramics in aqueous
environments is termed fatigue and is believed to be caused
by a stress-corrosion process involving the stable growth of
small, pre-existing flaws (Hillig and Charles, 1965; Michalske
and Freiman, 1983). The effect of water is so pronounced that
stress-corrosion has been observed in silicate glasses at moisture levels as low as 0.017% relative humidity (Wiederhom,
1967). Failure, generally after long loading times and often at
stresses substantially less than the measured short-term fracture
stress, will ensue once these flaws attain a size equivalent to
that needed to initiate fast fracture.
The oral environment would appear to have all the factors
necessary for fatigue failure to occur in ceramic-based dental
prostheses. Water is, of course, the primary chemical species
Received for publication October 31, 1985
Accepted for publication April 10, 1986
This investigation was supported in part by USPHS Research Grant
DE07045 from the National Institute of Dental Research, National
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.
BSn -2t-an
(1)
where tf
B
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993
994
MORENA ET AL.
where
afo
(&/6 )1/n+ l
(2)
stressing
rate,
analysis.
The B term in Eq. (1) can be obtained (Ritter, 1978) from:
Un+lIi(3)
n +l()
where Si = inert or initial strength of laboratory specimens
in the absence of subcritical crack growth.
The strength values at each stressing rate were obtained with
a constant displacement rate mechanical testing machine (Model
TT-B, Instron Corp., Canton, MA). Test specimens were broken in bi-axial flexure by means of the piston-on-3-ball technique described by Wachtman et al. (1972). This technique
was selected since it eliminates spurious edge failures (which
occur in flexure tests) associated with stress concentrations at
contact points. This is because tensile stress in the bi-axial
flexure apparatus decays rapidly with increasing radial distance
from the center of the disk. The disks were concentrically
supported on three ball bearings (each 1.6 mm in diameter)
that were evenly spaced around a support circle having a radius
of 3.5 mm. The specimen-holder is shown in Fig. la. The
specimens were loaded to failure by a compressive load applied
by a right circular cylinder with a diameter of 1.6 mm. The
fracture stress was calculated (Wachtman et al., 1972) from
the load at failure by:
B
3P
of
l + 2 In
47r t2 (I+v)Lb
+
I+V
I+
v
lI
b2
S2a2
4a2l
2
(4)
v~ ~
995
Results.
The dynamic fatigue curves are shown in Fig. 2 for the three
tested in water. Dynamic fatigue curves are compared
for the feldspathic porcelain evaluated in both water
and the artificial saliva environments. The error bars shown in
these Figs. for fracture stress correspond to the Mean + 1
S.D. No error bars are shown for stressing rate, since the
coefficient of variation (S.D./mean) was typically 5% or less.
Also shown in both Figs. is the coefficient of determination,
r2, for each test situation.
The results of the linear regression analyses on the dynamic
fatigue data are listed in Table 1. The value of the crack growth
exponent, measured in distilled water, varied from approximately 14.5 for the feldspathic porcelain to nearly 81 for the
fine-grain core material. The differences in n-value for the
three dental ceramics were found to be highly significant (p <
0.01) by the Tukey Multiple Range Test. No differences (p >
0.50 by Student's t test) were found in the crack growth exponent for the feldspathic porcelain when tested in the water
and artificial saliva environments. This agrees with stress-corrosion studies of other bioceramics where no differences were
recorded in the n-value between water and other biologic media, such as Krebs-Ringer solution and bovine serum (Rockar
and Pletka, 1978). The higher strength values measured at each
stressing rate for the feldspathic porcelain tested in water relative to the artificial saliva media are mirrored in the higher
ceramics
in Fig. 3
:X
.(
i..
0.20
1.0
.
48
100
10
120
0(
(r 068)
=
4.6
ffi 4A4
2
100
80
(r2=0 69)
0<n
IN 37 C H20
- 42
c;4.
60 u
4.01
Feldspathic Porcelain
3.8-
40
3.6
--
-1
0
+2.0
In (Stressing Rate, MPals)
Dynamic fatigue
curves at
+4 0
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996
MORENA ET AL.
TABLE 1
DYNAMIC FATIGUE RESULTS
n-value
(mean + S.E.)
In Water
Feldspathic Porcelain
Aluminous Porcelain
Fine-grain Ceramic
In Artificial Saliva
Feldspathic Porcelain
1o01o Feldspathic
ufo (MPa)
44.0
78.7
105
1.8
II1
\~
Surface
Condition
72.7 + 8.2
Feldspathic Porcelain
147.9 + 18.2*
Aluminous Porcelain
Fine-grain Ceramic
131.6 8.2*
*Indented prior to being broken.
\\ \\
41.1
-1 yr.\
TABLE 2
INERT STRENGTH VALUES (Mean -+ S.D.)
20
1 08
Si (MPa)
Polished through
1-pum diamond
10
I~~~~~
14.6 + 1.4
28.9 + 5.8
80.8
20.7
14.9
'I'
lI
II
II'
en
S(MPa)
Polished through
30-pum diamond
72.9 + 5.3
147.1 + 11.3
151.4 + 9.9
-1 mo.
106
h._v
(U
IIA
\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Il
day
--1
104_
\\
-1 hr.
1.0
U;
a
P
~~~~~~~~~~~~I
A
IL02
,I\ I,
II
'.
I1
102
zi
0
.2U
10
25
50
75
100
Applied Stress(MPa)
U.
Fig. 4
0
2.0
In (Stressing Rate, MPa/s)
4.0
997
Vol. 65 No. 7
feldspathic porcelain
aluminous porcelain
fine-grain ceramic
Acknowledgments.
The authors wish to thank the Johnson & Johnson Company
for providing commercial lots of their dental ceramics. Thanks
are also expressed to Skelley Dental Arts, Inc., Aiken, SC,
for their assistance in fabricating the fine-grain ceramic core
specimens. Appreciation is also expressed to S.W. Twiggs for
assistance with statistical analyses.
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