Classification of

Industrial Minerals and Rocks

Kip Jeffrey

INTRODUCTION

ucts because many of these were yet to be recognized as important

raw materials or products.

In the chapter on characteristics of the industrial minerals sector, a

broad definition of industrial minerals and rocks is discusseda
definition that must embrace solids, liquids, gases, minerals, rocks,
gems, glasses, wastes, and some manufactured productseach category with its own range of uses. Clearly, industrial minerals and
rocks do their utmost to defy simple definition and are linked as
closely by their differences as by their similarities.
To bring some order to this disparate field, a classification system is needed to highlight the commonalities and contrasts in a
structured way. Any robust classification must address the needs of
a wide range of potential users that may include (but is not limited
to) academics, industrial geologists, industrial raw material users,
specifiers, product formulators, technologists, engineers, managers,
and financiers and investors. Given their different priorities, focus
of attention, and backgrounds, it is not surprising that no single
approach is universally adopted.

Alphabetic
The simplest approach, and certainly the most intuitive and accessible for those from outside the subject seeking commodity-specific
information, is nothing more complex than the alphabetical listing
of commodities. This has been adopted for systematic commodity
reviews in earlier editions of this book (e.g., Lefond 1975; Carr
1994). Indeed, as noted by Harben and Bates (1984), the alphabetic
treatment neatly sidesteps the vexatious matter of classification.
This edition in part adopts the same approach as it lends itself
to simple encyclopedic interrogation once a mineral or commodity
is identified. Approximately 60 commodities are typically included
in such a listing, but these are always under review. This simplistic
compositional approach works reasonably well for industrial minerals but requires a degree of clarification and consistency because
subdivisions are often necessary. For example, clays can be divided
into bentonites, which can in turn be divided into sodium or calcium smectites. Nomenclature for industrial rocks and other raw
materials can also be variable; for example, brick clay, common
clay, structural clay, and heavy clay are all common pseudonyms
and are based more on application than composition.
Unfortunately, the alphabetic approach to classification
obscures many important links between commodities, including
similar properties they possess, geological processes that led to their
formation, or applications in which they are used. For this reason,
the alphabetic classification employed in this edition is supplemented by important reviews of major markets and uses for industrial minerals and rocks. Although this approach may suit those
using a book format, other forms of classification have been developed that may be more useful for the consumer or the geologist.

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
A range of classifications based on a variety of commodity criteria
has been used over the past 50 years or more as tools for understanding the geological context, market uses, defining properties,
economic contribution, and statistical significance of industrial
minerals and rocks. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and any durable scheme in such a dynamic industrial sector
will inevitably present only part of the picture. Bates (1975) examined a number of these schemes, and more extensive comparisons
have been undertaken by Kuzvart (1984), Noetstaller (1988), and
Smith (1999). All of these were drawn on extensively for this
review.
Berzelian
The world of systematic mineralogy has a number of classification
systems that have also been applied to industrial minerals. Most
museum mineral collections are catalogued by the Berzelian classification system, which is based on elements, ions, ionic groups, and
compounds such as halides, oxides, carbonates, and silicates,
among others. This system was used in early accounts of the nonmetallics (such as in Merrill 1904) and also hydrocarbons, but not
industrial rocks other than some siliceous and calcareous examples
under silica and calcium carbonate, respectively. The classification
did not cover waste materials, brines, or most manufactured prod-

Geological Processes
From the geologists perspective, there is much to be gained by trying to place a genetic classification on such a wide variety of materials (Bates 1960; Harben and Bates 1984). There are well-defined
categories of geological processes responsible for the formation of
all minerals and rocks, and industrial minerals and rocks encompass
the complete spectrum. Such a classification parallels standard geological understanding and has exploration relevance because a commodity may be found again in other places where these processes

Industrial Minerals and Rocks

Air Fall Ash (Fine)

Pumicite, Pozzolana
Air Fall Lapilli
(Coarse)
Pumice

Rhyolite Dome
Perlite

Lava Flow
Aggregate
Dimension Stone

Lateral Cinder Cone

Scoria

Ash Flow Tuff

Pumice, Dimension Stone,
Aggregate

Runoff High in Dissolved Silicon

Caldera Subsidence
Lake Sediments
Bentonite, Zeolite,
Diatomite

Alluvial Fans
Aggregate
Fummaroles
Sulfur

Fore Arc
Basin

Fore Arc

Beach Sands
Olivine
Oceanic
Trench

Hydrothermal Alteration of Volcanics

Bentonite, Kaolin
Ophiolite:
Ultrabasic Rocks
Chromite, Dunite, Serpentinite,
Magnesite

Ophiolite:
Pillow Lavas and Sediments
Ochre, Umber

Source: Anon. 1994.

Figure 1.

Industrial mineral deposits found in active continental margins

dominate. Because particular geological processes often result in a

range of similar products, there is also some natural grouping of
physical properties, although this is far from uniform.
The dominant divisions have been igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic, and surficially altered minerals and rocks (Harben
and Bates 1984). Igneous subdivisions were intrusive, extrusive,
pegmatitic, and hydrothermal; sedimentary was divided into clastic,
biogenic, and chemical. Because this is principally a geological categorization, waste and processed materials were not specifically
addressed. In their follow-up account of world deposits (and after
much deliberation; P. Harben, personal communication), the same
authors reverted to an alphabetic arrangement of commodities,
allowing very different deposit types to be discussed under individual commodity headings (Harben and Bates 1990).
Lorenz (1991) produced a more detailed tabulation of geological origins for industrial minerals deposits, along with a similar
analysis of deposit sizes and many other economic, technical, and
end-use parameters.
Tectonic Models
Although mainly developed as exploration models, these block diagrams have, in effect, produced a tectonic classification of deposit
types for particular commodities (Figure 1; Anon. 1994; Highley

1994). They are therefore a development of the geological process

classifications and have the major advantage of allowing analysis of
the potential spatial, as well as geological, relationship between different industrial minerals. This makes the approach an ideal one for
industrial minerals exploration and parallels the earlier work undertaken for metal deposits (e.g., Mitchell and Garson 1981; Sawkins
1984).
Important Properties
As the phrase industrial minerals and rocks implies, each commodity has some commercially significant composition or property
on which its use is based. Kline (1970) devised a simple twofold
division: chemical minerals, where their main purpose is as the
source of important elements (e.g. industrial minerals and rocks
used in the fertilizer, chemical, ceramics, and metallurgical industries); and physical minerals, where the minerals do not significantly change in composition during use. Important features of this
latter group, which include many construction materials, abrasives,
foundry supplies, gems, and fillers, would be their physical properties such as particle-size distribution, brightness, and surface area.
These considerations have become central to many later classifications but usually as one part of a more complex set of classification criteria.

Classification of Industrial Minerals and Rocks

End-Use Classifications
It is a common saying in the industrial minerals and rocks sector that
exploration begins with markets (Coope 1982). This highlights the
essential importance of understanding that the mineral or rock has
value only if there is a customer willing and able to pay for it. Minerals are, however, capable of being utilized in many different end
uses; limestone, for example, can provide more than 100 separate
products that are used in very different applications. Equally, some
consuming industries require a suite of different industrial minerals,
each of which alone would not meet the needs of the manufacturing
process. For these reasons, many classifications have concentrated
on either the end uses for minerals and relationships between them,
or combined end uses with other important parameters of the industrial minerals and rocks industry.
Following the work of Bates (1959) and Wright and Burnett
(1962), Fisher (1969) conducted a detailed analysis and defined six
major end-use groupings that were characterized by variation in
unit value, production volume, and associated parameters:
1. Bulk construction and building materials
2. Bulk ceramic raw material (in addition to lime and diversified
industry raw materials or products)
3. Specialty building products and principal refractories
4. Major industrial chemicals and fertilizer raw materials
5. Industrial minerals and rocks
6. Specialty-grade and precious minerals and rocks
For each group, Fisher also presented a series of graphs showing the
typical levels of capital and plant cost, place value, resource spread,
enrichment ratios, and fiscal treatment, based on deposits and companies in the United States. Although the groupings are defined on end
uses, this represents one of the earliest and most rigorous attempts at
a multifaceted classification for industrial minerals and rocks.
In a major review of nonmetallic mineral deposit assessment
criteria, Lorenz (1991) produced a detailed tabulation of commodity
uses in some 38 products or intermediate products. Highley (1994)
adopted a more straightforward graphical attempt to illustrate important sectors with a hierarchical chart of major end users. Chang
(2002) also produced an account of the industrial processes and end
uses for the main industrial minerals and rocks and noted that they
could be allocated into 16 groupings based on their function or final
product.
Although not an attempt at a rigorous classification, the end
uses for ground (filler and extender) minerals are examined from a
formulators viewpoint in Ciullo (1996). Although this represents
only a section of both consuming industries and industrial minerals
and rocks, it provides a useful way of examining the diverse roles
that different minerals play in products and their ability to substitute for each other.
Economic
As part of their objective to inform Californians about their states
geology, mineral deposits, and general usefulness of minerals and
rocks, Wright and Burnett (1962) proposed a threefold commercial classification of industrial minerals and rocks. Based on unit
price and production volumes, the groups were
1. Low pricelarge volume: materials used in construction such
as aggregates, gypsum, and common clay
2. High pricehigh volume: borates, potash, and salt
3. High pricelow volume: barite, kyanite, beryl, mica, and talc
Each group was also identified as having a number of common features in terms of their deposit size, distribution, location, mining
methods, and treatment.

Table 1. Industrial minerals and rocks classification based on end

use and genetic subdivision
Aspect

Group 1

Group 2

Bulk

Large

Small

Unit value

Low

High

Place value

High

Low

Imports and exports

Few

Many

Distribution

Widespread

Restricted

Geology

Simple

Complex

Processing

Simple

Complex

Industrial Rocks

Industrial Minerals

Igneous Rocks

Igneous Minerals

Basalt and diabase

Beryl

Granite

Feldspar

Perlite

Lithium minerals

Pumice and
pumicite

Mica
Nepheline syenite

Metamorphic Rocks

Vein and Replacement Minerals

Marble

Barite

Slate

Fluorspar
Magnesite

Sedimentary Rocks

Quartz crystal

Clay

Metamorphic Minerals

Gypsum

Asbestos

Limestone and
dolomite

Graphite
Talc

Phosphate rock

Vermiculite

Salt

Sedimentary Minerals and Sulfur

Sand and gravel

Borates

Sandstone

Diamond
Diatomite
Nitrates
Potash minerals
Sodium minerals
Sulfur

Adapted from Bates 1969.

Bates (1969) developed his own twofold subdivision based on

an analysis of similar high and low unit-value commodities. This
also involved examining the bulk, place value, imports and exports,
and distribution and geological or processing complexity that typified each group. He concluded that because most industrial minerals fell into the high unit-value group, while industrial rocks mainly
fell in the low unit-value group, these should form the basis of a
simple classification. In this scheme, rock salt is regarded as a rock,
while potash a minerala slightly arbitrary attribution that fits better with the typical characteristics of other commodities within each
group (Table 1).
From a systematic economic perspective, Noetstaller (1988)
produced a highly illuminating analysis of the industrial minerals
and rocks sector in his report for the World Bank. Although again
not principally for classification purposes, the lists and graphs produced for ranking and economic comparisons offer much insight
into the ranges and clustering of industrial minerals and rocks commodities under many economic, trade, technical, and even geological parameters. Examples include commodity lists by unit value,
concentration of production in certain countries, the proportion of
each commoditys production that is traded internationally, and a

10

Industrial Minerals and Rocks

contrast of commodity production and consumption between the

developing and developed world. An update of this World Bank
report would be of great service to the industry.
Hybrid and Combined Methods
Bates (1960, 1969) produced a combined end-use and genetic classification incorporating a simple initial division into industrial
rocks or industrial minerals, with duplicated geological subdivisions denoting the origin within each (see Table 1).
To attempt to relate geological and economic factors, Dunn
(1973) developed a matrix classification in the form of a chart with
one axis as uses and processes, and the other as rock types and minerals. The matrix incorporates the split by importance of either
physical or chemical property (similar to Kline 1970), with 23 general end-use subdivisions, against which are indicated specific
rocks or minerals used and their geological origins (similar to Bates
1969). The main strength of this chart was to visually highlight the
versatility of some rock or mineral products, the geological environments that provided a range of economically interesting products, and the end uses that exploit many alternative or
complementary mineral raw materials.
Kuzvart (1984) undertook a thorough comparison of different
principles on which classifications have been constructed. He
favored a classification system based on a combination of genetic,
end-use, and economic aspects of industrial minerals. This was
achieved despite the observation that an understanding of the genesis, end uses, and economics of deposits develops continually,
requiring frequent revision of a classification based on these factors. He did, however, organize his work to encompass the twofold
economic classification of Bates (1969), with an alphabetic subdivision of commodities supplemented by separate chapters addressing genetic, prospecting, and technological factors.
As a tool to assist in teaching about industrial minerals and
rocks, Smith (1999) developed a classification that defined seven
groups of commodities based on the relative importance of physical
and chemical applications or a combination of the two. The classification is constructed using a matrix of commodities and uses that
are grouped according to application. Clustering of commodities
reveals the following groupings:
1. Principal abrasivesdiamond, alumina, garnet, and pumice
2. Principal refractoriespyrophyllite, sillimanite group, magnesite, and graphite
3. Principal fillerswollastonite, titanium minerals, mica, barite,
and iron oxide
4. Principal physical and chemical mineralsfeldspar and zeolite
5. Mixed-application physical mineralssilica, perlite, clay, and
talc
6. Principal chemical mineralsphosphate, salt, and sulfur
7. Mixed-application physical and chemical mineralsolivine,
chromite, fluorspar, gypsum, and limestone
The matrix was also supplemented by a schematic representation of the groupings in the form of a set of intersecting circles.
Other Classifications
Industrial minerals are included and subdivided in all manner of
other classifications, from depletion allowances to tax rates, under
import duties and Bureau of Statistics classifications, and in a multitude of economic categories. These generally do little to illuminate industrial minerals and rocks as a group and will not be
considered in any further detail here.

LIMITATION OF THESE APPROACHES

To exploit an industrial mineral deposit successfully, all factors need
to be considered, including deposit location, quality, processing
amenability, other essential raw materials, power, infrastructure,
human resources, competition, marketing, packaging, transportation, technical support, prices, and contractual agreements. It is
therefore unreasonable to expect any classification scheme to
address the full range of factors that are intrinsic to or affect each
commodity or grouping. The industry is dynamic; commodities rise
and fall as new applications develop or cheaper and better alternatives surface. Technological advances improve bottom-line performance. A classification system must adapt to these changes. A
robust classification system must address the geological, compositional, economic, and end-use properties of each commodity.

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