Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Culture Atika
U1153012
Master of Science
in
Civil Engineering
Submitted to the
University of East London
On
27 September 2013
ABSTRACT
Scour is a form of erosion that occurs around marine structures or structures in
coastal environment. It has been found by previous research that scour reduces
the buckling capacity of a pile and it is also known to cause failure such as
differential settlement, tilting and overturning to mention but a few.
To date the study of the effect of scour on the buckling capacity of piles has
been either general or limited to scour around bridge piers. This study looks at a
purely scour condition on the buckling capacity of partially free standing piles
either as a monopile or in a group of piles affected by group action.
It is found that scour does significantly reduce the buckling capacity of partially
free standing piles. The reduction was very significant upto 44% for 70cm piles
in groups affected by group action. It was less significant for partially free
standing piles classified as monopiles 3.5% for the 30cm monopile and about
10% for the 70cm monopile. Also, results show that the sand density did not
create any significant change in the buckling capacity of the piles. However,
variation in pile head stiffness did affect the buckling capacity significantly.
The study does provide evidence that scour significantly reduces the buckling
capacity of piles in groups affected by group action. It also shows that the
reduction may be classified as insignificant for piles of small diameter less than
40cm for piles that could be referred to as monopiles. On the other hand it does
show that the reduction increases with diameter and upto 44% reduction in the
buckling capacity of the 70cm pile in the group affected by group action.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My thanks go first to God Almighty for His Grace that has enabled me to
complete this dissertation successfully. This acknowledgement will not start of
properly without mentioning Dr Hamid Z. Jahromi, my supervisor to whom there
is no like. He came at a time when I was weary and tired of writing dissertation
proposals; he helped set the part straight and his guidance throughout this
period can never be overlooked. Many thanks to senior colleagues in this field
of research, the authors of p-y Approach to Analysing Buckling of Axially
Loaded Piles in Scoured Condition, who made their work available to me for
free and to those authors I have referenced in this dissertation for their works.
My thanks to the jewel of my life who with tears in her eyes accosted me to the
place of saying good bye, to journey to a place foreign to us. An opportunity
cost at the time for her hugs and kisses; yet in almost two years still very
supportive of this cause of an MSc. I thank you for your undoubting love and
patience. It is with gratefulness to God Almighty that I express an inexpressible
thanks to the family of Mr David Kamara, who has always been there for me; for
shelter and for provision; as a friend and as a family; one love brother. My
thanks to Miss Blessing Campbell who out of time took time to help me
acclimatise in the city called London.
ii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
1.1
BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4.1
Aim........................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2
Objectives ................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2. PILES...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5
2.2
DEFINITION .................................................................................................................... 5
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.6
2.7
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 13
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 14
3.2
DEFINITION .................................................................................................................. 14
3.3
PILES
15
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.8
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 27
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 28
4.2
4.2.1
4.3
BUCKLING .................................................................................................................... 28
Euler Buckling Load ............................................................................................... 29
BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF PILES ...................................................................................... 31
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.4
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 35
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 36
5.2
DEFINITION .................................................................................................................. 36
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 44
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 45
6.2
6.2.1
Pile: ........................................................................................................................ 45
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
Software:................................................................................................................ 47
6.3
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................... 47
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 49
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.3
7.4
7.5
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 55
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 56
8.2
8.2.1
Monopiles .............................................................................................................. 57
8.2.2
8.3
VARIATION OF PCR WITH NORMALISED SCOUR DEPTH FOR DIFFERENT SOIL CONDITION
8.3.1
Monopile ................................................................................................................ 60
8.3.2
8.4
VARIATION OF BUCKLING STRENGTH WITH PILE HEAD STIFFNESS AND NORMALISED SCOUR
DEPTH 62
8.5
Monopiles .............................................................................................................. 63
8.5.2
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 66
9.2
9.3
VARIATION OF PCR WITH NORMALISED SCOUR DEPTH FOR DIFFERENT SOIL CONDITION
9.4
9.5
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 69
10.2
AIMS............................................................................................................................ 69
10.3
FINDINGS ..................................................................................................................... 69
10.4
SIGNIFICANCE .............................................................................................................. 70
10.4.1
10.5
LIMITATIONS................................................................................................................. 71
10.6
10.7
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 71
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................. I
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................... III
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Scoured Pile ................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2-1 Classification of Piles BSi, (1986) ................................................................................ 8
Figure 2-2 Partially Embedded Pile ............................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-3 Practical Consideration of Pile Unsupported Length Chance, (2003) ....................... 12
Figure 3-1 Scour around Single Pile
Figure 3-3 Scour in Pile Group in a Bridge Figure 3-4 Pile Group Affected by Erosion ........... 15
Figure 3-5 Pictorial Representation of the Difference between Scour and Erosion ................... 16
3-6 Local Scour around a Single Pile Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), (2011)
............................................................................................................................................ 17
3-7 Scour in a Pile Group (Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 2011) ............... 18
Figure 3-8 Formation, Physical Processes http://www.usgs.gov/ ............................................... 20
3-9 Local Scour in a Pile Group without Group Interaction ......................................................... 21
Figure 3-10 Abutment Failure Caused by Scour ......................................................................... 26
Figure 3-11 Differential Settlement Caused by Scour ................................................................. 26
Figure 4-1 The Concept of Effective Length of Slender Column/Pile (Bhattacharya & Bolton,
2004) ................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 4-2 Poulos and Davis 1980 as cited by (Chance, 2003) ................................................. 32
Figure 5-1 Soil Structure-Interaction ........................................................................................... 37
Figure 5-2 Winkler's Beam on Elastic Foundation ...................................................................... 38
Figure 5-3, Axial and Transversely Loaded Beam-Column on Soil ............................................ 38
Figure 5-4 A Graph of Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction ........................................................... 40
Figure 7-1 A Fixed-Pin Ended Boundary Condition (Arizona State University 2003) ................. 49
Figure 7-2 3-D Model Showing Pile Section ............................................................................... 50
Figure 7-3 Finite Element Model for a Fixed-Pin Ended Condition ............................................. 50
Figure 7-4 Fixed-Fixed Boundary Condition (Arizona State University 2003) ............................ 51
Figure 7-5 FE Model for a Fixed-Fixed Boundary Condition....................................................... 51
Figure 7-6 Pinned-Pinned Boundary Condition (Arizona State University 2003) ....................... 52
Figure 7-7 FE Model for Pinned-Pinned Boundary Condition ..................................................... 52
Figure 7-8 The Finite Element Model .......................................................................................... 54
Figure 8-1 Figure of the Finite Element Model ............................................................................ 56
Figure 8-2 .................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 8-3 .................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 8-4 .................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 8-5 .................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 8-6 .................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 8-7 .................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 8-8 .................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 8-9 .................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 8-10 .................................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 8-11 .................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 8-12 .................................................................................................................................. 63
List of Tables
3
Table 5-1 Values of ks1 (KN/m ) for 1ft square plate on sand (Terzaghi 1955) ......................... 41
3
Table 5-2 Ks1 values (KN/m ) for pre-compressed clay (Terzaghi 1955) .................................. 42
Table 5-3
and
KC
is taken as constant
Any other parameter or symbol not on this page is already defined within the
text.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Structural safety is the hallmark of civil engineering and ambiguity in any aspect
of the fields of civil engineering does not help this cause. However, where there
is an ambiguity it is only proper for a definition of a particular problem sort to be
solved and a definition of the solution provided be made explicit to cure up any
such ambiguity as to the ones that have existed. It is in this light this dissertation
has sort to look into the problem of the buckling analysis of partially free standing
pile under pure scour effect.
Partially free standing piles are piles that are not completely embedded into the
ground. It is believe that the formation of scour around them can pose an
instability problem as it reduces the depth of embedment and increases the
unsupported length.
This thesis models a single partially free standing pile under scour effect and a
single representative partially free standing pile in a group under scour effect and
performs a buckling analysis on each sample pile considering varying scour
depth till the maximum scour depth. Using Winklers hypotheses i.e. a system of
mutually independent linear springs, this literature models the soil-pile interaction
via Finite Element Method (FEM) using StaadPro software. This thesis has by
way of literature review determined the maximum sample scour depth used in
the analysis.
What distinguishes this research from others is that it looks into buckling analysis
of partially free standing piles under scour effects caused by the pile-water
interaction without any external influence. This research does not include scour
around piles caused by a contraction of the river channel resulting in contraction
scour and its likes. This research includes scour around piles in off-shore
structures and river basin structures such as platforms and houses mounted on
piles. If there is a global scour, it is only of those caused by the pile group action
without any other structural interference. This research also has not attempted to
solve the problem from a generic point of view but has distinguished between
two types of piles monopiles and group piles. By this a much succinct view of the
problem is created and a better method of analysis may be provided.
The significance of this research is that for the first time the study of pile
behaviours under scour effect has been separated to partially free standing
monopiles and pile groups affected by scour caused by their own interaction with
the water flow and without any external interference. Also, in its revelation an
engineer may be confident as to how to approach this sort of problem.
1.4.2 Objectives
My objectives are to:
Determine the buckling response for the above pile-soil coupled under
different soil conditions loose, medium and dense sand (nh1, nh2 and
nh3)
Determine the buckling response for the above pile-soil coupled system
under varying boundary stiffnesses for the pile head.
Chapter 2. PILES
2.1 Introduction
This chapter explains briefly what piles are and talks about pile classification.
Also, it describes briefly the main methods of analysing piles. At the end of the
chapter the reader should know what piles are and also be able to classify and
analyse them.
2.2 Definition
Piles are foundations used when a structure cannot be safely supported on a
shallow foundation. A single pile can be defined as a long structural element that
is used to transfer loads applied at the top through the base to the lower grounds
(University of Bolton, 2010). According to Sew & Meng, (2009), pile is a
foundation system that transfers load to a deeper and competent layer of the
soil. The authors all say the same thing about pile, as a foundation and carries
load from the superstructure into the lower but more solid layer of the ground
able to bear the load.
Skin friction in sands or adhesion in clay: This is the shear force mobilised
on the surface of the shaft of the pile.
Bearing capacity at the end or tip of the pile (University of Bolton, 2010)
Where the soil layer of satisfactory bearing capacity lies too deep for
conventional or shallow footing to be applied economically.
Where the soil strata are deeply inclined and in some case the ground
surface as well.
On a shore line or in the river where the effect of scouring and wave can
vary the amount of material at the surface. The buckling analysis of piles
under this condition is the centre issue of this research.
Also, Sew & Meng, (2009) piles can be used to take care of inadequate bearing
capacity of shallow foundations; prevent uplift forces and to reduce excessive
settlements.
Driven or Displacement Piles: These are preformed piles. They are driven,
screwed or hammered into the ground.
Though Sew & Meng, (2009) and the various codes of practice British Standsrd
Institute (BSi), (2004) etc, classified piles under two classes as among other
classes as friction piles (piles resisting load mainly by the mobilised shear stress
on the shaft surface) and end bearing piles (piles resisting load mainly by the
load bearing resistance derived from the base); Geotechnical Engineering Office,
(2006) believes this method of classification by load transfer is very hard to set
up as the shaft resistance and end bearing capacity cannot be reliably predicted
in practice.
Large Displacement Piles: these piles include all solid piles, timber,
precast concrete and steel. It also includes concrete tubes closed at the
lower end with shoe or plug which may be left in position or extruded to
form an enlarged foot.
Small displacement Piles: this class includes rolled steel sections such as
H piles; open ended tubes and hollow section if the ground or soil enters
freely during driving installation. However, open ended tubes and hollow
sections frequently get plugged and become displacement piles. The H
pile also, behaves like this.
Equation 2-1
In principle
the
The analysis of pile foundation is a rather complex task and there are two major
approaches to the design of a pile (University of Bolton 2010).
Pile carrying capacity estimation from driving formula and load test. This is
only suitable for sands/gravels or stiff clay and
Equation 2-2
If the stratification of the soil in which pile will be embedded has been
determined.
If the validity of the formula has been tested before with experimental
evidence of satisfactory performance on static load test of same pile type,
of similar cross section, material and similar ground condition.
For end bearing piles in non-cohesive soil the value of the design
compressive resistance shall be determined according to clause 7.6.2.4
(ultimate compressive resistance from dynamic impact test)
If the pile driving test is carried on at least five piles distributed with
sufficient spacing in the piling area to determine the final series of blow
counts.
The penetration of the pile point for the final series of blow must be
recorded.
Shaft resistance
Base resistance
Engineers believe that at failure the ultimate value of theses resistance are fully
mobilised i.e.
Qu = Qs + Qb
Equation 2-3
Also, British Standsrd Institute (BSi), (2004) clause 7.6.2.3(1-8) provides that if
soil mechanics expression is used to compute the design compressive
resistance of a pile, then a model factor of safety shall be introduced and that:
Equation 2-4
10
and
Where Rb;k and Rs;k are the characteristic values of the base and shaft
resistance and yb and ys are partial factors of safety.
According to clause 8 the characteristic resistance of the base and shaft may be
determined by:
and
Equation 2-5
Where Ab and As;I are areas of base and shaft respectively of the pile and qb;k
and qs;I;k are characteristic values of the base resistance and shaft friction of
various stratum of the soil, determined from various ground parameters.
For slender piles passing through water or thick deposit of extremely low
strength fine soil, the pile should be checked for buckling.
That a check is not required for buckling if the pile or piles are contained
in soil with shear strength exceeding cu 10KPa.
The interpretation of the code in practice is to say that statement (1) above refers
to partially free standing piles, as water or extremely low strength soil cannot
offer any resistance to help the piles buckling capacity. In practice, piles are
driven into a hard soil medium of good bearing capacity with c u greater than
10KPa. Buckling is only checked for the assumed unsupported length passing
through weak soil medium or water or just unsupported as in beach structures
and off-shore platforms. The figure below shows a partially embedded pile with
unsupported length L1 in the first region over which buckling is estimated. The
second region is the supported length if and only if it has shear strength with cu
equal to or greater that 10KPa. Buckling will be discussed further in chapter four
(4).
11
Also, the figure below is a practical approach of the buckling analysis of a helical
pile passing through soft clay to a hard stratum. As in the model, buckling is only
computed over the assumed unsupported length of 15ft.
12
2.7 Summary
In summary this chapter highlights the following:
Piles are a type of deep foundation used when shallow foundations are
not adequate.
Piles are of different class e.g. displacement piles; driven piles; concrete
piles; steel piles; special piles etc.
Also, piles can be analysed either by the pile driving formula or soil
mechanics expressions for bearing capacity.
13
Chapter 3. SCOUR
3.1 Introduction
This chapter talks about scour which is a form of hydrological erosion. It presents
an exposition on the different ideology in terms of what scour really is. The
chapter also talks about different types of scour and how scour depths are
predicted, both for piles and abutment scour.
3.2 Definition
Scour is the removal of the granular bed material surrounding coastal structures
by hydrodynamic forces. It is a specific form of erosion. Scour occurs when ever
the hydrodynamic critical shear stress is greater than the sediments critical shear
stress (Hughes 2002). Scour refers to localized loss of soil often around a
foundation element. It occurs when water flows around obstructions in the water
column, as the water passes around the object, its direction changes and it also
accelerates carrying with it erodible soil. Also, erodible soil can be carried away
by wave action striking against maritime structure foundations (Federal
Emergency Management Agency, 2009). Both Hughes, (2002) and Federal
Emergency Management Agency, (2009) agree that scour is localized;
surrounding the coastal structure and the cause is suggestive of the presence of
the coastal structure or foundation on a waterway underlined by erodible bed and
not eroding of the bed caused by the force of the moving water. Greco,
Carravetta, & Morte, (2004), believe that it is not correct to define scour as the
removal of sediments from stream beds or banks caused by moving water. In
their book, they said the significant marker of the definition of scour is the term
local or localised. Whereas, according to Coleman & Melville, (2001), scour can
exist irrespective of the presence of a structure and it could be long term or short
term they called this type of scour general scour. They also went further to
explain that the short term general scour occurs during a single or closely
spaced flood periods and that they occur at channel confluences; or as a result
of shift in the channels thalweg (a line defining the lowest point along a river bed
) or braids within the channel; scour at bends and bed form migration. However,
the long term general scour is of the order of several years and includes
progressive degradation and erosion of the lateral bank. Also, in agreement with
14
the general scour ideology is Agrawal, Khan, & Yi, (2007) in their report
Handbook on Scour Countermeasures Designs.
Ideology that scour is not only local and caused by the structure; that it includes
degradation of the channels bed:
Figure 3-3 Scour in Pile Group in a Bridge Figure 3-4 Pile Group Affected by Erosion
15
Figure 3-5 Pictorial Representation of the Difference between Scour and Erosion
16
3-6 Local Scour around a Single Pile Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA), (2011)
17
Where,
such case the piles can be treated as a single pile porous structure Sheppard &
Niedoroda, (1992) citing Jones, (1989). For
scour exist (Sheppard & Niedoroda 1992). Contrary to Sheppard & Niedoroda,
(1992); Yasser, (2012) in his experiment with different arrangement of pile
groups discovered that the scour depth increases from
to
which seems to be the limit of his research. He also said that global scour is also
affected by arrangement of the piles whether triangular, tandem or side by side
arrangement. In his report the side by side arrangement had more scour depth
than any other arrangement and for
less distinct for
18
In this research the definition of scour for the method is limited to local and global
scour. From evidence given in various researches and other literatures Hughes,
(2002); Mostafa & Agamy, (2011); Yasser, (2012); Rudolph, Rietema & Out
(2003); Federal Emergency Management Agency, (2009) and Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), (2011); most monopiles will suffer
scour up to a maximum of twice the piles diameter where there are no global
structural interference as in wind turbine and in pile groups, to a maximum of
eight times a piles diameter without any other structural interference like pile
jackets in some off-shore platforms or lateral bracings in the water.
Local and global scour typifies the type of scouring associated with marine
structures piling that are partially free-standing without any lateral support or
ground beam within the water surface. The presence of another structure like a
lateral support for the piles in the water will cause a global effect that will
increase the scour depth more than when there is no such structure. This
situation is not considered in this literature as there is no clear scientific method
of predicting the extent of the effect. (Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) 2011), in section 8.11 provides that two feet (2ft) should be added to the
total scour depth during analysis when there is the presence of such structure as
ground beam or ground slab. Mathematically, this cannot be correlated for
different sizes of ground beam or slabs. Consequently, this thesis definition of
scour is limited to scour caused solely by the piles interference to flow.
According to Hughes, (2002), for small diameter vertical piles with D < L/10 the
physical process involved in the formation of scour are:
He went further to say the key parameters are: the current magnitude; orbital
wave velocity and diameter of the pile. He is of the opinion that the sediment size
and pile shape is less important. This he explained with the sort of figure below.
He went further to say that the maximum scour depth is about twice the diameter
of the pile and felt it was conservative to say so. This is true for group piles
causing global scour and not for single piles (Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA) 2011), (Rudolph, Rietema & Out 2003).
20
Scour formation increases the unbraced length of piles which stresses the
pile and increases the bending moment. This can cause buckling of the
pile.
Linear scour across a building site may like increase foundation flood
loads or lateral loads.
21
Affairs, co-sponsored by the oil and gas industry to verify some of these formulas
stated below. Details of the analysis can be found in their work.
Equation 3-1
Equation 3-2
Where, t is the time in years of the measured of the predicted scour depth.
D is the diameter of the pile.
u is the tidal mean velocity.
uc is the velocity of the current.
d50 is size of the grain at the bed around the pile.
This equation is derived for tidal flow only. Rudolph, Rietema & Out, (2003),
explained that the difference in estimation with this formula could result from a
slightly higher tidal mean velocity in reality and also the occurrence of higher flow
storm velocity. In essence results gotten from this prediction formula is in most
cases smaller than field measurements but very close to it and in their work was
smaller and the cause as explained above.
Breusers et al (1977):
Equation 3-3
Where h is the water depth and all other parameters remains as defined.
This prediction formula by Breusers et al (1977) is for flow only and it is
independent of grain size, hydraulic conditions and time. It only gives the
maximum expected scour depth and its prediction during this research was very
close to field measurements.
22
Equation 3-4
With A = 0.03 + 0.75.
, KC =
, B = 6.
Equation 3.7-4 is an equation that account for waves and currents for the
estimation of scour depth around cylindrical piles. It is only valid for 4 < KC < 25.
According to the researchers the values computed from this formula was rather
very conservative as it under estimates the scour depth. What was clear from
this verification exercise was the fact that the scour formation was still in
progress and the maximum expected scour depth was less than 2 times the
diameter of the pile.
They also researched on pile groups that were jacketed for interaction and found
out that the three formulas prediction where short by a factor of 3-4 times the
piles diameter when compared to field measurements. This was also true in the
Federal Emergency Management Agency, (2009), that most of the piles in group
were found to have suffered from scour exceeding twice the diameters of the
piles. However, Rudolph, Rietema & Out, (2003), did explain that the difference
was as result of the disturbing effect of the jacket structure close to the sea bed.
Another conclusion reached in their research was that of the diameter of the
scour; which was in orders of 30-40 times the diameter of the pile.
Hughes, (2002), also posited that the scour depth can be predicted by the
formula below.
Equation 3-5
Hughes, (2002), also believes that there are no analytical method for scour at
vertical piles caused by waves and current. Perhaps, is research was before
Sumer and Fredsoe in 2002. He concluded by saying it is important to note the
dominant scour mechanism for any scour analysis or design.
Equation 3-6
Equation 3-7
24
Where
D50 and D84 are particle sizes for the 16th, 50th and 84th percentile by weight of
particle size respectively.
water depth and the approach water velocity. K1 is correction factor for abutment
shape with values of 1.0, 0.82 and 0.55 for vertical wall, wing wall and spill
through abutment. K2 is the correction factor for the abutments alignment with
respect to the direction of flow
Where
discharge and Qblock the block discharge by the approach embankment; qf1 is the
unit flow rate with effect of back water by abutment at the approach section,
(
); qc0 is the critical unit flow rate in the flood plain without the effect
of backwater, (
plain and Vfc0 is the critical velocity of the flood plain without backwater effect
; Gs is the specific gravity of the cohesionless
soil, kn is the constant in Strickler-type relationship for Mannings n (
),
is the critical value of Shields parameter, yf0 is water depth on flood plain
without any backwater effect and the approach water depth on the flood plain is
yf1.
25
The figure (9) Fayazi & Farghadan, (2012) above is an abutment failure caused
by scour evident by the depression. It was reported the failure was due to poor
hydraulic design and lack of maintenance of the bridge. The figure (10) Federal
Emergency Management Agency, (2009) below is a differential settlement
caused by scour formation.
26
3.8 Summary
The chapter in summary has been able to underscore that:
Scour are of different types usually associated with the bridge structure
e.g. clear water scour; contraction scour; local scour and general scour.
Also, certain conditions must be present for scour formation to occur e.g.
the right current magnitude; the structure; local flow accelerations;
erodible bed etc.
There are lots of scour depth prediction formula but are only accurate if
they match the condition e.g. wave only or wave and current or current
only.
It is also mentioned that in the case of piles the equilibrium scour depth
does exceed twice the diameter of the piles even up to four times four
group piles.
27
4.2 Buckling
The buckling of slender foundation elements is a common worry for foundation
and structural engineers. As cited by Chance, (2003), many researchers have
addressed the buckling of micro-piles and piles (Bjerrum (1957), Davisson
(1963), Mascardi (1970), Gouvenot (1975)) and their findings came to the
conclusion that only in very loose soil such as sand, peat and clay (with very low
strength properties) that buckling of pile is likely to occur. The Euro code does
support this belief system as well and does treat the buckling of piles rather
conservatively when it stated that buckling should not be checked for piles
embedded in soil with undrained shear strength greater than 10Kpa. However,
the situation for partially free standing piles is becoming more and more
important today because they suffer from buckling. Due to the absence of lateral
support or bracing along its unsupported length, the partially embedded pile is
even of more structural importance than ordinary columns in building when it
comes to buckling. Piles are even more vulnerable to buckling because of
induced eccentricities during installation which is inevitable even under the best
of monitoring and instrumentation conditions (Senthil, Babu, & Pareswaran,
2007). According to Bhattacharya & Bolton, (2004), when structures fail, they
most often result from actions that have been overlooked by designer as
secondary, instead of inadequate factor of safety. The current codes of practice
for pile design such as the Euro code is based on bending mechanism due to
lateral loads. These codes have not considered avoiding the buckling of piles
due to axial loads acting on them caused by diminishing confining pressure
around the pile. He went further to say the current codes have not addressed the
issue of buckling and buckling needs to be addressed for it is the most
destructive form of failure and occurs suddenly.
28
Equation 4-1
Equation 4-2
The elastic critical load of a pile can be estimated base on the effective length of
the Euler buckling load for an equivalent pin ended strut. The figure below is
adopted from the column stability theory and it shows the concept of the effective
length theory to normalise the different boundary conditions for pile tip and head.
The simplest way to compute the buckling load of a piled building is to estimate
the buckling load of one pile and multiply it by the total number of piles in the
building. It is of note to point out here that the buckling of piles is different from
normal column buckling available in many literatures; this is because for pile
29
buckling the top of the pile is free to translate laterally unless raked piles are
used (Bhattacharya & Bolton, 2004).
A pile represents the most general form of a bi-axial bending beam-column i.e., a
column carrying lateral load (Bhattacharya & Bolton, 2004). According to
Timoshenko & Gere, (1963) the lateral deflections caused by lateral loads get
amplified by the column or piles axial load. They stated that if
deflection due to lateral loads then the final deflection
the term (
is the initial
equation below.
Equation 4-3
Where P is the allowable longitudinal force and Pcr is the buckling load. However
in this literature lateral loads are not considered only, axially loaded piles. Thus,
buckling amplification factor will not be discussed further.
30
Equation 4-4
Equation 4-5
Equation 4-6
Where,
is taken as constant
From figure below it is evident that the boundary condition is of significance and
for a free unrestrained ended pile, the buckling load is the smallest. Table ...
provides the modulus of sub-grade reaction for different soils.
31
Note: The chart above was presented by Poulos and Davis 1980. It is used for
determining the dimensionless Ucr after computing Imax.
Clay
Equation 4-7
Sand
Equation 4-8
32
Where
is depth of fixity;
is the moment of
in
The equivalent
is given by, (
), where
of the pile. It is inputted in the Euler buckling formula for an eccentrically loaded
structure.
Equation 4-2
33
reaction of the soil. Reese & Van Impe, (2001), said that the finite difference
differential equation is adopted to achieve compatibility between pile
displacement and load transfer along a pile shaft and also between the
displacement and resistance at the tip of the pile. However, they did mention that
close agreement has been found for piles in clay with experimental evidence
matching finite difference result citing Coyle and Reese, (1966) and whereas the
results are a bit scattered when it comes to piles in sand citing Coyle &
Sulaiman, (1967). This they tried to explain by saying the effect of the driving of
pile into soil is more severe in sand than in clays in terms of load transfer
characteristics however, the finite difference method can be employed to deal
with any complex composition of soil layers with any nonlinear relationship of
shear versus displacement and can tolerate improvement in the soil criteria
without any alteration to the basic theory.
Equation 4-10
Where
He also said the above equation can be modified by approximating the soil
medium to an elastic medium of stiffness
below.
Equation 4-11
The term in the bracket is the total stiffness of a beam on an elastic foundation.
34
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply Chapt to the text that you want to
appear here.-4 Finite Element Idealization of Pile Soil Interaction
4.4 Summary
The research in this chapter has been able to discuss the following:
The buckling load for any structure, due to eccentricity is smaller than the
Euler load.
That the Euler buckling load is the static axial load for which a frame
supported on vertical columns becomes laterally unstable. That is;
buckling is a stability problem.
35
5.2 Definition
Soil structure interaction is the process in which the reaction of the soil
influences the motion of the structure and the motion of the structure also
influences the reaction of the soil; neither the structural or ground displacement
are independent of each other (Hallak, 2012). According to BSi, (2007) it is the
mutual influence of deformation between a foundation or retaining structure and
the soil. According to Dutta & Roy, (2002), there is always an interdependence of
the components of a structure supported by more than one component. They
illustrated this statement with the figure below. They posited that at the central
support, soil below it settle the most due to higher concentration of load over it.
However, the framing action as a result of the beam connecting all three columns
will cause a load transfer to the end columns as soon as the central column
tends to settle more. Thus the forces acting and the final settlement can only be
obtained by considering this interaction, hence, the need for soil-structure
interaction otherwise known as SSI.
36
However, Murthy, (2002), citing Vesic, (1961) says the errors inherent in the
Winklers model is not significant.
Equation 5-1
38
Alternatively, the interaction between the beam or beam column and the soil
under axial and transverse loading can be written in matrix stiffness formulation
as below.
Equation 5-2
Equation 5-3
Equation 5-4
Equation 5-5
is the modified flexural stiffness matrix to include the reaction of the soil.
5.2.1.2 Modelling the Spring Stiffness
In the Winkler type model, an important parameter in the modelling of the soil
spring is the subgrade reaction. Terzaghi, (1955), subgrade reaction of slab or
beam is the pressure p per unit area of the contact surface between the slab or
beam and the subgrade in which it is planted. The subgrade reaction at any
39
distance x from the midpoint of the length of a loaded plate or beam is given by
the expression below.
Equation 5-6
is the coefficient of
From the figure above the unit is force per unit area per displacement for
coefficient or modulus of subgrade reaction (Bezgin 2010). There is another bit
of confusion that arises when the term coefficient or modulus of subgrade
reaction is referred to as spring constant as seen in many literatures Pavement
Interactive (2007), Monaco & Marchetti, (2004) as the units are not the same.
Spring constant from Hookes law is force per unit length contrary to coefficient
of subgrade reaction force per unit area per length. A simple explanation to this
is to say; the coefficient of subgrade reaction is the coefficient of the spring
constant (in a Winklers type model) around the loaded area such that multiplying
40
Equation 5-7
Where
, is coefficient of
Lose
Medium
Dense
for
Dry or moist sand, Proposed values
13857
45036
173214
8661
27714
103929
Equation 5-8
, and
is determinable
For cohesive soils the vertical subgrade reaction can be determined by the
expression below.
41
(Terzaghi 1955).
Equation 5-9
Table 5-2 Ks1 values (KN/m3) for pre-compressed clay (Terzaghi 1955)
Consistency of Clay
Stiff
Values of
Range for
KN/sq.m
square plate
Very Stiff
Hard
17321-34643 34643-69286
>69286
51964
103929*
Equation 5-10
is the effective
Table 5-3
and
Relative Density
Lose
Ranges of values of
(KN/m3)
Medium
Dense
2425
7275
19400
(KN/m3) 1386
4850
11779
42
Equation 5-11
correlations from previous test and research can be used Terzaghi, (1955) and
Bezgin, (2010).
can be assumed to be
same clay. The error in this assumption is on the safe side because the
horizontal deflection of a pile of an assumed with 30cm is smaller than that of a
strip of equivalent width on the same clay and at an equal surface pressure per
unit area (Terzaghi 1955). Below are expressions proposed by different
researchers.
(Terzaghi 1955)
, and
are the secant modulus and undrained shear strength of the soil
respectively.
(Vasani 2003). According to Dutta & Roy, (2002), to make it simple, the soil is
considered isotropic and semi-infinite when modelling and that the effect of soil
layering and anisotropy could be accounted for during the analysis. They also
said that the approach provides more information on the deformation and
stresses within the soil mass and Vasani, (2003), in his work agrees to this when
he said the response function of an elastic half-space/plain is characterized by
the deflected shape of the surface of the elastic medium subjected to a
concentrated stress/force of infinite extent. Both authors agree that this
idealisation is a lot more intricate from a mathematical view point and Dutta &
Roy, (2002) believes, this limits the application of this model severely despite
stating that there is the advantage of simplicity of input parameters over the
Winklers model viz the poisons ratio and modulus of elasticity. One of the major
setbacks of this model is the inaccurate prediction of the reactions around the
peripheries of the foundation and for soil in reality displacement decreases
downward more rapidly than it is predicted by this model (Dutta & Roy, 2002).
5.3 Summary
The chapter in summary is:
There are basically two classical mathematical models that closely model
the soil structure interaction realistically; the Winklers and Continuum
model.
Winklers model is widely used because results gotten from it are more
realistic and it is also mathematically easier to model.
The major limitation of the Winklers model is that it does not consider the
soil as a continuum and the transmissibility of load through inter-soil layer
coupling is also ignored.
44
and
sand.
Equation 5-10
, is
Equation 6-1
Where is the equivalent spring stiffness for the soil and is half the surface
area of the pile.
To model the pile-soil interaction of the representative piles in the group model
correctly; the modulus ( ) deterioration is considered according to Arizona
Department of Transportation (ADOT), (2010) citing Prakash, (1990), who found
that for spacing between piles greater than 8 times the diameter of the piles,
neighbouring piles have no effect on the soil modulus or buckling resistance.
However, at a spacing 3 times the diameter, the soil modulus is reduced by 25%.
For other spacing the value of the soil modulus can be interpolated. In this
research 50% deterioration is considered thus the table below.
(KN/m3) 1000
3000
9000
(KN/m3) 500
1500
4500
saves a lot time which is not available for an analytical approach to the problem.
Also, the FEM models will yield more accurate results as the model is not treated
as a unit as in analytical methods but as little individual elements whose
individual response is summed up together to give the FEM result.
6.2.5 Software:
StaadPro finite element software is the software of choice because of its
popularity in the modelling industry and availability for the purpose of academic
work under a special license agreement from the University of East London. It
can be used to do several analysis ranging from linear to non-linear; p-delta and
including buckling which is estimated by computing the buckling factor. The
buckling factor is a factor by which the applied load is multiplied to get the
buckling load. One of the major reasons for choosing this software is that of level
of accuracy, though no other software was tested; this is able to estimate the
buckling capacity with an error less than 0.3 % - 4% as shown in the verification.
6.3 Procedure:
The procedure involves modelling the geometry of the sample pile in Staad
software using staad space. Staad space is used because buckling is analysed
on the weakest axis of a structure and at such the software is able to check all
three axis as against plane and give a correct response. The geometry is broken
into forty (40) elements using the insert node function. Twelve elements is the
number of elements beyond which the buckling factor calculated by Staad does
not change significantly for the unsupported sample pile. In addition to the
existing elements; twenty more elements are created of the twenty elements in
the embedded half of the pile. This is necessary to model the pile soil interaction
correctly with little error by using nodes that are closely spaced so that no
change is caused when splitting up elements further by inserting nodes to model
the investigated scour depth correctly. Nodes are inserted at the very points
where the springs representing the soil stiffness are attached. The steel material
and circular geometry is modelled in the Section Property tab and applied to all
elements. The spring stiffness is inserted for Kx and Kz in the Fixed But tab and
inserted into the appropriate nodes. The Pile head is modelled using springs as
47
well but of very high stiffness. The applied load of which the buckling factor is
calculated for this research has been chosen to be 100KN. In the analysis print
tab, buckling analysis is selected but with a minimum of 30 iterations which is the
number of iterations required to give a stable result for the largest pile model.
48
Chapter 7. VERIFICATION
7.1 Overview
This chapter verifies the generated FEM models and the utilised corresponding
boundary conditions representing the pile cap and the soil medium against two
special cases of which analytical results are available. The model is verified
against the Euler buckling load theory see chapter 4 page (29) and the modified
Euler load theory of piles in clay by Davissons (Chance 2003). Also, this chapter
sets the limit as to the accuracy of the Results chapter (chapter 8) and at the end
would have verified chapter six (6), the methods chapter.
Equation 4-1
49
For a fixed-pin ended column K is 0.7 and solving that for a column (equivalent
of a pile with no soil support) with the following geometrical characteristics,
diameter 0.15m and length 12m with modulus of elasticity of 205GPa gives
713.99KN. The finite element model produced a value of 713.75KN when divided
into ten elements and changed no further even with more elements.
50
For a fixed-fixed boundary condition K=0.5 and for a pile with the same geometry
as above the critical buckling load of the column is 1399.43KN and the finite
element model produced a buckling strength of 1395.00KN
51
For the same column but with a pinned-pinned boundary condition K=1 and the
Euler buckling load is 349.86KN and the finite element model yielded 349.06KN.
52
Fixed-Pin
(KN)
1060.63
FixedFixed (KN)
inconclusive
Pin-Pin
(KN)
424.38
714.38
1398.75
349.06
10
713.75
1395.00
349.06
20
713.99
1395.00
349.06
Where,
is taken as constant
53
Ip
Ep
1.5 inch
0.396 inch
0.0381 m
2.107x10 m
-6
30x10 psi
4
206842719 KN/m
Table 7-3 Variation of Pcr with No: of Nodes having Spring Stiffness
Nodes
3
4
9
18
Pcr(Ib)
33,575.00
69,000.00
148,000.00
205,800.00
Pcr(KN)
149.35
306.93
658.34
915.44
The table above shows that the more nodes created having spring stiffness
equivalent to that of the soil at that level the higher the buckling capacity of the
54
pile. The closer the nodes are to one another the more accurate the result is to
modelling the soil stiffness.
Table 7-4
Pile Head Boundary
Pcr (KN)
Condition
Pcr (KN)
(KN/m; KN-m/)
Fixed
23,255.00
(728,000;70,000)
23,137.50
Pinned
11,893.75
(728,000;0)
11,893.75
Free
1,463.20
(0;0)
1,463.20
7.5 Conclusion
The above two verification proves that the model can be used. The first
verification shows that the model can be used in estimating the buckling capacity
of a column (the equivalent of a pile with no soil support). The second verification
shows that the finite element software (StaadPro) can be used to model a beam
in a Winklers type foundation successfully. Also, it shows that the level of
accuracy depends on the number of nodes created and the number springs
introduced to these nodes. The more the nodes created having spring stiffness
representing soil stiffnesses at the level of the nodes the more accurate the
model is to the soil as a continuum and not a series of individual springs in the
pile-soil-interaction. The last verification shows that the various pile heads can be
modelled by inputting equivalent spring stiffnesses in the model.
55
Chapter 8. RESULTS
8.1 Overview
This chapter presents the important results of the research which this thesis has
carried out and verified in chapter 7. It is important to remind the reader what this
thesis is all about again. This research is to show how scouring around piles
affect the tendency of the piles to buckle by looking at two categories of piles.
Piles with enough spacing to be regarded as monopiles or monopiles or piles
affected by the group effect (Soil stiffness/modulus deterioration and global scour
effects). It is important to recall the research questions to be able to appreciate
the results.
1. How does the buckling capacity of a partially free standing pile vary with
scour depth?
2. How does Pile Group action affect the buckling capacity of a scoured
partially free standing pile?
3. To what extent does the soil condition affect the buckling capacity of a
scoured partially free standing pile?
4. What is the response of a scoured partially free standing pile buckling
capacity to different pile head stiffnesses assuming full fixity of pile tip?
See Appendix A for results on normalised scour depth gotten from literature
review and below is a figure of the finite element model.
56
In figure 8-1 to 8-3 it can be seen clearly that the relationship between Pcr and
the normarlised scour depth is an inverse relationship. The buckling strength
decreased with increasing normalised scour depth. The relationship appears to
be linear for all diameters. These graphs also show that buckling strength
increases with pile diameter.
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
0.5
1.5
2.5
Figure 8-2
57
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
0.5
1.5
2.5
Figure 8-3
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
0.5
1.5
2.5
Figure 8-4
58
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
10
Figure 8-5
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
10
Figure 8-6
59
Pcr (KN)
Pcr30cm
Pcr40cm
Pcr50cm
Pcr60cm
Pcr70cm
10
Figure 8-7
8.3.1 Monopile
As seen in the graph below Pcr varies inversely with normalised scour depth and
the relationship is linear. It is also observed in the graph that the buckling
strength increases with increasing soil density. There is an increase of 6.72% of
the buckling strength of the pile from nh1 to nh2 soil, 6.28% from nh2 to nh3 and
13% of the buckling strength from nh1 soil to nh3 along any path of the curve.
60
Pcr (KN)
nh1(Loose)
nh2(Medium)
nh3(Dense)
0.5
1
1.5
2
Normalised Scour Depth (S/B)
2.5
Figure 8-8
Pcr (KN)
nh1
nh2
nh3
2
4
6
8
Normalised Scour Depth (S/B)
10
Figure 8-9
61
Pcr (KN)
20,000.0
15,000.0
10,000.0
5,000.0
0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Rotational Stiffness (KN-m//KN-m/)
Figure 8-10
Figure 8-11 shows that variation between the horizontal stiffness and the critical
buckling load is linear till a certain point where it becomes approximately
constant. The trend is the same at different scour depth but as the scour depth
reduces the embedment depth the critical buckling load reduces.
62
Pcr (KN)
20,000.0
15,000.0
Pcr0B
10,000.0
Pcr2B
Pcr4B
5,000.0
Pcr6B
0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Horizontal Stiffness (KN/m/KN/m)
Figure 8-11
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
30cm
40cm
50cm
Pile Diameter
60cm
70cm
Figure 8-12
63
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
30cm
40cm
50cm
Pile Diameter
60cm
70cm
Figure 8-13
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
40cm
50cm
60cm
70cm
Pile Diameter
Figure 8-14
64
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
40cm
50cm
60cm
70cm
Pile Diameter
Figure 8-15
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
40cm
50cm
60cm
70cm
Pile Diameter
Figure 8-16
% Decrease in Buckling
Strength
40cm
50cm
60cm
70cm
Pile Diameter
Figure 8-17
65
Chapter 9. DISCUSSION
9.1 Overview
In this chapter the results presented in the previous chapter will be thoroughly
discussed and analysed against previous researches. It will follow exactly the
same heading levels as the previous chapter.
Also, it was observed that the relationship between Pcr and the normalised scour
depth are linear for the mono-piles and group piles in all soil condition. When
compared to previous research by Cheng et al. (2010), this is different (see
appendix B). This difference may have arisen from the mathematical model, this
research has adopt a system of mutually independent linear springs Winkler type
whereas, the research by Cheng et al. (2010) used an approximated p-y curve
by Reese et al, (2004) generated by the software L-pile and the values are made
an input in a Multilinear spring model in StaadPro structural analysis software,
there by introducing non-linearities in their model. Also, in this research linearly
increasing soil stiffness with depth is considered whereas a p-y curve is gotten
either from experiment there by capturing non-linearities of the soil or from nonlinear mathematical model that relates soil depth to changes in modulus.
medium and dense sand. This is as expected and proves Davissons and
Robinsons Approach to pile buckling analysis to be right. Thus, stiffer soil
reduces the depth of fixity of the pile consequently reducing the buckling length
see page 31. The increase is 6.72% of the buckling strength of the pile from nh1
to nh2 soil, 6.28% from nh2 to nh3 and 13% of the buckling strength from nh1
soil to nh3 both for monopiles and group piles. However, at lower normalised
scour depth beyond 2B this difference is neglible. This corroborates findings from
the research of Cheng, et al. (2010) as seen in appendix B. The piles buckling
load increased from loose sand to dense sand, however the difference was small
and very minor at shallower scour depth Cheng, et al. (2010). Also, this conforms
to mathematical logic for as the scour depth increases the pile geometry and
material increasingly becomes the element of the buckling strength of the pilesoil interaction system. At scour depth equals depth of embeddment and
assuming full fixity of the pile tip all piles having the same geometry, boundary
conditions; made of the same material and having no imperfections will have the
same buckling ability because it would be an ideal Euler Buckling load case.
Also, the buckling strength was discovered to change rapidly with small changes
in the pile head rotational stiffness and the relationship was linear up to 20% of
the piles head rotational stiffness. At 20% and above with the horizontal stiffness
remaining constant the relationship is approximately constant for the pile soilinteraction system. As at the time of carrying out this research there are no
previous researches in this regard to corroborate the findings of this research.
However, at constant rotational stiffness and with varying horizontal stiffness the
critical buckling decreases for different scour depth and stays constant till a point
67
on the graph before a proportionate linear relationship of Pcr with variation in the
horizontal stiffness. This region of constant Pcr can be said to be caused by
redundancy provided by the constant rotational stiffness until there is sufficient
reduction in the horizontal stiffness to cause a change in Pcr.
For the results in the pile group the trend is similar to those of the monopiles
except that the percentage decrease is higher. The smallest decrease was 22%
of the initial buckling strength at zero scour depth for the 30cm pile and 37% for
the 70cm pile for the loose soil (nh1). This is however very large in the in the
dense soil. A 25% and 44% loss in buckling strength was recorded for the 30cm
pile and 70cm pile respectively (nh3).
68
findings,
significance,
limitation
of
the
research
and
10.2 Aims
Determine the buckling response for the above pile-soil system coupled
under different soil conditions loose, medium and dense sand (nh1, nh2
and nh3)
Determine the buckling response for the above pile-soil coupled system
under varying boundary stiffnesses for the pile head assuming full fixity of
pile tip.
10.3 Findings
The major findings are summarized below:
That the maximum scour depth that can occur around a pile that can be
analysed as a single pile (monopile) is twice the diameter of the pile and
69
between six to eight times the diameter of the pile if the pile is in a group
affected by the group action.
That scour decreases the buckling capacity of partially free standing piles
(the sample pile was assumed to be 50% embedded into the ground)
At the maximum scour depth around a partially free standing single pile
(monopile) the buckling capacity was reduced for the 30cm pile by and
3.5% and increased for different but increasing diameters of pile. It was
7% decrement of the initial buckling at scour depth zero for the 70cm
monopile. This suggests that scour does not largely impact single piles.
The maximum scour depth for piles in group affected by group action
resulted in 20% decrement of the initial buckling strength at scour depth
zero for the 30cm pile and 44% for the 70cm pile. This means that the
impact on pile group is very significant.
Also, analysis of the problem in different soil condition loose, medium and
dense sand (nh1, nh2 and nh3) yielded increases in buckling strength as
sand density increases. However, this was insignificant at shallower scour
depth. For the sample sand chosen the increase is 6.72% of the buckling
strength of the pile from nh1 to nh2 soil, 6.28% from nh2 to nh3 and 13%
of the buckling strength from nh1 soil to nh3 for both monopiles and group
piles.
Also, the analysis yielded increases in the buckling strength for varying
pile head stiffness assuming full fixity of the pile. Analysis yielded that
reduction in scour depth with reduction in the horizontal stiffness reduces
the critical buckling load and there is approximately no significant changes
with variations in rotational stiffness.
10.4 Significance
The significance of this research is that for the first time the buckling analysis of
partially free standing piles under scour effect has been separated into the
analysis of single pile and group piles affected by group action. Also, the
approach of the scour ideology is not generalized but defined. Also, this study
contributes immensely to the field of study of scour and its effects on the
buckling capacity of piles.
70
10.4.1
Significance of Findings
Also, result gotten from varying pile head stiffness is suggestive that there
might not be need for too much worry concerning construction to detail of
the stiffness of the pile-head as only approximately 20% of the required
full fixity stiffness yields approximately 97% of the possible buckling
capacity of such pile-soil coupled system.
10.5 Limitations
This study is limited to an axially loaded pile ignoring all possibilities of lateral
loading that may arise due to slope instability on river basins; current and wave
actions and wind actions there by ignoring any buckling amplification this might
have caused. Also, the study was limited to static loading hence the dynamic
stiffness of the soil was not considered.
10.7 Conclusion
This research has been able to corroborate previous research that scouring does
reduce the buckling capacity of piles. However, in this research it has been
discovered that for partially free standing piles analyzable as single piles the
case may not be alarming.
71
72
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76
Appendix A
Analysis of Scour Involving Erosion
Figure A-1 Quantitative Process for Estimating Total Scour Depth (Coleman &
Melville 2001)
The above figure shows the process of quantitative analysis for estimating the
total scour depth. This method of analysis is widely used in New Zealand and it
contradicts the very idea of the definition of scour in Civil Engineering. The
method involves the estimation of the depth of general degradation yms before
estimating other possible scour depth of the different types of scour possible in
the study area. The introduction of general degradation into the analysis
process makes the analysis an erosion analysis. A scour event does not include
general degradation.
Type of Work
Yasser, (2012)
Numerical
Research
Field
Verification
Field
Verification
Experimental
Research
Experimental
Research
Lecture Note
Code of
Practice
Single Pile
(S/B)
2
Group Pile
(S/B)
3
1.47
Nil
1.05
0.67
1.25
0.46
2
2
Nil
8
The above table show various values of normalised scour depth gotten from
different literatures. As seen from the table the maximum normalised scour
depth for a single pile is 2B and for the group piles is 8B. It is base on these
results that a maximum value of 2B and 8B for single piles and group piles
respectively has been adopted for use in this dissertation.
ii
Appendix B
Variation of Pcr with Pile head Stiffness
Pcr (KN)
Pcr (KN)
23,255.00
11,893.75
1,463.20
(728,000;70,000)
(728,000;0)
(0;0)
23,137.50
11,893.75
1,463.20
Table B-2
30cm Pile Dense Sand constant rotational Stiffness (63610KN-m/)
Horizontal
Stiffness
KN/m
0.00
0.10
230.00
0.20
460.00
0.30
690.00
0.40
920.00
0.50
1,150.00
0.60
1,380.00
0.70
1,610.00
0.80
1,840.00
0.90
2,070.00
1.00
2,300.00
Pcr0B
Pcr2B
Pcr4B
Pcr6B
KN
5,625.0
7,843.8
10,025.0
12,162.5
14,250.0
16,287.5
18,250.0
20,150.0
21,950.0
22,312.5
22,325.0
KN
5,450.0
7,700.0
9,912.5
12,075.0
14,187.5
16,237.5
18,237.5
20,150.0
21,625.0
21,650.0
21,650.0
KN
5,087.50
7,412.50
9,693.75
11,918.75
14,087.50
16,187.50
18,212.50
20,137.50
20,237.50
20,237.50
20,237.50
KN
4,712.50
7,125.00
9,481.25
11,781.25
14,012.50
16,162.50
18,212.50
18,762.50
18,762.50
18,762.50
18,762.50
The table B-2 shows the relationship between the critical buckling load of a
30cm pile with constant rotational stiffness for different scour depth.
iii
The figure above shows the plot of buckling load against scour depth from a
research by (Cheng et al. 2010). The result is non-linear because a non-linear
p-y curve by Reese et al, (2004) was used to approximate the soil stiffness in a
multilinear spring model StaadPro structural analysis software.
iv