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CE 202: Civil Engineering Materials

Jan. May, 2015


ME 201: Mechanics of Solids I
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Transformation of Stress in 2-D
Stresses on an inclined plane in a 1-d loading case

P
P

Fig. 1(c)
(Elevation)
Fig. 1(a)

P
P

Fig. 1(d)

P
Fig. 1(b)

Consider a simple 1-d tensile loading case in which a specimen is subjected to a force P along
its axial direction. Let the specimen have a rectangular cross-section. (Fig. 1(a)). On previous
occasions we imagined cutting this specimen with a plane perpendicular to its axis. (Fig. 1(b)).
Equilibrium requires that there should be an internal force P on the new surface created by the cut.
(Fig. 1(b)). Assuming that this internal force is uniformly distributed over the cross-section we

express the stress on the surface as = where A is the area of the cross-section. (Fig. 1(c)).
Even though stress is distributed over the entire cross-section, very often we use a single arrow to
indicate it (with the understanding that stress is acting over the entire section). (Fig. 1(d)).
Now consider a cut by an inclined plane. (Fig. 2(a,b)). The orientation of the plane is indicated
by the angle that the normal to the plane makes with the axial direction. This is denoted by .
Even in this case equilibrium requires that an internal force P should exist on the new surface. This
internal force is horizontal; it is not normal to the surface. For convenience we resolve this internal
force in to a component normal to the surface (Fn) and a component tangential to the surface. (Fs).
(see Fig. 2(c)). [Note: a force tangential to a surface is called a shear force. Hence the subscript s].
Let A denote the area of the inclined section. We can easily see that = cos . Normal
component of the internal force Fn is distributed over the area of the section. If we assume that it is

uniformly distributed we can say there will be a normal stress = .

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Fn

Fs

Fig. 2(c): Inclined cut; Internal force


resolved along normal &
tangential directions

P
(Elevation)
Fig. 2(a)

P
P

Fig. 2(d): Inclined cut;


Stresses along normal
& tangential directions

P
Fig. 2(b): Inclined cut; Internal force P

Similarly if we assume that Fs is uniformly distributed over the area of the section we can say there

will be a shear stress = . (Fig. 2(d)). Let us estimate the magnitudes of these stress
components.

cos

=
=
cos2 =
1 + cos 2

2
cos

sin

=
=
cos sin =
sin 2

2
cos

What this demonstrates is that


on an inclined plane, in general,
there will be a normal stress and
a shear stress. Their magnitudes
change when the inclination
changes. Fig 3 shows this
variation when changes from
0 to 90. Shear stress is
maximum on a plane inclined at
/4 (i.e. 45).
At the same point when we
consider different planes the
stress components are different.

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stress

Fig. 3

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2-D stress system: Consider the element shown in Fig. 4(a). There are no stresses on the top and
the bottom surfaces; but on the four sides stresses are present. Since all the stresses are acting on
one plane this kind of stress system is called a 2-D plane stress system. We will refer to them
simply as 2-D stress systems. There are many practical situations where this type of stress systems
occur. For example, beams, beam-columns, thin-walled pressure vessels, 1-D members subjected
to torsion and axial forces etc.
A general 2-D stress system with respect to x-y coordinates is shown if Fig. 4(b). Though
not shown in this figure the element has a thickness. The lines on the four sides actually represent
four faces. Stresses are acting on these faces. The normal stresses are denoted by with a subscript
indicating its direction. The shear stresses on the two mutually perpendicular planes are
complementary and are therefore equal in magnitude. Each of them is denoted by xy. Carefully
note the direction of the normal stresses and the shear stresses.
y

xy
xy
x

x
xy
xy

Fig. 4(b): Notation and sign


convention for 2-D stress system
(with respect to x-y cords)

Fig. 4(a): A 2-D stress system

Stresses on an inclined plane (in 2-D)

outward
A
normal
Assume that the stress components
with respect to x-y axes (i.e. x, y ,

and xy ) are known. Consider an


x

inclined plane whose outward normal

makes an angle (measured


Inclined
xy
C
B
plane
counterclockwise +ve) with the x-axis.
xy
(Fig. 5). Let the stress components on
Fig. 6
y
this inclined plane be: normal stress
Fig. 5
(tensile +ve) and shear stress
(clockwise +ve). Consider a triangular element with sides parallel to the x, y axes and the inclined
plane. (Fig. 6). Let the thickness of this element be t. Write equations of equilibrium for the
forces acting on the three sides of this element.

t . AC .

t . AB x cos xy sin t . BC y sin xy cos

Dividing this by ( t.AC ) and noting that

AB
BC
cos ;
sin , we get:
AC
AC

x cos 2 y sin 2 2 xy cos sin


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( A.1)
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Similarly,
,
t . AC .

t . AB x sin xy cos t . BC y cos xy sin

( x y ) cos sin xy (cos 2 sin 2 )

( A.2)

Using the identities cos 2 (1 cos 2 ) / 2 ; sin 2 (1 cos 2 ) / 2 ; 2 sin cos sin 2
we can rewrite equations (A) as:

1
2

1
2

( x y )

1
2

( x y ) cos 2

( x y ) sin 2

xy sin 2

( B.1)

xy cos 2

( B.2)

Equation sets (A) or (B) can be used to find the stress components on the inclined plane - and in terms of x, y , xy , and . This process is called the transformation of stress (to a new plane)
and the equations (A) and (B) are referred to as the equations of stress transformation.

Ex. 1: Fig. 7 shows a 2-D stress element and an


inclined plane at a point in a stressed material.
(a) What are the values of the stress components
x , y , and xy ? (Pay attention to the
directions).
(b) Determine the values of the normal stress, ,
and the shear stress, , on the inclined plane.
Show the directions of and on a clear
sketch.

2 MPa
y

3 MPa
6 MPa
300

x
Fig. 7

For some purposes it is useful to express (B) in yet another form. Define a parameter R and an
angle ( - ) by:

2
xy

x y

2

Then, equation (B.1)

Similarly, (B.2)
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sin 2

xy
R

; cos 2

( x y )
2R

(C )

xy
( x y )

( x y ) R
cos 2
sin 2
R
2R

1
2

1
2

( x y ) R cos 2 cos 2 sin 2 sin 2

1
2

( x y ) R cos 2( )

R sin 2 ( )
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( D.1)

( D.2)
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(x+y) + R
(x+y)
(x+y) - R

+R
0
-R

+ /4

+ /2

+ 3/4

Fig. 8: Variation of and with (constructed using equation set (D))

Form (D) is useful when we want to examine the variation of and when is changed. The
variation of and are shown in Fig. 8.
We note that both and vary sinusoidally. The maximum value of occurs when
cos 2( ) 1; i.e. when ; and the minimum value of occurs when cos 2( ) 1;
i.e. when

. This shows that reaches its maximum and minimum values on two
2
mutually perpendicular planes at and . In both these cases sin 2( ) 0 ;
2
hence 0 . In fact 0 only on these two planes. This is true for any 2-D stress system.
These two planes on which shear stress becomes zero
are called the principal planes, and their directions
the principal directions. The values of the normal
stress on these planes are called the principal
stresses. Usually the (algebraically) larger of the two
principal stresses is denoted by 1 and the smaller
2 (i.e. 1 2 ). It is clear that
by
1 12 ( x y ) R and

2 12 ( x y ) R . Fig. 9 (to be
completed by you) is intended to show the principal
directions and planes with respect to the x-y axes.

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Fig. 9: Principal directions and planes


(To be completed by you)

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Shear stress is zero on the principal planes; it assumes its largest value of R when
sin 2( ) 1. That is when 2( ) / 2 and 2( ) 3 / 2. which means
/ 4 and 3 / 4. These directions are bisecting the angles between the principal
directions. These directions also need to be shown in Fig. 9.

Ex. 2: Again consider the 2-D stress system shown in Fig. 7 above. Determine the principal
stresses and the corresponding principal directions at the point concerned.

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Transformation of Stresses in 2-D: Mohrs circle construction


Equations (D.1) and (D.2) can be squared and added to yield

1
2

( x y )

R2

(E)

This shows that if we mark the points given by pairs of values of and corresponding to
different inclined planes on a ( vs. ) plot all such points would lie on a circle with radius R and
centre at C { = 12 ( x y ) , = 0 }. See Fig.10. This circle is referred to as the Mohrs circle
for 2-D stress. The values of and corresponding to the two coordinate planes x and y (i.e.
planes with x-axis and y-axis as the normals respectively) can be obtained from (A.1) and (A.2) by
setting = 0 and = /2:
On x-plane (i.e. plane with x-axis as
normal): X ( x ; xy ).
[Note the minus sign in xy . Can
you explain why it is so?]

( y , xy ) Y

On y-plane (i.e. plane with y-axis as


normal): Y ( y ; xy ) .
These two points, X and Y, also are
shown in Fig. 6. Note that the mid-point
of the line XY coincides with the centre
of the circle. Therefore XY forms a
diagonal of the circle. With this
observation we can construct the Mohrs
circle, if we know the values of the stress
components with respect to a Cartesian
coordinate system (x-y) i.e.
x , y , and xy . The steps are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

P (,)

2( )

X ( x , xy )
1
2

( x y )

Fig. 10. Mohrs Circle for 2-D Stress

Mark along the horizontal axis and along the vertical axis.
On this plot mark the points X (x, -xy) and Y (y, xy).
Join XY. Mark the intersection of XY and the horizontal axis as the centre of the circle, C.
Construct the circle with XY as a diagonal [or, equivalently, the circle with C as the centre and
CX (=CY) as the radius]. This is the Mohrs circle for stress.

Setting 0 and / 2 respectively in (D.1) and (D.2) the co-ordinates of X and Y can also
be written as:
X { 12 ( x y ) R cos 2 ; R sin 2 },
Y { 12 ( x y ) R cos 2 ; R sin 2 }.
From this we can see that the radius CX makes a clockwise angle of - 2 (i.e. 2 in the
anticlockwise direction) with the x-axis.
Let P be the point corresponding to (,) on a plane inclined at an angle . This point P also is
plotted in Fig. 5. Inspection of equations (D.1) and (D.2) which give the values of and shows
that the radius CP should make a clockwise angle of 2( ) with the x-axis. Considering the
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orientations of CX and CP it is clear that the radius CP makes a clockwise angle of 2 with the
radius CX. In other words, the radius CP can be obtained by rotating CX by an angle of 2 (in
the same direction as that used to measure ). This conclusion enables us to locate, on the Mohrs
circle, the point P corresponding to a plane of any inclination .
To determine the stress components (,) on a plane inclined at an angle , rotate the radius CX by
2 to get the radius CP. The tip of this radius, P, has coordinates (,).
Carefully note that for a rotation on the physical plane by , the radius on the Mohrs circle rotates
by 2 (i.e. twice the rotation on the physical plane).
At = 0, P coincides with X. As increases P moves along the circumference of the Mohrs
circle. There is a point on the Mohrs circle corresponding to any value of , and there is a (i.e.
a plane with inclination ) corresponding to any point on the Mohrs circle. Now we can make the
following observations:

x y
xy2 .
(a) The radius of the Mohrs circle is R
2

(b) The normal stress varies between two limits. The largest normal stress, denoted by 1 ,
occurs on the plane with . On this plane the shear stress = 0. The smallest normal
2

stress, denoted by 2 , occurs on the plane with . On this plane also shear
2
stress = 0. These two mutually perpendicular planes are called the principal planes, and
their directions the principal directions. The corresponding normal stresses are called the
principal stresses. ( 1 is called the major principal stress while 2 is called the minor
principal stress).
(c) Shear stress varies between +R (at 4 ) and R (at 3 4 ) . The largest
magnitude of shear stress is R.
This geometric interpretation of the transformation of stress in 2-D, in terms of the Mohrs circle,
can be used to obtain stresses on inclined planes when the stress components with respect to a
Cartesian coordinate system (x-y) are known. Practically this can be done in two ways.
1) Plot the Mohrs circle to scale and measure the required quantities on this plot.
2) Sketch the Mohrs circle and use geometry and trigonometry to calculate the required
quantities.
In addition, the Mohrs circle construction shows clearly the pattern of variation of stress
components as the inclination is varied.
Ex. 3: Again consider Ex. 1 and Ex. 2. This time solve them using the Mohrs circle construction.

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Special cases of 2-D stress

Case 1: (Fig. 11).


1-D stress. x 0 ; y xy 0 .
Principal stresses are:
1 0 on 0 ; 2 0 on 2

Case 2: (Fig. 12)


Pure shear x y 0; xy 0

x
Fig. 11: 1-D stress

Mohrs circle
stress

0
0

Principal stresses are:


1 0 on plane 45
2 0 on plane 45

- 0
Mohrs circle
stress

Fig. 12: pure shear

Case 3: (Fig. 13)


x 0 ; xy 0 ; y 0

1, 2

0, xy

xy

Principal stresses are:

x xy2
2
2
2

- 0

Fig. 13: x 0 ; xy 0 ; y 0

, xy

Mohrs circle
stress

NS
April 06, 2015.

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Jan. May, 2015

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