Unit 3

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT1

Unit 3 : OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT: Importance, Types of production, Applications, Work study,
Method study and Time study, Work sampling, PMTS, micro-motion study, rating techniques, MTM, Work factor
system, Principles of Ergonomics, Flow process charts, string diagrams and Therbligs.

METHODS OF PRODUCTION
The methods of production can be of the following types:
(1) Intermittent (interrupted) production which includes:
(a) Job production
(b) Batch production
(2) Mass and flow line production
JOB PRODUCTION

In this method of production, every job is different from the other in terms of type, cost,
efforts, consumption of materials, or its specifications. As a result, product design could
consume a lot of time.

The quantity of each job could be small and hence, the large scale economies cannot be
realized.

This method involves special machinery and special training for the labour.

Mechanization and divinization of labour cannot be advantageously employed in view of

the wide differences in specification of each job.

Because of the above reasons, it can be seen that the job-production method is the
costliest.

Examples of products manufactured under job production include: Large turbogenerators, special purpose machines, special heat treatment furnace etc.

BATCH PRODUCTION

Here, all the products manufactured under a batch are similar in terms of type, cost,
efforts, consumption of materials or their specifications.

Though the product design consumes a lot of time, the cost of product design per unit
comes down. The economies of production can be realized relatively better than in job

1Prepared by Prof. T.S.Nageswara Rao, Department of Management Studies, DVR &

Dr HS MIC College of Technology, Kanchikacherla as a teaching notes. Adapted from
various sources.
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Unit 3

production. Thus, when compared to the costs in job production, the cost of production
per unit in batch production could be lower.

In this method, process layout can be advantageously used. Automation and

mechanization may be advantageously employed. This method calls for efficient
maintenance of equipment and production control systems.

Examples of products manufactured under batch production include pharmaceuticals,

readymade garments, sheet-metal presses, paints and many consumer products such as
mineral water bottles etc.

MASS PRODUCTION

This is also called flow production. Here, the production is undertaken on large and
specialized machines and processes.

In mass production, the following factors can be advantageously applied:

(a) Large-scale economies;
(b) Sophisticated material handling systems to minimize the material handling costs;
(c) Work study techniques and sophisticated quality control techniques.
(d) Mass production calls for certain special care.

The production processes have to be carefully monitored as idle machinery results in

wastage of resources.

The plant layout should be designed to suit the requirements of various stages in the
manufacture of the product. Methods, tools and material handling need special
monitoring.

The main advantage of the mass production process is the lowest unit cost of production.

Examples of products manufactured under mass production include products such as

TVs, air conditioners, cars, scooters etc.

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SUMMARY OF METHODS OF PRODUCTION

S No.

Description

Job Production

(1)

Number of units produced

Every time, only one

product or service can
be produced
From
product
to
product, the design
differs

(2)

Design

(3)

Cost per unit

Cost per unit changes

from job to job

(4)

Material/equipment
handling costs

(5)
(6)
(7)

Plant layout
Work In Progress
Time required to set up
machine

(8)

Degree of planning

Every job requires

different
materials
and/or equipment and
hence handling costs
are
likely
to
be
significant
Process type
Likely to be large
Every time job changes,
setting up machines
may
also
change.
Hence, time required
for setting up machines
is more
Moderate degree of
planning is required

(9)

Degree of control

Control needs to be
exercised in a greater
detail

(10)

Accuracy of product quality

Tends to be satisfactory

Batch
Production
Every time, a few,
say 100 or 1000
are produced
From batch to
batch, the design
differs.
Every
batch has identical
products
Cost per unit is
relatively lower
when compared to
job
production.
But changes with
batch to batch
Moderately lower

Mass Production
It is a continuous
production
process
There
is
no
change in design.
All units produced
are based on one
particular design
Cost per unit is
the lowest of all
methods

Significantly
lower

Process type
Likely to be high
Relatively
less
time

Product type
Likely to be less
Once
the
machines are set,
production
continues

Larger degree of
planning is
required
Control needs to
be exercised at
every critical
point in
manufacturing
Likely to be good

Meticulous degree
of planning is
required
Simplified to a
large extent

Likely to be very
high

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WORK STUDY

Work study is the discipline of industrial engineering that uses various techniques to
quantitatively measure or estimate work to increase the amount produced from a given
quantity of resources, by improving the use of existing resources.

In the process, work study establishes the time that a given task would take when
performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance, called the
standard time.

Work study, not only measures but also provides information about the processes
involved.

The primary objective of work study is the elimination or reduction of ineffective

production time. It uses work measurement as the basis to eliminate or reduce the
ineffective use of productive resources.

Properly executed, work study results in improvements in productivity without further

large capital investments.

Work Study is divided into two areas:

(1) Method Study (or) Motion Study, whose purpose is to simplify the job and to
develop better methods of working; and
(2) Work Measurement (or) Time study, whose purpose is to quantitatively measure
work.
METHOD STUDY

Method Study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and reducing costs.
There are six steps in the process of method study: (1) SELECT; (2) RECORD; (3)
EXAMINE; (4) DEVELOP; (5) INSTALL and (6) MAINTAIN.

STEP 1: SELECT

Here, the job be studied is selected. Economic and technical considerations are the basic
criteria to be taken into account while selecting a job for method study.

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Using these as the guidelines, one should first examine bottle-neck operations such as
operations involving movement of material over long distances and operations involving
repetitive tasks.

STEP 2: RECORD

The next step, after selecting the job to be studied, is to record all the facts relating to the
existing job, by direct observation.

Using recording techniques, commonly known as charts and diagrams, the facts are
recorded. The recording may trace the movement of men, material or details of various
processes.

The success of the whole procedure depends upon the accuracy with which facts are
recorded. Records must, therefore, be clear, concise and correct.

STEP 3: EXAMINE
This step aims to: (i) eliminate the activity altogether if it is unnecessary; (ii) combine with other
activities; and (iii) change the sequence of activities so that work delay is reduced and the
activity is simplified to reduce the work content or time consumed.
Here, the following questions are asked:
(1) PURPOSE: What is the purpose of this activity? Why is it necessary? What else could be
done?
(2) PLACE: Where does the activity take place? Why there? Where else could it be done?
(3) SEQUENCE: When does it occur? Why then? When else could it be done?
(4) PERSON: Who carries out the work? Why that person? Who else could do it?
(5) MEANS: How is the purpose achieved? Why that particular way? How else could it be done?
STEP 4: DEVELOP
Based on the questions asked in the examine stage and the subsequent examination, number of
alternatives would emerge. The final alternative, which gives the best answers to the following
questions, is chosen:
(1) PURPOSE: What should be done?
(2) PLACE: Where should it be done?
(3) SEQUENCE: When should it be done?
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(4) PERSON: Who should do it?

(5) MEANS: How should it be done?
STEP 5: INSTALL

After the system is developed, the management is apprised of the costs and benefits of the
new system.

After the management is convinced, the system is installed. The employees are trained in
the running or functioning of the system.

STEP 6: MAINTAIN

The newly installed system is maintained. Periodical preventive maintenance measures

for the equipment and machinery are undertaken. Employees are encouraged to make the
most of the new system.

AREAS OF APPLICATION OF METHOD STUDY

(1) Improved layout of office, working areas of factories.
(2) Improved design of plant and equipment.
(3) Improved use of materials, plant, equipment and manpower.
(4) Most effective handling of material.
(5) Improved flow of work.
(6) Standardization of methods and procedures.
(7) Improved safety standards.
(8) Better working conditions.
WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the work content of a
specified task by determining the time required for carrying out the task at a defined standard of
performance by a qualified worker.
The amount of time that a job is expected to take is expressed as time standard, work standard,
labour standard, production standard or standard time.
The standard time is the amount of time a qualified worker, working at a normal rate of speed,
will require to perform the specified task. It may be expressed as minutes/unit of output or units
of output/hour.

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A qualified worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, possessing
the required intelligence and education, and having acquired the necessary skill and knowledge
to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality.

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BENEFITS OF WORK MEASUREMENT

Work measurement helps:
(1) To develop a basis for comparing alternate methods developed in method study by
establishing the work content in each method;
(2) To prepare realistic work schedules by accurate assessment of human work;
(3) To set standards of performance for labour utilization by establishing labour standards for an
element of work, operation or product under ordinary working conditions;
(4) To compare actual time taken by the worker with the allowed time (standard time) for proper
control of labour;
(5) To assist in estimation of labour cost; and
(6) To provide information related to estimation of tenders, fixation of selling price and
assessment of delivery schedule.
METHODS OF WORK MEASUREMENT
(1) Time Study.
(2) Synthesis Method.
(3) Analytical Estimating Method.
(4) Predetermined Motion Time System. (PMTS)
(5) Work Sampling.
(1) TIME STUDY METHOD
In this method, the actual time taken by the operator to perform each element of the job is
measured using a stop-watch.
Procedure for measuring the time
STEP 1:
(a) Select the job to be studied.
(b) Breakdown the work content of the job into smallest possible elements.
(c) Inform the worker and define the best method.
STEP 2:
Observe the time for appropriate number of cycles (such as 25 to 50 cycles) using a stop-watch.

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STEP 3:
(a) Determine the average cycle time (CT)
(b) CT = (Times) / Number of cycles.
STEP 4:
(a) Determine normal time (NT)
NT = CT X PR where PR = Performance Rating
STEP 5:
(a) Determine standard time (ST)
ST = NT X AF where AF = Allowance factor
AF = 1/ (1 - % allowance)

Here, allowance factor is to be calculated taking the following allowances into

consideration:
(a) Relaxation allowance: Time needed for physical needs and physical and mental
fatigue involved (10 to 15 %)
(b) Contingency allowance: Time needed for non-repetitive activities such as sharpening
of tools, getting materials from stores etc. (5 %)
(c) Special allowance: Interference allowance is given when a worker is looking after 2
or 3 machines.
(d) Periodic activity allowance: Time needed for setting up a tool on a machine.

Stop-Watch
The stop-watch used to measure the time in the above method can be of two types:
(i) In the ordinary type stop-watch, there is a long hand, which makes one revolution per
minute. The small hand makes one revolution in 30 minutes. When it is pressed once, both hands
start moving. When it is pressed a second time, both hands stop.
(ii) When two elements are to be timed successively, the split-hands type stop watch is used.
This watch has two hands. As one element is completed, pressing the knobs makes one hand to
stop while the other hand keeps moving. After the time taken for the first element is recorded on
the observation sheet, a second pressing of the knob restarts the stopped hand and the two hands
move together.

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Example for Time Study

The following are the cycle times observed:

Cycle Time
Number of Observations
(Minutes)
20
6
24
8
29
10
32
1
Total No. of
25
observations
The worker is rated at 120%. Allowance = 15 %. Determine the standard time.
Cycle Time = CT = (Times) / Number of cycles
= (20X 6 + 24 X 8 + 29 X 10 + 32 X 1) / 25
= 25.36 minutes.
Normal Time = NT = CT X PR where PR = Performance Rating
= 25.36 X 120 % = 30.432 minutes.
Standard Time = ST = NT X AF where AF = Allowance factor
AF = 1/ (1 - % allowance)
= 30.432 X 1 / (1-0.15) = 35.80 minutes.

(2) SYNTHESIS METHOD

Synthesis is a technique of work measurement for building up the time required to do a job at a
defined level of performance by synthesizing or totalling elemental time values obtained from
previous time studies on other jobs containing similar job elements or from standard data.
Standard Data

Standard data is a catalogue of normal time values for different elements of jobs.
This catalogue is prepared by compiling the timings of a number of standard elements.
Since many similar elements or movements are involved in many jobs, it is always
economical to use the standard data.

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Unit 3

Once the standard data catalogue is built up, one requires to list the job elements of an
operation, refer to the standard data catalogue and obtain the normal time for each
element and add (= synthesize) them up.
The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance
factor.

(3) ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING METHOD

Here, the estimator must have adequate experience of estimating, motion study, time study and the use of
standard data.
Steps:

(1) Find out the job details such as:

(i) Job duration;
(ii) Standard procedure to do the job;
(iii) Job conditions:
Illumination Poor / Bright
Temperature - High / Low
Environment Hazardous / Safe
Availability of tools
(2) Break the job into elements.
(3) Select time values from standard data catalogue for as many elements as possible.
(4) Estimate the time values for the remaining elements from past knowledge and experience.
(5) Add the time values obtained in steps (3) and (4) to get normal time.
(6) The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance factor.

(4) PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME SYSTEM (PMTS)

In this system, work measurement is based on the analysis of work into basic human
movements such as:
See, find, select, grasp, hold, transport (loaded), transport (empty), position, use,
disassemble, inspect, preposition, release load, unavoidable delay, avoidable delay, plan,
rest

Tables of data provide a time, at a defined rate of working for each classification of each
movement.
Depending upon the movements in the job whose work is being measured, the times are
noted and then added to come up with the normal time.
The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance
factor.

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Unit 3

(5) WORK SAMPLING

Work sampling does not involve stop-watch measurements. But it is based on simple
random sampling techniques derived from sampling theory.
It provides an estimate of what proportion of a workers time is devoted to work.

Steps for determining Standard Time by Work Sampling

(1) Decide what activities are defined as working.
(2) The worker is observed at selected intervals, recording whether he/she is working or not.
(3) Proportion of a time a worker is working is calculated as follows:
p = [number of observations during which working occurred]
Total number of observations
(4) Normal Time = p X Total Shift Time X PR.
Units produced
(5) The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance
factor.
Example
Total number of observations = 400.
Number of observations of working = 350.
Number of working hours in the shift = 8 hours = 480 minutes.
Number of units produced = 60 units.
Performance rating = PR = 120%.
Allowance factor = 15%.
Solution:
p = [number of observations during which working occurred] = [350/400] = = 0.875
Total number of observations
Normal Time = p X Total Shift Time X PR.= 0.875 X 480/60 X 120% = 8.4 minutes
Units produced
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Unit 3

Standard Time = Normal Time X Allowance factor = 8.4 X 1/ (1-0.15) = 9.88 minutes.
METHODS-TIME MEASUREMENT (MTM)
Methods-Time Measurement (MTM) is a predetermined motion time system that is used
primarily in industrial settings to analyze the methods used to perform any manual operation or
task and, as a product of that analysis, set the standard time in which a worker should complete
that task
History of MTM

The basic MTM data was developed by HB Maynard, JL Schwab and GJ

Stegemerten of the Methods Engineering Council during a consultancy
assignment at the Westinghouse Brake and Signal Corporation, USA in
the 1940s. This data and the application rules for the MTM system
were refined, extended, defined, industrially tested and documented as
a result of further work in later years.

Other MTM based systems have since been developed. MTM-2, a second generation
system was developed under IMD auspices in 1965; MTM3, a further simplification,
was developed in 1970. The original MTM system is now commonly referred to as
MTM-1. Other systems based on MTM have been developed for particular work areas by
National Associations.

Methodology of MTM
Films were taken using constant speed cameras, running at 16 frames per second, of the work
performed by qualified workers on the shop floor at the Westinghouse Brake and Signal
Corporation. Each sequence was rated during filming by three qualified Industrial Engineers.
These ratings had to agree within a close band; otherwise the sequence was not used.
The rating, or Levelling, system used was the Westinghouse or LMS system so called after its
originators Lowry, Maynard and Stegemerten. This system considers four factors independently:

Skill Proficiency in following the given method

Effort The will to work

Conditions The general work surroundings

Consistency of performance

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Unit 3

Each factor is assigned an alpha rating, e.g. B-, C+, A, etc. which has a numeric value
which is applied later. This reduces the possibility of clock rating and ensures that all factors
are considered in the composite rating.
Layout, distances, sizes of parts and tools and tolerances were accurately measured and recorded
on the shop floor to complement the later analyses.
The films were then projected frame-by-frame and analysed and classified in to a predetermined
format of Basic Motions. These Basic Motions were Reach, Grasp, Move, Position, Release, etc.
A motion was taken to begin on the frame in which the hand first started performing the motion
and was taken to end on the frame in which the motion was completed. This allowed a time for
each recorded motion to be calculated in seconds, by means of a frame count, and then levelled
to a common performance.
Plots of the levelled times for the various motions were drawn. Analysis determined the best
definitions of limits of motions and their major, time-determining variables, and resulted in,
more or less, the structure which the manual motions of MTM-1 have today. Later work, using
Time Study, gave the table of Body Motions.
The unit in which movements are measured for MTM is TMU (time measurement unit):
1 TMU = 36 milliseconds; 1 hour = 100,000 TMU

PRINCIPLES OF ERGONOMICS
ERGONOMICS

The word Ergonomics is derived from two Greek words: Nomoi meaning natural
laws and Ergon meaning work. Hence, ergonomists study human capabilities in
relationship to work demands.

As early as 18th century doctors noted that workers who required to maintain body
positions for long periods of time developed musculoskeletal problems.

Ergonomics is the science of fitting the job to the worker, matching the physical
requirements of the job with the physical capacity of the worker.

Ergonomics is used to design an environment (layout, work methods, equipment, noise,

etc) which is compatible with each individuals physical and behavioral characteristics.
Ergonomics looks at the behavior of the person performing the job.

Good ergonomic design makes the most efficient use of worker capabilities while
ensuring that job demands to not exceed those capabilities.
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Unit 3

Many years ago, equipment was built to do a job not to fit a person. Most factory jobs
needed a tall person with long arms to work the equipment. Now factory equipment is
adjustable to fit the different employees who work there. Another example is the old
clerical chairs that were stationary. Now most chairs are adjustable.

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Unit 3

ERGONOMIC STUDY AREAS

(1) Workers - What they bring to the job.

Worker is anyone who performs the task: office workers, custodial, operator.
Each brings his/her height, weight, reach, strength & ability

(2) Tools - What they bring to the worker.

Tool- layout, tool shape, biomechanics.

Does it fit the worker?
Does the tool apply pressure on tissues, muscles, tendons, nerves or blood vessels?
Does the tool vibrate the body or part of the body?

(3) Tasks - What the worker must do.

Task- repetitive, physically demanding, specialized, new for the employees, software
design, new technology, change, training, job satisfaction, support systems, rest breaks,
management system, shift work, production quotas, size, speed. Etc.
Poorly designed tasks such as those requiring personnel to repeatedly place their bodies
or extremities in awkward positions can cause problems.

(4) Environment- The conditions surrounding the worker and the tool.

Environment for the employee and the machine- machine design, furniture, work
surfaces, heat, cold, noise, humidity, low light, bright light.
The environment is not completely controlled. It is not a vacuum, but a complex
environment that includes the work station, ambient conditions, and can include the
relationship between management and employees.
CHARTS USED IN RECORDING

Charts
(1) Operations flow chart
(2) Flow process chart
(3) Two-handed process chart
(4) Multiple activity chart
(5) Man-machine chart

Diagrams
(1) Flow diagram
(2) String diagram

Information Recorded
Activities of men, materials or equipment are analyzed into
operation, inspection, transportation, temporary storage (delay),
permanent storage and recorded
Movement of two hands of the operator
Simultaneous / Inter-related activities of operators and / or
machines on a common time-scale

Information Recorded
Path of men, materials and equipment on a scale model
Same as the flow diagram except for the variation that it uses a
string to trace the path

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Unit 3
Photographic Aids
Cycle graph and chrono- cycle graph

Information Recorded
Movement of hand obtained by exposing a photographic plate
to the light emitted from small bulbs attached to operators
fingers
On a process chart, facts about a job or operation are recorded using five symbols which together serve to represent
all types of activity.
SYMBOL

ACTIVITY
Operation
(Action Step)
Inspection
(Decision required)
Transport

Temporary Storage
(Delay)

DESCRIPTION
Indicates that the material, part or product concerned is
modified or changed during the operation
Indicates an inspection for quality and/or check for
quantity
Indicates either transportation of material or movement of
the employee from one location to another
Indicates a delay in the sequence of events such as jobs
waiting between consecutive operations or any object laid
aside temporarily
Indicates a storage activity such as storing raw material
that is brought into the factory, storing a sub-assembly
during the manufacturing process.
This symbol represents non-value added activity. So, it
should be the focus of any streamlining efforts

Permanent Storage

THERBLIGS
Therbligs are 18 kinds of elemental motions used in the study of motion economy in the
workplace. A workplace task is analyzed by recording each of the therblig units for a process,
with the results used for optimization of manual labor by eliminating unneeded movements.
The word therblig was the creation of Frank Bunker Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth,
American industrial psychologists who invented the field of time and motion study. It is a
reversal of the word Gilbreth, with 'th' treated as one letter.
The basic motion elements: The 18 therbligs.
A basic motion element is one of a set of fundamental motions required for a worker to perform
a manual operation or task. The set consists of 18 elements, each describing a standardized
activity.

Transport empty [unloaded] (TE): reaching for an object with empty hand. ((called now
(reach).))

Grasp (G): grasping an object by the active hand.

Transport loaded (TL):moving an object using a hand motion.

Hold (H): holding an object.

Release load (RL): release control of an object.

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Unit 3

Preposition (PP):positioning and/or orienting an object for the next operation and relative
to an approximation location.

Position (P): positioning and/or orienting an object in the defined location.

Use (U): manipulate a tool in the intended way during the course working.

Assemble (A): joining two parts together.

Disassemble (DA): separating multiple components that were joined.

Search (Sh): attempting to find an object using the eyes and hands.

Select (St): choosing among several objects in a group.

Plan (Pn): deciding on a course of action.

Inspect (I): determining the quality or the characteristics of an object using the eyes
and/or other senses.

Unavoidable delay (UD): waiting due to factors beyond the worker's control and included
in the work cycle.

Avoidable delay (AD): waiting within the worker's control causes idleness that is not
included in the regular work cycle.

Rest to overcome a fatigue (R): resting to overcome a fatigue, consisting of a pause in the
motions of the hands and/or body during the work cycles or between them.

Find (F): A momentary mental reaction at the end of the Search cycle. Seldom used

Effective and ineffective basic motion elements

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

EFFECTIVE
Reach
Move
Grasp
Release Load
Use
Assemble
Disassemble
Pre-position

INEFFECTIVE
Hold
Rest
Position
Search
Select
Plan
Unavoidable
Delay
Avoidable Delay
Inspect
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Example:
Here is an example of how therbligs can be used to analyze motion. Suppose a man goes into a
bathroom and shaves. We'll assume that his face is all lathered and that he is ready to pick up his
razor. He knows where the razor is, but first he must locate it with his eye. That is "search", the
first Therblig. His eye finds it and comes to rest -- that's "find", the second Therblig. Third
comes "select", the process of sliding the razor prior to the fourth Therblig, "grasp." Fifth is
"transport loaded," bringing the razor up to his face, and sixth is "position," getting the razor
set on his face. There are eleven other Therbligs -- the last one is "think"!

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