Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
UNIT-7
Wireless Digital Modulation Techniques & Hardware
Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this unit, the student should be able to
This unit deals more deeply into the air interface of wireless mobile systems.
Discuss the general characteristic of wire line and fiber-optic transmission lines.
Modern digital encoding techniques with their inherent spectrum efficiencies and their
ability to mitigate radio channel impairments.
Also presents system enhancement techniques such as antenna diversity and rake
receivers will be used to improve wireless system quality and transmission rates.
Explain the basic fundamental concepts of digital modulation technique and their
advantages
Discuss the basic principles behind the operation of ultra-wideband radio technology.
Discuss the typical GSM BSC and RBS hardware found at a modern cell site.
These channels are more reliable channel than the typical wireless radio channel.
It acts like low pass filters, there signal attenuations increases with frequency.
Common types of wire line are unshielded and shielded twisted pair (UTP and STP).
Some applications are used in local-loop connection to the telephone central office,
LAN connectivity, and broad band cable TV service, etc..
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It consists of three layers (core, cladding and outer jacket) and made of glass or
plastics materials.
Advantages are offers very high B.W, Low noise, Safe and secure, Support for High
data rates (Gbps).BER is extremely low. Low cost easy to install and maintain. Etc.
Wave propagation below 2 MHz called ground waves tend to travel on curvature of
the earth surface and lose strength fairly rapidly as the distance it travels.
Wave propagation between 2 and 30 MHz propagate as sky waves. Bouncing back
from the ionosphere layers.
Wave propagation effects at UHF and above are Reflection, Scattering, Diffraction
and Other factors
Wave propagation takes Multipath propagation during non- line off sight(NLOS)
between the transmitter and receiver
For Indoor and outdoor propagation examples shown in Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-2
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Path-loss models are used to predict the average received signal strength at receiver for
given transmitted power at a distance d.
This model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver
have a clear line-of-sight path between them. Examples
o Satellite communication
o Microwave line-of-sight radio link
Pt G t G r
( 4 ) d L
2
Limitation: It does not give accurate result when applied to mobile radio environments.
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Example 1 :**(Dec-210-10M)
What is the received power in dBm for a signal in free space with a transmitting power of
1W, frequency of 1900 MHz, and distance from the receiver of 1000 meters if the
transmitting antenna and receiving antenna both use dipole antennas with gains of
approximately 1.6? What is the path loss in dB?
Solutions:
o Given Pt = 1 W, f = 1900MHz, d = 1000 mts, Gt = Gr = 1.6, Path Loss PL in db = ?
Pr in dBm = ?
o Use Friis equation
Pr = Pt Gt Gr 2 /(4)2 d2
where = c/f = 3 108 / 1900 106
= 0. 15789 mts
o Pr in watts = 1 1.6 1.6 (0.15789)2/ (4)2 ( 1000)2 = 4.042 10-10 W or 4042nW
o Pr in dBW = 10 log (0. 4042 10-9) = - 93.934 dB
o Pr in dBm = 10 log (0. 4042 10-9 103 ) = - 63.934 dBm.
o Path Loss PL in watt = Pt Pr = 1 - 0. 4042 10-9 1W
o Path Loss PL in dB = 10 log(1) = 0 db
o Path Loss PL in dBm = 10 log(1 103) = + 30dBm
Find the received power at distance of 1km for a transmitting 900MHz.Assume transmitting
and receiving antenna gains as zero dB.
Solutions:
o Given Pt is not given, assume = 1 W, f= 900MHz, d = 1km, Gt = Gr = 0 dB or 1 W
Find Pr =? & Path Loss PL in db and dBm =?
o Use Friis equation
Pr = Pt Gt Gr 2 /(4)2 d2
where = c/f = 3 108 / 900 106
= 1/3 mts
o Pr in watts = 1 11 (1/3)2/ (4)2 ( 1000)2 = 7.036 10-10 W or 0.7036 nW
o Pr in dBW = 10 log (0.7036 10-9) = - 91.52 dB
o Pr in dBm = 10 log (0.7036 10-9 103 ) = - 61.526 dBm.
o Path Loss PL in watt = Pt Pr = 1 - 0.7036 10-9 1W
o Path Loss PL in dB = 10 log(1) = 0 db
o Path Loss PL in dBm = 10 log(1 103) = + 30dBm
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It is reasonably accurate model for predicting large scale signal strength over distance of
several kilometers
In this Model that considers both the direct (LOS) path and a ground reflected path
between transmitter and the receiver.
Where ht and hr are the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas.
Low angle of incidence allows the earth to act as a reflector .The reflected signal is 180
out of phase. Pr 1/d4
The approximation equation for path loss using two ray model can be written as
Path Loss = 40 log d (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht+ 20 log hr)
2. Okumura Model:
This model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas.
It is the simplest & best for in terms of path loss accuracy in cluttered mobile
environment
Common standard deviations between predicted & measured path loss 10dB to 14dB
Useful for
o Frequencies ranging from 150 MHz-1920 MHz
o Frequencies can be extrapolated to 3GHz
o Distances from 1km to 100km
o Base station antenna heights from 30m-1000m
This model is fairly good in urban and suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas.
Disadvantage with this model is its slow response to rapid changes in terrain.
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3. Hata Model:
It is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura and is
valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz.
This model has been proven to be accurate and is used by computer simulation tools.
Hata presented the urban area propagation loss as standard formula and supplied
correction equations for application to other situations.
The predictions of the Hata model compare very closely with the original Okumura
model, as long as d exceeds 1 km.
Hata model is well suited for large cell mobile systems, but not PCS which have cell size
on the order of 1 km radius.
Figure: 7.3 Typical Rayleigh fading for mobile radio in the UHF range
o Doppler Effect: There is a change in the frequency due to move in transmitter or
receiver called Doppler Effect. It is due to The Doppler effect and rapidly changing
multipath propagation due to the motion of the mobile itself. Multipath delay spread
leads to both time dispersion and frequency selective fading in the received signal.
Doppler Effect leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading. Typically both
fading effects modeled as Rayleigh fading, which is shown in figure 7.3
Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327
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Block codes
Convolutional codes
Turbo codes
Speech coders
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1. Block codes:
Block codes used to correct errors that might have occurred during transmission are
known as Forward Error Correction (FEC) codes.
In block coding, divide message into blocks, each of k bits, called datawords and add r
redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks
are called codeword (See figure below).
Depending upon the type of coding level employed these schemes can both detect and
correct limited numbers of errors.
To transmit voice over a GSM traffic channel a limited number of parity bits are added to
a block of 50bits.
To transmit a message over the control channel, GSM takes a block of 184bits and adds
40 parity check bits to generate a 224bit code word.
2. Convolutional codes:**(July-2013-6M)
Convolutional codes are applied in applications that require good performance with low
implementation complexity. They operate on code streams (not in blocks)
Input depends not only on current set of k input bits, but also on past input.
The number of bits which input depends on is called the "constraint length" K.
The ratio of input bits to output bits from the encoder is known as the code rate R of the
encoder.
In practice, the use of convolutional encoders provides better FEC capabilities than
available from block codes.
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The output bit steams of the two convolutional encoders are multiplexed together and
repeated to form the final code symbols.
For cdma2000, Rate 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 and 1/5 turbo encoders are employed instead of
convolutional encoders for various higher-bit transfer rates and radio configurations.
4. Speech coders:
The speech coders used for both GSM and CDMA wireless system.
Speech coder take 20-msec segments and process it into lower-bit-rate digitally encoded
speech in preparation for its transmission over the air interface
In GSM systems, speech may be transmitted at Full rate, Half rate, Enhanced full rate
In CDMA systems, the speech coders may operate at either 9.6 or 14.4 kbps.
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It is a technique used by mobile wireless systems to combat the effects of bit errors
introduced during transmission of frames.
The basic idea here is that the error control code used by the system may be able to
correct one bit error out of a block of 8 bits. However, it is not able to correct a burst of
say six errors within the 8 bit block.
If the bits of the block can be interleaved with the bits from other blocks, then the burst
of six errors can be spread out over six other blocks and the ECC can correct each of the
single bit errors in each of the six blocks.
o The coding process consists of the following steps as indicated by figure 7.6.
o The Coding process consists of following steps:
o The 260 bits delivered by the full-rate coder are divided into
o The 50 most important bits of class 1(class 1a bits) are protected by 3 parity bits as
shown in the second row of figure 7.6
Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327
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Figure 7.6: Detail steps of GSM channel encoding for voice traffic
o The 78 class 2 bits are separated from the class 1a, 1b, and CRC bits.
o These Class 1 bits are now partitioned and reordered as shown in row three of the figure
and applied to an R = 1/2 convolutional encoder.
o The outputs of the bits from the encoder are combined with the 78 Class 2 bits to yield a
456-bit packet.
o The 456 coded bits are now interleaved over eight half subframes of 57 bits as shown by
Figure 7-7.
o Each group of 57 bits goes into a half subframe of a normal traffic burst.
o Another level of interleaving occurs as the user data is prepared to be transmitted over
the air interface.
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o The user's 456-bit, 20-msec frame consisting of eight subframes is interleaved with
other user's data over a sequence of normal traffic bursts.
o Figure below depicts this process. If a severe fade occurs, its effect will be spread out
over the traffic of several users.
o At the receiver, a deinterleaving process must be performed to reorder the incoming
bursts of user traffic.
Suitable modulation Techniques are used for wireless communication, since wireless
channels are more random, noisy and lot of B.W scarcity.
Spectral efficient modulation schemes are required to meet the required data rates.
Basic modulation schemes like ASK, FSK, PSK ,MSK are not sufficient to meet the
required design goal, Hence modern modulation scheme like n-PSK, n-QAM, OFDM etc
are consider.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits
(Called dibits) are modulated at once; selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts
(/4, 3 /4, 5 /4, 7 /4).
QPSK perform by changing the phase of the In-phase (I) carrier from 0 to 180 and the
Quadrature-phase (Q) carrier between 90 and 270.
This is used to indicate the four states of a 2-bit binary code. Each state of these carriers
is referred to as a Symbol.
Figure 8.12 shows the Truth table and constellation diagram for 4-PSK (QPSK). Typical
generic QPSK transmitter shown in figure 7.8
Advantages of QPSK: Spectra efficient modulation techniques. Increased data rate with
same Band Width, since symbol time remains constant and only the number of encoded
bits per symbol increases.
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It encodes information in both the phase and amplitude of the transmitted signal.
For pass band modulation schemes, as the value of level of modulation n increases
and the C/I ratio for the channel remains constant, bit error rate will predictably
increase.
64-QAM is not yet used for any commercial wireless systems due to its unacceptable
bit error rate.
It is however specified for use in 5-ghz band for wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11a) and
also for wireless MANs (IEEE 802.16).
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The 2G digital GSM standard use Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK) (a form of FSK).
GMSK mitigate adjacent channel interference by reducing the side lobe power of the
transmitted RF signals.
Depending upon the type of digital traffic sent over the radio link, Gaussian filters with
different bandwidth characteristics perform better than others.
GMSK is a popular air interface modulation scheme for 2G wireless radio systems.
Further enhancements to basic QPSK modulation are possible yielding several QPSK
variants. They are
o Offset QPSK or OQPSK: It reduce fluctuations in the modulated signal amplitude and
the amount of possible phase shift between different symbols. QPSK is used by IS-95
CDMA for the modulation of the forward channels and OQPSK is used for the
modulation of the CDMA reverse channels. CDMA2000 also uses these same basic
modulation schemes but adds 8-PSK and 16-QAM.
o
/4-QPSK: This form of QPSK restricts the phase shift between different symbols to
either /4 or 3/4. Figure 8-14 shows the constellation diagram of the possible
symbols of /4-QPSK.
o The above diagram consists of two QPSK constellations overlaid on one another with
a phase shift. It can be seen from the diagram, the transition from one symbol to
another (indicated by the dotted lines) never goes through zero amplitude.
o Therefore, /4-QPSK, like OQPSK, also reduces signal amplitude fluctuations
significantly and thus reduces the magnitude of possible side lobe regeneration.
o /4-QPSK performs better than OQPSK in the presence of multipath spreading and
fading.
Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327
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OFDM is a form of multi-carrier, multi-symbol, multi-rate FDM in which the user gets to
use all the FDM channels.
It is a specialized FDM; in which all the carrier signals are orthogonal to each other.
This technique gaining in popularity was chosen for the IEEE 802.11a WLAN.
OFDM Implementation:
o Here instead of attempting N symbols per second over a single forward carrier
link, M carriers (the multicarriers) are used to transmit N/M symbols per second,
which ends up yielding the same data transfer rate, N.
o The frequency spacing between each carrier is chosen to satisfy the orthogonality
criteria.
o For each carrier, a multisymbol digital modulation scheme is used to transmit
more than 1 bit per symbol time. Typically, some form of n-PSK or n-QAM would
be used for this purpose.
Another feature of an OFDM system provides rate adaptation based on C/I ratio.
OFDM advantages
o Can easily adapt to severe channel conditions without complex time-domain
equalization.
o Robust against narrow-band co-channel interference.
o Robust against intersymbol interference (ISI) and fading caused by multipath
propagation.
o High spectral efficiency as compared to conventional modulation schemes, spread
spectrum, etc.
o Efficient implementation using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
o Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors.
o Tuned sub-channel receiver filters are not required (unlike conventional FDM).
Disadvantages of OFDM
o Sensitive to Doppler shift.
o Sensitive to frequency synchronization problems.
o High peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR), requiring linear transmitter circuitry,
which suffers from poor power efficiency.
o Loss of efficiency caused by cyclic prefix/guard interval.
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As the transmitter implements the hopping sequence the effective signal bandwidth
increases to include all of the utilized carrier frequencies. The use of FHSS does not provide
any improvement in a noise-free environment.
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Here a spreading code is applied to the
.baseband
data stream at the transmitter and the same spreading code is applied to the
received signal to perform demodulation. The number of chips per second now
determines the basic bandwidth of the transmitted signal. DSSS systems improved
noise immunity provided by the increased signal bandwidth. Special orthogonal Walsh
codes are used as part of the spreading process. Walsh code property is increase the
system capacity in a limited amount of frequency spectrum.
Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327
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UWB radios are extremely wideband radios with very high potential data rates.
This technology is extremely suited for the short range applications, typically 1-10mts.
These systems can operate either at baseband or at a carrier frequency in the 3.6 to 10.1
GHz range.
Basic principle: Diversity is achieved by creating several independent paths between the
transmitter and receiver
Each path fades independently, hence, there is a low chance they fade together
Receiver combines the received signal for the several paths using some method
It is achieved by using multiple transmit and multiple receive antennas with a minimum
separation of /2 between neighboring antennas.
Multiple Tx: Split power over several Tx antennas. More antennas = more power split
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Multiple Rx: Collect signal by several Rx antennas. More antennas = more collected
power.
From the above figure, both space and polarization diversity can be used by the
appropriate position of the antenna units. The antenna feed multiple receivers with
strongest received signal being used by the system.
Polarization diversity is used to counter the change in EM signal polarization that can be
induced by the environment during reflection, scattering and so on.
Smart Antennas:
This technique to improve system performance makes use of phased array or beam
steering antenna system.
Beam steering antenna can use narrow pencil beam patterns to communicate with a
subset of the users within the cell.
The narrow beam shown in figure 7.9 may be pointed the users always their moving
direction through the use of sophisticated antenna technology. It will increase the
system performance
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It recognizing that multiple signals will arrive at a receiver over the mobile radio
channel.
It using several "sub-receivers" called fingers, that is, several correlators each
assigned to a different multipath component.
Each finger independently decodes a single multipath component; at a later stage the
contribution of all fingers are combined in order to make the most use of the
different transmission characteristics of each transmission path.
This could very well result in higher S/I ratio in a multipath environment.
The rake receiver is so named because it reminds the function of a garden rake, each
finger collecting symbol energy similarly to how tines on a rake collect leaves.
Figure 7.10 for a block diagram of the structure of a typical RAKE receiver used for
CDMA
Few RAKE taps possess the ability to dynamically adjust the taps (move the rake fingers)
in response to a search algorithm used to locate multipath components.
These smart receivers standard diversity combining techniques to provide a more
reliable receiver output and therefore improve system performance.
There are potential problems with this type of receiver that are tied to the multipath
delay and spread introduced to the radio link.
The multipath components that can be resolved have a time dependence that is
proportional to the inverse of the system chip rate and the system-tolerated multipath
spread is proportional to the inverse of the symbol time.
For the IS-95 CDMA system, using a chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps allows the resolution of
multipath components of the order of approximately 1/1.2288 Mcps or 800 ns by the
RAKE receiver.
Typical multipath spreads for outdoor is tens of microseconds and for indoor is few ns.
In an indoor environment the CDMA RAKE receivers would not able to resolve multipath
components.
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This section mainly deals with actual hardware implementation of Base Station
System (BSS) of GSM system, which includes
1. Base Station Controller(BSC )
2. Radio Base Station (RBS).
The typical block diagram of BSC with major subsystems as shown in figure 7.11
Specific BSC parts which perform the function of interfacing the RBS to the MSC and
PDN, They are
1. MUX And Group Switch Unit: It can provide interconnections to the MSC, PDN, or RBSs. A
leased T1 carrier circuits connects the MSC to the BSC and from the BSC to the RBS with
rate of 64 kbps PCM voice signals and call control (LAPD) information messages. The T1
signal carrying twenty-four DSO, 64 kbps voice signals must be demultiplexed at the BSC
to provide to the group switch. Once the voice signals from the PSTN have been
transcoded, they are multiplexed together and forwarded to the proper RBS over T1
facilities at a much lower bit rate.
Prof. Suresha V, Dept. Of E&C E. K V G C E, Sullia, D.K-574 327
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2. Group Switch: It is used to cross-connect 64-kbps timeslots, placing a call onto the
correct timeslot on the correct communications link to the correct RBS. The
subrate switch is able to switch at submultiples of 64 kbps (i.e., n x 8 kbps).
3. Transcoder Rate Adaptation Unit: It performs the translation of 64 kbps PCM into
digitally encoded (vocoded) speech at of 13 kbps (full rate) toward the RBS and
reverses the process toward the MSC.
Half-rate transcoders decode and encode between 64 and 6.5 kbps, with 1.5
kbps added to yield a rate of 8 kbps.
Full-rate and half-rate data calls are rate adapted so that 14.4 kbps becomes
16 kbps and 4.8 kbps becomes 8 kbps.
The new GSM Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) codec defines multiple voice
encoding rates (from 4.75 to 12.2 kbps) depending upon the channel
conditions
4. Packet control Unit(PDU): It resides in the BSC and provides the interface between
the serving support node (SGSN) of the GPRS PLM network and the RBSs for the
transmission of data rate of 16kbps over the air interface.
5. System Control, Power Supply: system control provides control signals for
different events. Power supply unit energizing the functional blocks.
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Low power RBSs are use in micro or Pico cell where they are mounted to interior
walls of malls, on poles, or on the sides of buildings.
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D).Duplex filters: It will use when same antenna performs both transmission and
reception. A typical duplex filter block diagram as shown in figure below
o It consists of two BPFs that only allow the desired signal to pass. These are also used
with tower mounted, low noise amplifier that are used to improve the receiver
sensitivity at the cell site. Typical RBS/antenna configuration will be illustrated (see
Figure below)
o
o In above fig a cell site houses a single RBS with two transceiver and only two
antennas are to be used. It is large, high power omnicell. Here tower mounted, lownoise amplifiers are used.
o
Each transceiver unit receives signals off of both antennas hence providing diversity
and it has set to suitable gain to increase the effective radiated power (ERP) of the
system.
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