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IP Addresses Explained

Introduction
Every machine on the the Internet has a unique number assigned to it, called an IP address. Without a
unique IP address on your machine, you will not be able to communicate with other devices, users,
and computers on the Internet. You can look at your IP address as if it were a telephone number, each
one being unique and used to identify a way to reach you and only you.
IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses
There are two flavors of IP Addresses that can be used on a network. The first, and the version that
the Internet and most routers are currently configured for, is IPv4 or Internet Protocol version 4. This
version uses 32-bit addresses, which limits the amount of addresses to 4,294,967,296 possible unique
addresses. Some of these addresses, about 290 million, are also reserved for special purposes. Due to
the popular growth of the Internet there has been concern that the pool of possible addresses would
be exhausted in the near future. With this in mind, a new version of IP addresses was developed
called IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, that would change the address size from 32-bit address to
128-bit addresses. This change would allow for generous IP address allocations to networks without
any foreseeable problem with the amount of addresses available. In order to use IPv6 addresses,
though, existing routers and hardware would need to be upgraded or configured to use this new
version of IP addresses.
As IPv4 is still the most commonly used, this tutorial will be focusing on that version of IP addresses.
The Address Itself
An IP address always consists of 4 numbers separated by periods, with the numbers having a possible
range of 0 through 255. An example of how an IP address appears is: 192.168.1.10
This representation of an IP address is called decimal notation and is what is generally used by
humans to refer to an IP address for readability purposes. With the ranges for each number being
between 0 and 255 there are a total 4,294,967,296 possible IP addresses.
Out of these addresses there are 3 special ranged that are reserved for special purposes. The first is
the 0.0.0.0 address and refers to the default network and the 255.255.255.255 address which is
called the broadcast address. These addresses are used for routing, which will not be covered in this
tutorial. The third address, 127.0.0.1, is the loopback address, and refers to your machine. Whenever
you see, 127.0.0.1, you are actually referring to your own machine. That means if you clicked on this
link, http://127.0.0.1, you are actually trying to connect to your own computer, and unless you have
a web server running, you will get a connection error.
There are some guidelines to to how IP address can appear, though. The four numbers must be
between 0 and 255, and the IP address of 0.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255 are reserved, and are not
considered usable IP addresses. IP addresses must be unique for each computer connected to a
network. That means that if you have two computers on your network, each must have a different IP
address to be able to communicate with each other. If by accident the same IP address is assigned to
two computers, then those computers would have what is called an "IP Conflict" and not be able to
communicate with each other.
IP address classes

These IP addresses can further be broken down into classes. These classes are A, B, C, D, E and their
possible ranges can be seen in Figure 2 below.

Class

Start address

Finish address

0.0.0.0

126.255.255.255

128.0.0.0

191.255.255.255

192.0.0.0

223.255.255.255

224.0.0.0

239.255.255.255

240.0.0.0

255.255.255.255

Figure 2. IP address Classes


If you look at the table you may notice something strange. The range of IP address from Class A to
Class B skips the 127.0.0.0-127.255.255.255 range. That is because this range is reserved for the
special addresses called Loopback addresses that have already been discussed above.
The rest of classes are allocated to companies and organizations based upon the amount of IP
addresses that they may need. Listed below are descriptions of the IP classes and the organizations
that will typically receive that type of allocation.
Default Network: The special network 0.0.0.0 is generally used for routing.
Class A: From the table above you see that there are 126 class A networks. These networks consist of
16,777,214 possible IP addresses that can be assigned to devices and computers. This type of
allocation is generally given to very large networks such as multi-national companies.
Loopback: This is the special 127.0.0.0 network that is reserved as a loopback to your own computer.
These addresses are used for testing and debugging of your programs or hardware.
Class B: This class consists of 16,384 individual networks, each allocation consisting of 65,534
possible IP addresses. These blocks are generally allocated to Internet Service Providers and large
networks, like a college or major hospital.
Class C: There is a total of 2,097,152 Class C networks available, with each network consisting of 255
individual IP addresses. This type of class is generally given to small to mid-sized companies.
Class D: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for a service called Multicast.
Class E: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for experimental use.
Broadcast: This is the special network of 255.255.255.255, and is used for broadcasting messages to
the entire network that your computer resides on.
Private Addresses
There are also blocks of IP addresses that are set aside for internal private use for computers not
directly connected to the Internet. These IP addresses are not supposed to be routed through the
Internet, and most service providers will block the attempt to do so. These IP addresses are used for

internal use by company or home networks that need to use TCP/IP but do not want to be directly
visible on the Internet. These IP ranges are:
Class

Private Start Address

Private End Address

10.0.0.0

10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0

172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0

192.168.255.255

If you are on a home/office private network and want to use TCP/IP, you should assign your
computers/devices IP addresses from one of these three ranges. That way your router/firewall would
be the only device with a true IP address which makes your network more secure.
Common Problems and Resolutions
The most common problem people have is by accident assigning an IP address to a device on your
network that is already assigned to another device. When this happens, the other computers will not
know which device should get the information, and you can experience erratic behavior. On most
operating systems and devices, if there are two devices on the local network that have the same IP
address, it will generally give you a "IP Conflict" warning. If you see this warning, that means that the
device giving the warning, detected another device on the network using the same address.
The best solution to avoid a problem like this is to use a service called DHCP that almost all home
routers provide. DHCP, or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is a service that assigns addresses to
devices and computers. You tell the DHCP server what range of IP addresses you would like it to
assign, and then the DHCP server takes the responsibility of assigning those IP addresses to the
various devices and keeping track so those IP addresses are assigned only once.
Conclusion
IP addresses and their function on the Internet is an important concept to understand. Hopefully with
this tutorial you will have a firmer grasp on this concept, which should help you troubleshoot problems
and bring a better understanding of how the Internet works.

TCP and UDP Ports Explained

Introduction
In this tutorial we will discuss the concept of Ports and how they work with IP addresses. If you have
not read our article on IP addresses and need a brush up, you can find the article here. If you
understand the concepts of IP addresses, then lets move on to TCP and UDP ports and how they work.
The devices and comptuers connected to the Internet use a protocol called TCP/IP to communicate
with each other. When a computer in New York wants to send a piece of data to a computer in
England, it must know the destination IP address that it woud like to send the information to. That
information is sent most often via two methods, UDP and TCP.
The two Internet workhorses: UDP and TCP
UDP? TCP? I know you are getting confused, but I promise I will explain this in very basic terms so
that you can understand this concept.
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. Using this method, the computer sending the data
connects directly to the computer it is sending the data it to, and stays connected for the duration of
the transfer. With this method, the two computers can guarantee that the data has arrived safely and
correctly, and then they disconnect the connection. This method of transferring data tends to be
quicker and more reliable, but puts a higher load on the computer as it has to monitor the connection
and the data going across it. A real life comparison to this method would be to pick up the phone and
call a friend. You have a conversation and when it is over, you both hang up, releasing the connection.
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. Using this method, the computer sending the data packages
the information into a nice little package and releases it into the network with the hopes that it will get
to the right place. What this means is that UDP does not connect directly to the receiving computer
like TCP does, but rather sends the data out and relies on the devices in between the sending
computer and the receiving computer to get the data where it is supposed to go properly. This method
of transmission does not provide any guarantee that the data you send will ever reach its destination.
On the other hand, this method of transmission has a very low overhead and is therefore very popular
to use for services that are not that important to work on the first try. A comparison you can use for
this method is the plain old US Postal Service. You place your mail in the mailbox and hope the Postal
Service will get it to the proper location. Most of the time they do, but sometimes it gets lost along the
way.
Now that you understand what TCP and UDP are, we can start discussing TCP and UDP ports in detail.
Lets move on to the next section where we can describe the concept of ports better.
TCP and UDP Ports
As you know every computer or device on the Internet must have a unique number assigned to it
called the IP address. This IP address is used to recognize your particular computer out of the millions
of other computers connected to the Internet. When information is sent over the Internet to your
computer how does your computer accept that information? It accepts that information by using TCP
or UDP ports.
An easy way to understand ports is to imagine your IP address is a cable box and the ports are the
different channels on that cable box. The cable company knows how to send cable to your cable box

based upon a unique serial number associated with that box (IP Address), and then you receive the
individual shows on different channels (Ports).
Ports work the same way. You have an IP address, and then many ports on that IP address. When I
say many, I mean many. You can have a total of 65,535 TCP Ports and another 65,535 UDP ports.
When a program on your computer sends or receives data over the Internet it sends that data to an ip
address and a specific port on the remote computer, and receives the data on a usually random port
on its own computer. If it uses the TCP protocol to send and receive the data then it will connect and
bind itself to a TCP port. If it uses the UDP protocol to send and receive data, it will use a UDP port.
Figure 1, below, is a represenation of an IP address split into its many TCP and UDP ports. Note that
once an application binds itself to a particular port, that port can not be used by any other application.
It is first come, first served.

<-------------------- 192.168.1.10 -------------------->


0

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

65531 65532 65533 65534 65535

Figure 1. IP address with Ports


This all probably still feels confusing to you, and there is nothing wrong with that, as this is a
complicated concept to grasp. Therefore, I will give you an example of how this works in real life so
you can have a better understanding. We will use web servers in our example as you all know that a
web server is a computer running an application that allows other computers to connect to it and
retrieve the web pages stored there.
In order for a web server to accept connections from remote computers, such as yourself, it must bind
the web server application to a local port. It will then use this port to listen for and accept connections
from remote computers. Web servers typically bind to the TCP port 80, which is what the http protocol
uses by default, and then will wait and listen for connections from remote devices. Once a device is
connected, it will send the requested web pages to the remote device, and when done disconnect the
connection.
On the other hand, if you are the remote user connecting to a web server it would work in reverse.
Your web browser would pick a random TCP port from a certain range of port numbers, and attempt to
connect to port 80 on the IP address of the web server. When the connection is established, the web
browser will send the request for a particular web page and receive it from the web server. Then both
computers will disconnect the connection.
Now, what if you wanted to run an FTP server, which is a server that allows you to transfer and receive
files from remote computers, on the same web server. FTP servers use TCP ports 20 and 21 to send
and receive information, so you won't have any conflicts with the web server running on TCP port 80.
Therefore, the FTP server application when it starts will bind itself to TCP ports 20 and 21, and wait for
connections in order to send and receive data.
Most major applications have a specific port that they listen on and they register this information with
an organization called IANA. You can see a list of applications and the ports they use at theIANA
Registry. With developers registering the ports their applications use with IANA, the chances of two
programs attempting to use the same port, and therefore causing a conflict, will be diminished.

Understanding and Using Firewalls

Introduction
The Internet is a scary place. Criminals on the Internet have the ability to hide behind their
computers, or even other peoples computers, while they attempt to break into your computer to steal
personal information or to use it for their own purposes. To make matters worse, there always seems
to be a security hole in your software or operating system that is not fixed fast enough that could
potentially allow someone to hack into your computer. Where does this leave you? Are you supposed
to cancel your Internet access, or is there something you can do to protect yourself?
The answer is that you can protect yourself with a firewall. In the past, firewalls were expensive pieces
of hardware that only companies would use. Most people were not on the Internet, and if they were
they were connected via a dial up which is not fast enough for most hacker's purposes. Therefore,
hackers predominantly targeted companies who normally had larger pools of available bandwidth. Now
with almost everyone being able to connect to the Internet, and many with extremely fast and cheap
bandwidth, hackers tend to target the home user as they are more apt to not secure their computers
properly thus becoming an easy target. With this in mind developers have created cheap but powerful
home firewall solutions for the home users to protect themselves.
This tutorial will help to increase your knowledge on how to protect yourself with a firewall so you are
not an easy target to hackers and viruses in the future.
The Firewall
A firewall is a hardware device or software application that sits between your computer and the
Internet and blocks all Internet traffic from reaching your computer that you have not specifically
requested. What this means is that if you browse to a web site, the firewall will allow the traffic from
that web site to reach your computer and therefore yourself. On the other hand, if you did not request
information from that web site, and the web site sent traffic to you, it would be denied from reaching
your computer because you did not specifically ask for it. This behavior can be changed if you wish,
and we will discuss that further in the document.
Firewalls for the home user can either be a piece of hardware or a piece of software. The differences
will be discussed below.
A Hardware Firewall is a device that sits between your Internet connection and the rest of the
computers plugged into it. These firewalls usually come with a built in hub that allows you to connect
multiple computers to it in order for them all to be able to share one Internet connection. These
firewalls provide protection to all the computers connected to it using a technology called Network
Address Translation, or NAT. This protection is performed by all the protected machines using private
IP addresses, such as 192.168.1.X, that can not be reached via the Internet. The firewall then convert
these internal IP addresses to the single public IP address that is assigned to the firewall. This makes
it so that your hardware firewall accepts all incoming requests you asked for and then forwards them
on to the requesting internal computer. Using this method, outside machines are never able to connect
directly to your computers.

A Personal Firewall is a piece of software installed on each computer that needs to be protected. This
software then filters all incoming, and sometimes outgoing traffic, and only allows only data that has
been requested or explicitly allowed to pass through. Personal firewalls tend to be more feature rich
than hardware versions, but they do not have the ability to allow you to share your Internet
connection with multiple computers on the network.
The decision as to which type of firewall to use depends on what you plan on using it for. If you would
like to protect just one computer, then a personal software based firewall is more than adequate. If
you would like to protect multiple computers, then a hardware based solution may be most cost
effective. Some people even state that you should use both a hardware firewall to protect your
network and a personal firewall that further protects your computer. Though this is not a bad idea, it
may be cost prohibitive for many users. If money is not an option, then using both will add an extra
level of security as well as provide you with the greater functionality found in personal firewalls.
For the rest of this tutorial we will predominantly focus on personal firewalls that are installed on your
computer, though many of the topics discussed here apply to hardware firewalls as well.
Firewall Features
When choosing your firewall it is important to pay attention to what features they offer you as these
features can make a large difference in how your computer is protected. For some people certain
features are more important than others, but in terms of security the most important are inbound and
outbound filtering, application protection, notifications, and stealth mode. These features and others
will be discussed below:
Inbound and Outbound Filtering
Filtering is when a firewall examines information passing through it and determines if that information
is allowed to be transmitted and received or should be discarded based on rules or filters that have
been created. This is the primary function of a firewall and how it handles these tasks is very
important for your security. Most people feel inbound filtering, which is the processing of inbound data
towards your computer, is the most important function of a firewall. Outbound filtering, though, plays
just as an important role for securing your computer. You may have had malware installed on your
computer without your knowledge, and suddenly when you install a firewall with outbound filtering,
you will find that software on your computer is attempting to transmit data to a remote host
somewhere on the Internet. Now, not only do you know that this software is installed, but the
outbound filtering stopped it from passing on private information.
These filters can also be modified to allow certain computers on the Internet to reach your computer
or for certain applications on your computer to transmit data to the Internet. How these rules should
be modified is determined by your needs. For example if you would like remote users to be able to
connect to you remotely using remote desktop you will need to open up the portassociated with
Remote Desktop, which is tcp port 3389, in order for your firewall to allow that traffic to flow through.
An example of this can be seen below where a particular remote computer is given permission to
access the computer behind the firewall.

Figure 1. Example of a Firewall allowing a remote computer access to a computer behind a


firewall

Stealth Mode
It is important for your firewall to not only block requests to reach your computer, but to also make it
appear as if your computer does not even exist on the Internet. When you are connected to the
Internet and your computer can not be detected via probes to your computer, you are in what is called
Stealth mode. Hackers have the ability to detect if you are on the Internet by probing your machine
with special data and examining the results. When you are in Stealth mode the firewall does not send
this information back making it seem like you are not even connected. Due to this hackers will not
continue targeting your computer as they will think you are not online.
Privacy protection
Many firewalls now have the ability to block spyware, hijackers, and adware from reaching your
computer. This allows you to protect your computer from being infected with software that is known to
reveal private information about what you do on the Internet or other computing habits. These
features are usually bundled into the commercial versions of the firewall software packages.
Application Integrity
Application Integrity is when the firewall monitors the files on your computer for modification in the
file or how they are launched. When it detects such a change it will notify the user of this and not
allow that application to run or transmit data to the Internet. Many times these modifications may
have been part of an upgrade, but if it was modified by a malicious program you will now be made
aware of it.
Intrusion detection
Intruders use various methods to penetrate the security of your computer. Intrusion detection scans
incoming data for signatures of known methods and notifies you when such attacks are recognized.
This allows you to see what means a hacker is trying to use to hack your computer.

Notifications
Notifications allow you to see the activity of what is happening on your firewall and for the firewall to
notify you in various ways about possible penetration attempts on your computer.
Firewall Monitoring and Good Practice
Monitoring
Regardless of the firewall you use it is good practice to monitor the firewall logs occasionally. With
good monitoring of your logs you will increase your security immediately. Statistically most hacks
could have been avoided if people monitored their logs as most hackers will probe a computer before
they hack it. If an administrator of the computer had noticed these probes, they may have been able
to determine if their computers were vulnerable to what was being probed for. When you first install
your firewall and examine the logs you will be simply amazed as to the amount of people who are
attempting to access your computer without your knowledge.
There are three main reasons for monitoring your log files and are discussed below:
Preventative Measures: By monitoring the logs of your firewall you can see what ports and services
hackers are attempting to exploit. You can then use this information to make sure your computer is
secure from these exploits. For example, if you notice on your logs that many people are scanning
your computer for port 3127 and did some research, you will find that it could be that people or
viruses are looking for backdoors into your computer left by an early variant of the MyDoom virus. You
can then make sure your computers are not affected by this potential exploit.
Forensics: If your computer gets compromised by a remote computer, and you find the files placed
on your computer by the hacker you can determine the date and time that they were placed there.
Using this information you can check your log archives for activity during that time and date to
determine how the hacker was able to penetrate your computer. This information can then be used to
secure your computer.
Reporting to the authorities: Using the information found in the log files will allow you to present
information to authorities in the case of a successful hack or an attempt. The logs will give you the IP
address of the offending computer, the method used, and the time and date it was performed. This
information can be given to the appropriate ISP or authorities in case of criminal activities.
Good Practice
It is good practice to occasionally examine any custom rules or filters that you have created for
allowing incoming traffic or outbound traffic to or from your computer. You may at times allow certain
protocols to connect to your computer for various reasons including file sharing, mail, ftp, or web.
Many times these rules are created, and then they are forgotten and remain open. It is good practice
to examine your firewalls configuration occasionally to make sure these rules are disabled if they are
no longer needed. If you keep these rules open when you do not need them, you are creating a
potential avenue for hackers to compromise your computer.
Common Issues with Firewalls
It is important to note that almost all Internet applications are created with the thought that there is
no firewall in place that could change how these applications can communicate with the Internet.
Sometimes using a firewall can make certain features of the applications no longer work properly. In
the majority of cases, these services can be enabled to work by changing certain settings in your
firewall to allow incoming traffic to be received by your computer. When this type of situation occurs
you can create a custom rule that allows that particular application to work.

An example of this would be if you have Windows XP Professional and would like to be able to
remotely connect to your Remote Desktop from another computer. Since firewalls by default block all
incoming traffic to your computer when you attempt to connect to Remote Desktop the connection will
be denied. If you search on Remote Desktop using Google you will find that Remote Desktop uses
TCP port 3389 to accept incoming connections. You would then change your rules on your firewall to
allow incoming connections to TCP port 3389, thus allowing you to connect to your computer remotely.
Therefore, when using applications with a firewall and you find that there are problems, you should
search the Internet on how to use that program with a firewall and what ports should be opened. Then
you would create a custom rule that would allow the specific traffic to reach your computer.
Popular Firewalls
There are many types of firewalls on the market, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. I
have listed these personal software firewalls and hardware vendors as resources for you to research
further. If a firewall is noted as free it is important to note that their commercial equivalents will
probably contain more features that may be beneficial to you.
Free Personal Firewalls

Emsisoft Online Armor Free

Outpost Firewall

Zone Alarm Free

Commercial Personal Firewalls

McAfee Personal Firewall

Outpost Firewall Pro

Zone Alarm Pro/Plus

Hardware Router/Firewalls Vendors

Belkin

D-Link

Linksys

Netgear

Conclusion
As you can see having a firewall protecting your computer is a necessity in protecting your computer
from hackers or viruses. With the proper monitoring and rules you will be able to use your applications
on the Internet as you would like to with the added benefit of securing your computer. When you leave
your house, you lock your doors to prevent robbery, why not use a firewall to put a lock on your
computer.

All about Networks

With so much of Computer use these days revolving around the Internet and communicating with
others, its important that you understand what exactly a network is. Without networks, all
communication between your computer and other computers whether it be instant messaging, email,
web browsing, or downloading music could not be achieved. This tutorial will strive to teach you about
networks and their importance. We will also explain the equipment necessary for you to set up a
network in your home. When you are done with this tutorial, you will hopefully have a much greater
knowledge of how the world of computers work.
The definition of a network in its most basic concepts is at least two independent devices having the
ability to communicate with each other. Networks can range in size from two computers with a cable
between them, to an office network consisting of 100's or 1000's of devices.
Most home networks consist of 2 or more computers with network cards built into them. They are then
connected with an RJ45 cable, or other medium, to a Hub or Router that has a built in hub. This hub
or router is then connected to your Cable modem or DSL modem allowing your computers on the
network to access the Internet. Below, on Figure 1, you will see a basic network that consists of
exactly what is discussed above.

Let us summarize what we see above and define some of the individual items. We have two
computers, labeled Computer A and B, which are both connected to a router with a built in hub. The
computers are connected via RJ45 cabling that can be bought in various lengths at almost any
computer store. One end of the RJ45 cable plugs into the network card on the back of your computer,
and the other end plugs into an empty port on the Router.

The Router contains a 4-port hub that you will find is common in almost all the brands out on the
market at this time. This Hub/Router is what allows all the devices on your network to connect to each
other because anything that is plugged into the Hub/Router also has the ability to talk to each other.
The Router is then connected to the DSL Modem or Cable modem which allows your entire network to
reach the Internet.
As you can see creating a home network is not has hard or expensive, as you may have assumed. Lets
go over all the pieces again and I will give you general costs for each item.

Item

Cost

10' RJ45 Cable (1 Cable per device) $7.00


Router with Built-in 4 Port Hub

$50.00

Network Card if not built in (per PC) $30.00

This can also be accomplished with wireless networking as well, and the concepts are all the same.
You would just need wireless network cards and a wireless router. You even save a few dollars because
you dont need the RJ45 Cables. The only differences are that the wireless network cards and wireless
routers are more expensive.
Now that you know what a network is, let's build upon some of these concepts. Now that you know
that a network is a bunch of interconnected devices, what do you think a lot of inter-connected
networks are? Yes, you guessed it right, your actually using one now, it is something called the
Internet. Lets look at the word Internet. Inter means between and Net is short for the word network.
Internet therefore, means between networks. That is exactly what the Internet is , it is the connection
between a vast amount of networks. When you are connected to the Internet, and you request
information whether that be through a website or email, your data is actually traversing many
networks that are all independently owned and operated before your data reaches its final destination.
All these networks are able to talk to each other through something called routing, which we will
discuss in another tutorial. As you can see, the Internet is not an entity unto itself, but rather
comprised of many small parts. Now that you know how to set up a home network, why not set one
up so you and your family can both be on the Internet at the same time. Not only will it increase the
efficiency of your Internet connection, but also your network will actually make the Internet grow a
little bit larger.
I hope you enjoyed this segment of BleepingComputer.com Basic Concept Tutorials.

subnet mask - subnetting


A mask used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to. An IP address has two components, the network
address and thehost address. For example, consider the IP address 150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a
Class B network, the first two numbers (150.215) represent the Class B network address, and the second two
numbers (017.009) identify a particular host on this network.

Subnetting
Subnetting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the address into two or more subnets.
In this case, a part of the host address is reserved to identify the particular subnet. This is easier to see if we show
the IP address in binary format.
The full address is:

10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001
The Class B network part is:
10010110.11010111
and the host address is
00010001.00001001
If this network is divided into 14 subnets, however, then the first 4 bits of the host address (0001) are reserved for
identifying the subnet.
The subnet mask is the network address plus the bits reserved for identifying the subnetwork -- by convention, the
bits for the network address are all set to 1, though it would also work if the bits were set exactly as in the network
address. In this case, therefore, the subnet mask would be 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000. It's called

a mask because it can be used to identify the subnet to which an IP address belongs by performing a bitwise AND
operation on the mask and the IP address. The result is the subnetwork address:
Subnet Mask
255.255.240.000
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
IP Address
150.215.017.009
10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001
Subnet Address
150.215.016.000
10010110.11010111.00010000.00000000
The subnet address, therefore, is 150.215.016.000.

Subnet Calculator
An IP subnet mask calculator is used to automatically calculate subnets. The calculator allows you to input an IP
address and choose the Subnet Mask, Network class and other variables to calculate subnet network mask. Results
of the calculation will provide the hexadecimal IP address, the wildcard mask, subnet ID, broadcast address and the
subnet address range for the resulting subnet network.

There are a number of free online IP Subnet calculators including:

Online IP Subnet Calculator


WildPackets IP Subnet Calculator
Web Tools Subnet Mask Calculator Tool
ipcalc
Monitis Subnet Calculator

http://www.subnet-calculator.com/
http://www.practicallynetworked.com/

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