Subject Code:EC1629

Communication

Subject :Digital

----------------------------------------------------------------------EC 1629 Digital Communication

(VI SEMESTER)
------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Subject Code:EC1629
Communication

Subject :Digital

UNIT 1 PULSE MODULATION

PART - A
1. State sampling theorem.
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher
than W hertz, is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at
instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds and,
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher
than W hertz, may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples
taken at the rate of 2W samples per second.
2. What is aliasing or fold over?
Aliasing effect takes place when sampling frequency is less than nyquist rate. Under such
condition, the spectrum of the sampled signal overlaps with itself. Hence higher frequencies
take the form of lower frequencies. This interference of the frequency components is call ed
aliasing effect.
3. Define Nyquist rate
Let the signal be band limited to W Hz. Then Nyquist rate is given as,
Nyquist rate = 2W samples/sec
Aliasing will not take place if sampling rate is greater than Nyquist rate.
4. What is meant by PCM?
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method of signal coding in which the message signal is
sampled; the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of
discrete levels and encoded so that both time and amplitude are represented in discrete
form. This allows the message to be transmitted by means of a digital waveform.
5. What is meant by quantization?

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While converting the signal value from analog to digital, quantization is performed. The
analog value is assigned to the nearest digital level. This is called quantization. The
quantized value is then converted to equivalent binary value. The quantization levels are
fixed depending upon the number of bits.
6. What is meant by prediction error?
The difference between the actual sample of the process at the time of interest and the
predictor output is called a prediction error.
7. Define delta modulation.
Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample. That is the present sample value
is compared with the previous sample value and the indication, whether the amplitude is
increased or decreased is sent.
8. Define adaptive delta modulation.
The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the step
size of the modulator assume a time- varying form. In particular, during a steep segment of
the input signal the step size is increased. Conversely,when the input signal is varying
slowly, the step is reduced , In this way, the step size is adapting to the level of the signal.
The resulting method is called adaptive delta modulation (ADM).
9. Name the types of uniform quantizer?
1. Mid tread type quantizer.
2. Mid riser type quantizer.
3. Biased type quantizer.
10. Define mid tread quantizer.
Origin of the signal lies in the middle of a tread of the staircase.

11. Define mid-riser quantizer?

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Subject :Digital

Origin of the signal lies in the middle of a riser of the staircase

12. Define quantization error?
Because of quantization, inherent errors are introduced in the signal. This error is called
quantization error.
13. What you mean by non-uniform quantization?
Step size is not uniform. Non-uniform quantizer is characterized by a step size that
increases as the separation from the origin of the transfer characteristics is increased. Nonuniform quantization is otherwise called as robust quantization
14. What do you mean by companding? Define compander.
The signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the receiver. This is called as
companding. The combination of a compressor and expander is called a compander.
15. What is PAM?
PAM is the pulse amplitude modulation. In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a
carrier consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulses is varied in proportion to sample
values of a message signal.
16. How the messages can be recovered from PAM.
The message can be recovered from PAM by passing the PAM signal through
reconstruction filter. The reconstructing filter integrates the amplitude of PAM pulses.
Amplitude smoothing of the reconstructed signal is done to remove amplitude
discontinuities due to pulses.
17. Write an expression for bandwidth of binary PCM with N messages each with a
maximum frequency of fm Hz.
If v number of bits are used to code each input sample, theb bandwidth of PCM is
given as,
BT >= N v fm
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Subject Code:EC1629
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Here v fm is the bandwidth required by one message.

18. What is meant by adaptive delta modulation?
In adaptive delta modulation, the step size is adjusted as per the slope of the input
signal. Step size is made high if slope of the input signal is high. This avoids slope
distortion.
19. What is the advantage of delta modulation over pulse modulation schemes?
Delta modulation encodes one bit per sample. Hence signaling rate is reduced in
DM.
20. What is the advantage of delta modulation over PCM?
Delta modulation transmits only one bit for one sample. Thus the signaling
rate and transmission channel bandwidth is quite small for delta modulation.
The transmitter and receiver implementation is very much simple for delta
modulation. There is no analog to digital converter involved in delta
modulation.
21. What are the different types of sampling techniques?
Ideal sampling or Instantaneous or Impulse sampling
Natural Sampling
Flat Top or Rectangular pulse sampling.
22. Define TDM
In PAM, PDM, PWM the pulse is present for short duration and form most of the
the time between the two pulse can be occupied by pulses from other channels. This is
called Time Division Multiplexing.
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23. What is the disadvantage of delta modulation?

The delta modulation has two drawbacks
Slope overloads distortion or Startup error
The rate of rise of input signal x(t) is so high that the staircase signal cannot
approximate it, the step size becomes too small for staircase signal u(t) to
follow the steep segment of x(t). Thus there is a large error between the
staircase approximated signal and the original input signal x(t). This error is
called slope overload distortion. To reduce this error, the step size should be
increased when slope of the signal x(t) is high.
Granular noise or Hunting noise
Granular noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to small
variations in the input signal. That is for very small variations in the input
signal, the staircase signal is changed by large amount because of large
step size.The error between the input and approximated signal is called
granular noise.
24. How to reduce slope overload noise and granular noise in DM?
The large step size is required to accommodate wide dynamic range of the input
signal to reduce slope overload distortion and small step size are required to reduce granular
noise. Adaptive delta modulation is the modification to overcome these errors.
25. What are the advantages of adaptive delta modulation?
The signal to noise ratio is better than ordinary delta modulation because of the
reduction in slope overload distortion and granular noise.
Because of the variable step size, the dynamic range of ADM is wide.
Utilization of bandwidth is better than delta modulation.
26. Compare PCM and DPCM.
Parameter
1. Number of bits

PCM
It can use 4, 8, or 16 bits/sample

DPCM
Bits can be more than
One but are less than

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PCM

2. BW

Highest BW is required

BW required is lower
than PCM

3. Feedback

There is no feedback in Tx and Rx

Feedback exists.

4. Application

Audio and video telephony

Speech and video

PART B
1. Draw the block diagram of PCM transmitter and receiver and explain functions of
each.
2. Explain delta modulation system with block diagram and discuss the noise in delta
modulation.
3. Explain Adaptive delta modulation system with block diagram and discuss the
advantage of adaptive delta modulation.
4. Draw the block diagram of differential PCM transmitter and receiver and explain
functions of each.
5. With neat diagram explain Time Division Multiplexer.
6. Draw and explain the different methods of pulse modulation.(16)

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Subject Code:EC1629
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UNIT 2 BASEBAND PULSE TRANSMISSION

PART A
1. Define data signaling Rate.
Data signaling rate is defined as the rate measured in terms bits per second(b/s) at which
data are transmitted.
Data signaling rate Rb=I/Tb
Where Tb=bit duration.
2. Define modulation rate.
It is defined as the rate at which signal level is changed depending on the nature of
the format used to represent the digital data. It is measured in Bauds or symbols per second.
3. State NRZ unipolar format
In this format binary 0 is represent by no pulse and binary 1 is Represented by the
positive pulse.
4. State NRZ polar format.
Binary 1 is represented by a positive pulse and binary 0 is represented by a Negative pulse.
5. State NRZ bipolar format.
Binary 0 is represented by no pulse and binary one is represented by the alternative positive
and negative pulse.

6. State Manchester format.

Binary 0 first half bit duration negative pulse and the second half

bit duration positive

pulse.
Binary 1 first half bit duration positive pulse and the second half Bit duration negative
pulse.

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7. What is an eye pattern?

Eye Pattern is used to study the effect of intersymbol interference.
8. What is the width of the eye?

(L 1)

It defines the time interval over which the received waveform can be sampled without
error from inter symbol interference.
9. What is sensitivity of an eye?

(L 1)

The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye
as the sampling time is varied.
10. What is margin over noise?

(L 1)

The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time defines the margin over noise.
11. What is Inter symbol interference?

(L 1)

The transmitted signal will undergo dispersion and gets broadened during its transmission
through the channel. So they happen to collide or overlap with the adjacent symbols in the
transmission. This overlapping is called Inter Symbol Interference.
12. How eye pattern is obtained?

(L 1)

The eye pattern is obtained by applying the received wave to the vertical deflection plates
of an oscilloscope and to apply a saw tooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate to the
horizontal deflection plate.
13. Draw the waveform for NRZ Unipolar waveform for binary data 01101001

14. Draw the waveform for Polar NRZ signaling for binary data 01101001
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15. Draw the waveform for Unipolar RZ signaling for binary data 01101001

16. Draw the waveform for Bipolar RZ signaling for binary data 01101001

17. Draw the waveform for Split-phase or Manchester code for binary data 01101001

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Subject Code:EC1629
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Subject :Digital

PART B
1. Discuss the principles of correlative coding.
2.Describe the data communications modems and explain where they are used in data
communications circuits(16)
3.Explain Inter symbol Interference (ISI). How it is avoided?
4.What is eye pattern? Explain the measurement of different parameters using eye
pattern. Explain the various data formats and compare them.
5. Explain the following

channel voice coder

linear predictive coder

UNIT 3 PASSBAND PULSE TRANSMISSION

PART A
1. Define QAM.
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a form of digital modulation where the digital
information is contained in both the amplitude and phase of the transmitted
carrier.
2. What is the error probability of a binary FSK System?
Error probability of binary FSK is given as,
Pe = 1 erfc 0.6E
2

N0

Where E = PTb is energy of one bit

and N0 is the psd of white noise.
2
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3. Compare binary PSK with QPSK.

4. Differentiate coherent and non coherent methods.

Coherent (synchronous) detection: In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. The detection is done by
correlating received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detection is a
synchronous detection.
Non coherent (envelope) detection: This type of detection does not need receiver carrier to
be phase locked with transmitter carrier. The advantage of such a system is that the system
becomes simple, but the drawback is that error probability increases. The different digital
modulation techniques are used for specific application areas. The choice is made such that
the transmitted power and channel bandwidth are best exploited.
5. What are antipodal signals?
In BPSK, the two symbols are transmitted with the help of following signals,
Symbol 1 s1 (t) = 2P cos (2 f0 t)
Symbol 0 s2 (t) = 2P cos (2 f0 t + )
Here observe that above two signals differ only in a relative phase shift of 180. Such signals
are called antipodal signals.
6. Which digital modulation technique gives better error probability?
Binary PSK gives reduced error probability compared to ASK and FSK. It is given as,
Pe = 1 erfc E
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N0

7. What are the advantages of QPSK as compared to BPSK?

1. For the same bit error rate, the bandwidth required by QPSK Is reduced to half as
compared to BPSK.
2. Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher.
3. Variation in QPSK amplitude is not much. Hence carrier power almost remains constant.
8. What are the requirements for a digital modulation scheme?
Maximum data rate
Minimum probability of symbol error
Minimum transmitted power
Minimum channel bandwidth
Maximum resistance to interfering signals
Minimum circuit complexity
9. Sketch the waveform of ASK for binary sequence 1001011.

10. Differentiate ASK and FSK.

ASK

FSK

a. The two frequencies are integer multiple

The difference between the 2

of base band frequencies and at the same

frequencies is minimum and at the

time they are orthogonal.

same time they are orthogonal.

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Subject :Digital

b. BW=4fb

BW=1.5fb

c. This is binary modulation

This is quadrature modulation

11. Define DPSK.

Differential phase shift keying is differentially coherent modulation method. DPSK
does not need a synchronous carrier at the demodulator. The input sequence of binary bits is
modified such that the next bit depends upon the previous bit. Therefore in the receiver the
previous bits are used to detect the present bit.
12. Give the equation for average probability of symbol error for coherent BPSK.
Average probability of signal error,
Pe = 1 / 2 erfc Eb / No
13. Define QPSK.
QPSK is Quadrature phase shift keying. In QPSK the phase of the carrier takes on one of
the four equally spaced values Such as /4, 3/4, 5 /4 and 7 /4.
14. Define Dibit.
A unique pair of bits is called a dibit. Gray encoded set of dibits 10, 00, 01 & 11.
15. Give the two basic operation of DPSK transmitter.
Differential encoding of the input binary wave
Phase shift keying hence, the name differential phase shift keying
16. Define deviation ratio in MSK.
The parameter h is defined by

h= Tb(f1-f2)

h is deviation ratio , measured with respect to bit rate 1/Tb.

17. What is carrier synchronization?
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The carrier synchronization is required in coherent detection methods to generate a coherent

reference at the receiver. In this method the data bearing signal is modulated on the carrier
in such a way that the power spectrum of the modulated carrier signal contains a discrete
component at the carrier frequency.

18. What are the two methods for carrier synchronization?

Carrier synchronization using Mth Power loop
Costas loop for carrier synchronization
19. What is called symbol or bit synchronization?
In a matched filter or correlation receiver, the incoming signal is sampled at the end of
one bit or symbol duration. Therefore the receiver has to know the instants of time at which
a symbol or bit is transmitted. That is the instants at which a particular bit or symbol status
and when it is ended. The estimation of these times of bit or symbol is called symbol or bit
synchronization.
20. What are the two methods of bit and symbol synchronization?
Closed loop bit synchronization
2) Early late gate synchronizer
21. What are the disadvantages of closed loop bit synchronization?
If there is a long string of 1s and os then y(t) has no zero crossings and
synchronization may be lost.
If zero crossing of y(t) are not placed at integer multiples of Tb, the
synchronization suffers from timing Jitter.

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22. What is called frame synchronization?

Depending on bits used for encoding, the word length is defined. Thus each word container
some fixed number of bits. The receiver has to know when a particular frame status and
when its individual message bits status. This type of synchronization is called frame
synchronization.
23. Why synchronization is required?
The signals from various sources are transmitted on the single channel by multiplexing.
This requires synchronization between transmitter and receiver. Special synchronization
bits are added in the transmitted signal for the purpose. Synchronization is also required for
detectors to recover the digital data properly from the modulated signal.

PART - B
1. With block diagram explain the principle of Coherent FSK transmitter and
receiver.
2. Explain the operation of QPSK transmitter and receiver.
3. Explain the generation and detection of DPSK signal
4. Explain in detail about BPSK. State merits and demerits of BPSK.
5. Draw the block diagram for generation and detection of QAM signal and explain it
with signal space diagram.
6. Explain the principle of non-coherent ASK receiver and derive an expression for
the probability error.

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UNIT 4 ERRORCONTROLCODING
PART - A
1. What is linear code?
2. What is code rate?
3. Define code efficiency.
4. What is hamming distance?
5. What is meant by systematic & non-systematic code?
6. How syndrome is calculated in Hamming codes and cyclic codes?
7. What is BCH Code?
8. What are the conditions to satisfy the hamming code?
9. Define code word & block length.
10. Give the parameters of RS codes.
11. Why RS codes are called maximum distance separable codes?
12. What are Go lay codes?
13. What are the advantages of cyclic codes?
PART B
1. a) Explain the principle of Linear block codes using its functional block diagram?
b) The generator matrix for a (6,3) block code is given below. Find all code vectors of

this code
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2. The generator polynomial of a (15,11) Hamming code is given by g(x) = 1+x+x4 .

Develop encoder and syndrome calculator for this code using systematic form.
3. The generator polynomial of a (7,4) cyclic code is G(p) = P3 + P+1. Find all the code in
in non systematic and systematic form.
4. Explain the construction of Block Code and how the error syndrome is calculated.
5. Explain the difference between convolution codes and block codes.

UNIT 5 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION

PART - A
1. What do you mean by direct sequence spread technique?
The data sequence directly modulates the pseudo noise sequence. Let the data signal be b (t)
and pseudo-noise signal be c (t). Then the modulated signal is given as,
m (t) = b (t) c( t)
2. What are the advantages of spread spectrum modulation?
Spread spectrum modulation spreads the message signal over wide bandwidth with the help
of special code (key). It has following important advantages.
i) Unwanted interference is rejected.
ii) Protection against antijamming signals is also provided.
iii) Multipath interference rejection.
3. Define pseudo noise sequence.
Pseudo Noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence with a noise like waveform that
is usually generated by means of Feedback Shift Register.
4. Explain why FH spread spectrum is not affected by near far problem.
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In direct sequence spread spectrum there is single frequency band in which communication
takes place. If noise or jamming signal is transmitted in this frequency band, then it is
difficult to isolate noise and signal at the receiver. This is called near far problem. In FH
spread spectrum, the transmission takes place in multiple interference is present in one
frequency band, it does not affect signal in other frequency bands. Hence near-far problem
does not exist in FH spread spectrum.
5. What is meant by Spread spectrum?
The spread spectrum modulation can be defined in two parts as follows.
1. The transmitted data sequence occupies a much more bandwidth than the minimum
required bandwidth and,
2. The spectrum spreading (i.e. increase of signal bandwidth) at the transmitter and
dispreading at the receiver is obtained by special code which is independent of the data
sequence (message signal).
The first part of definition given above is satisfied by other modulation techniques like
frequency modulation, PCM etc. but they do not satisfy second part. That is they do not use
frequency spectrum spreading and dispreading. The bandwidth requirement of spread
spectrum modulation techniques is thus very high.
Spread spectrum modulation is used for secured communication like military applications.
Noise interference has minimum effect on transmission. Unwanted receivers
cannot detect the message.
6. What is frequency hop spreading?
In frequency hop spread spectrum, the frequency of the carrier hops randomly from one
frequency to another frequency.
7. What are the types of FH-SS?
Slow frequency hopping
Fast Frequency Hopping
8. What is slow frequency hopping?
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If the symbol rate of MFSK is an integer multiple of hop rate (multiple symbols per hop)
then it is called slow frequency hopping.
9. What is Fast Frequency Hopping?
If the hop rate is an integer multiple of symbol rate (multiple hops per symbol) then it is
called fast frequency hopping.
10. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?
1. Spread Jammer over the entire measure of the spectrum of Txed signal.
2. Retuning the Jamming signal over the frequency band of Txed signal.

11. What is Jamming Margin?

Jamming Margin= Average Interference Power(J)/Average Signal Power(Ps)
12. What is called jamming effect?
In the frequency band of the interest, somebody else transmits the signals intentionally
since these signals the in the frequency band of transmission, they interface the required
signal. Hence it becomes difficult to detect the required signals. This is called jamming
effect.
13. What is Anti jamming?
With the help of spread spectrum method, the transmitted signals are spread over the mid
frequency band. Hence these signals appear as noise. Then it becomes difficult for the
jammers to send jamming signals. This is called antijamming.
14. What are the three codes used for the anti-jamming application?
1. Golay code (24, 12)
2. Expurgated Golay (24, 11)
3. Maximum length shift register code.
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15. What are the applications of Spread spectrum modulation?

The spread spectrum has the ability to resist the effect of intentional jamming.
Previously this antijam capability was used in military application .Some
commercial applications also use spread spectrum because of its antijam capability.
Low probability of intercept is an application of spread spectrum in military .In this
case, the signal spectral density is kept small such that the presence of the signal is
not detected easily.
Spread spectrum is used in mobile communications. This is because the spread
spectrum signal has than ability to resist the effects of multipath fading. Because of
wide spectrum only small portion of the signals is in fade.
Spread spectrum is also used in selective calling. In this, the central station
communicates with the number of different receiving points.
16. List the disadvantages of direct sequence systems
It requires wideband channel with small phase distortion
It has long acquisition time
The pseudo-noise generator should generate sequence at high rates
This system is distance relative
17. List the advantages of direct sequence systems
This system has best noise and antijam performance
Unrecognized receivers find it most difficult to detect direct sequence signals
It has best discrimination against multipath signals
18. List the advantages of frequency hopping systems
These systems bandwidth are very large
They can be programmed to avoid some portions of the spectrum
They have relatively short acquisition time.
The distance effect is less
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19. List the disadvantages of frequency hopping systems

Those systems need complex frequency synthesizers
They are not useful for range and range rate measurement
They need error correction
20. Define slow frequency hopping
When several symbols are transmitted in one frequency hop (slot), then it is called slow
frequency hopping. This means the symbol rate is higher than hop rate.
21. Define fast frequency hopping
When several frequency hops take place to transmit one symbol, then it is called fast
frequency hopping. This means the symbol rate is less than hop rate.
22. What is processing gain?
Processing gain is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of spreaded signal to the bandwidth
of the unspreaded signal
23. What are the advantages of spread spectrum modulation?
Spread spectrum modulation spreads the message signal over wide bandwidth with
the help of special code.
It provides security of the message so that unwanted users cant read the message.
Unwanted interference is rejected.
Protection against antijamming signals is also provided.
Multipath interference rejection.

24. State the correlation property of maximum length sequence.

An autocorrelation of the sequence is periodic and binary valued.

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25. State Run Property?

In each m sequence one half of the runs are of each kind are of length one , one fourth are
of length 2, one eighth are of length 3 and so on.
26. Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
The autocorrelation function of a maximum length sequence is periodic and binary
valued. This property is called the correlation property.
27. What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique?
The main advantage of spread spectrum technique is its ability to reject interference
whether it be the unintentional interference of another user simultaneously attempting to
transmit through the channel (or) the intentional interference of a hostile transmitter to jam
the transmission.

PART B
1. Explain in detail the transmitter and receiver of DS SS technique.
2. Explain in detail the transmitter and receiver of FH SS technique.
3. Explain in detail the characteristics of PN sequence
4. Write notes on
1. Cell splitting
2. Cell sectorisation
3. Frequency Reuse
5. Describe the data communications modems and explain where they are used in data
communications circuits(16)

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