166

JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS, VOL. 5, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 1996

A Hermetic Glass-Silicon Micropack

h-Density On-Chip Feedthro
for Sensors and Actuators
Babak Ziaie, Jeffrey A. Von Arx, Mehmet R. Dokmeci, and Khalil Najafi, Member, ZEEE

[ 11. Protecting the sensor and circuitry from biological fluids,

however, is more difficult. Implantable devices have to be
protected from body fluids by a hermetic package. Depending
on the device expected lifetime, a variety of materials and techniques have been employed to encapsulate implantable devices
121, [3].More traditionally, polymers like silicone rubber 141,
polyurethane [ 5 ] , and Parylene C 161 have been used where
the implant life expectancy is not more than a few months.
Hard shell titanium packages have provided several decades
of lifetime for cardiac pacemakers [7], although their use is
limited to applications that do not require radio-frequency
(RF) power transfer to the implant. More recently, newer
materials and techniques like silicon dioxide 181, polyimide
[9], and anodic bonding [lo]-[ 131 have been investigated for
hermetically sealing implantable devices.
In this paper, a hermetic packaging technique with multiple
feedthroughs is described that has been developed for a
single-channel microstimulator [ 141. This microdevice can be
used to stimulate denervated muscle groups in paraplegic and
quadriplegic patients suffering from spinal cord injuries. The
I. INTRODUCTION
microstimulator size allows implantation by expulsion from a
ROPER PACKAGING of sensors and actuators along gauge- 10 hypodermic needle, thus reducing the surgical risks
with their associated interface circuitry is one of the most and discomfort. This packaging technique can also be used in
challenging problems that any sensor designer encounters. This a variety of other applications where a sensor or circuit has to
is particularly formidable when the sensor has to operate in be protected from a hostile environment.
corrosive environments such as salt water, chemical tanks
After a brief description of the package structure in Section
and containers, automobile engines, and biological tissue. 11, the fabrication process is described in Section 111. This
Implantable biomedical devices pose the greatest challenge is followed by a discussion on low-temperature electrostatic
in this respect. Biological fluid is one of the most corro- bonding (Section IV) and multiple feedthrough technology
sive environments; it contains various organic and inorganic (Section V). Package hermeticity is then discussed in Section
materials and cellular components like salts (NaC1, KCl, VI followed by a description of the test procedure in Section
phosphates, carbonates, etc.), enzymes, hormones, proteins, VII. Test results are presented in Section VI11 followed by a
and blood cells. Any implantable device should be protected conclusion.
from body fluids while providing proper access between the
sensor and the body. In addition, the body also needs to be
11. PACKAGE
STRUCTURE
protected from the package materials, i.e., the materials used
Fig. 1 shows the microstimulator structure which consists
in the package should be noncarcinogenic, noninflammatory,
of: 1) a silicon substrate supporting a stimulating electrode
and nonthrombogenic. The second problem is easier to solve,
at each end and providing multiple feedthroughs; 2) receiver
and a wide variety of biocompatible materials are available
circuitry along with its hybrid chip capacitor and receiver coil;
Manuscript received October 3, 1995; revised April 16, 1996. Subject Edi- and 3) a custom-made glass capsule that is electrostatically
tor, S. D. Senturia. This work was supported by the Neural Prosthesis Program
(NIH) under Contracts NIH-NINCDS-N01-NS-4-2319, NIH-NINCDS-NOI- bonded to the substrate to protect the receiver circuitry and hybrid elements from body fluids. The microstimulator receives
NS-1-23 14, and NLH-NINCDS-NOI-NS-8-2312.
The authors are with the Center for Integrated Sensors and Circuits, power and data extenally through an inductively coupled link,
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of
charges the hybrid chip capacitor, and delivers a constant
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122 USA.
amplitude current pulse into the muscle upon the reception of
Publisher Item Identifier S 1057-7157(96)06190-2.

Abstract-This paper describes the development of a hermetic

micropackage with high-density on-chip feedthroughs for sensor
and actuator applications. The packaging technique uses lowtemperature (320"C) electrostatic bonding of a custom-madeglass
capsule (Corning #7740,2 x 2 x 8 mm3) to fine grain polysilicon in
order to form a hermetically sealed cavity. High-density on-chip
multiple polysilicon feedthroughs (200 per millimeter) are used
for connecting external sensors and actuators to the electronic
circuitry inside the package. A high degree of planarity over
feedthrough areas is obtained by using grid-shaped polysilicon
feedthrough lines that are covered with phosphosilicate glass
(PSG), which is subsequently reflown at 1100C in steam for 2 h.
Saline and DI water soak tests at elevated temperatures (85 and
95" C) were performed to determine the reliability of the package.
Preliminary results have shown a mean time to failure (MTTF)
of 284 days and 118 days at 85 and 95"C, respectively, in DI
water. An Arrhenius diffusion model for moisture penetration
yields an expected lifetime of 116 years at body temperature
(37C) for these packages. In vivo tests in guinea pigs and rats
for periods ranging from one to two months have shown no
sign of infection, inflammation, or tissue abnormality around the
implanted package. [181]

1057-7157/96$05.00 0 1996 IEEE

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

167

Fig. 1. The microstimulator structure showing the silicon substrate, receiver circuitry, and glass capsule.

the appropriate signal from an external transmitter [14]. The

microstimulator overall dimensions must be 2 x 2 x 10mm3.
A major requirement regarding the microstimulator, and for
any other chronically implantable device, is proper packaging
and encapsulation. In this application a hermetic package had
to be developed to house the circuitry and hybrid elements
and protect them from body fluids for a working period of at
least 40 years.
Fig. 2 shows the package structure adopted for this device.
As can be seen, a custom made glass capsule is electrostatically
bonded to a polysilicon overlayer, thus providing a hermetic
cavity for the circuitry and hybrid elements. Feedthrough
lines for connecting the receiver circuitry to the stimulating

electrodes are provided using polysilicon conductors covered

by dielectric layers for passivation. These lines can also be
used to connect various other sensors (e.g., pH sensor, pressure
sensor, etc.) to their associated interface circuitry inside the
package in other applications. A more detailed description
of various components and the fabrication technology of the
package will follow in subsequent sections.
111.

SUBSTRATE

FABRICATION
PROCESS

Fig. 3 shows the cross section of the substrate fabrication process. The fabrication begins with a standard silicon
substrate, over which -1 pm of thermal oxide is grown,
followed by the deposition of 1-pm-thick LPCVD polysilicon

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168

SUBSTRATE

POLYSILICON
CONDUCTOR
FEEDTHROUGH)
ELECTRICS
Fig. 2. Microstimulator packaging structure with polysilicon overlayer

for feedthrough lines. The polysilicon is deposited at 570C by

pyrolyzing silane (SiH4) and doped by diffusing phosphorus
using POC13 liquid source at 950C for 30 min. This yields
a low sheet resistance needed for feedthrough lines (R, ~5
to 10 Wsquare). This is very important since a low series
resistance is desirable for the electrodes (<400 C! for each
electrode). The polysilicon is subsequently patterned using a
reactive ion etching ( R E ) dry etch to produce the vertical
sidewalls needed for planarization [Fig. 3(a)]. This step is the
most important masking step, and good photolithography is
needed to achieve the closely spaced feedthrough lines. A
combination of low-temperature oxide (LTO) (deposited at
420C) of about 2000
and phosphosilicate glass (PSG)
(phosphorus concentration = 8 wt. %) of about 1.2 pm is
deposited on top of the polysilicon conductors [Fig. 3(b)].
The LTO is required to improve the PSG adhesion to the first
polysilicon. The PSG is then reflown at 1100C in steam for
2 h to planarize the top surface. Since PSG absorbs moisture
rapidly, it is necessary to etch it everywhere except the
areas over the feedthrough lines [Fig. 3(c)j. The polysilicon
conductor lines and the PSG are then insulated on top with a
3000 k1500 k 3 0 0 0 A LPCVD oxidelnitrideloxide sandwich
to avoid their exposure to body fluids. Next, the dielectrics
(oxidelnitrideloxide and the first oxide) are etched all the
way down to the substrate [Fig. 3(d)j. Subsequently, a 1-pm
fine-grain polysilicon layer is deposited on top [Fig. 3(e)],
using the same recipe presented above for the feedthrough
polysilicon lines. This polysilicon layer is then doped in the
POC13 diffusion furnace at 950C for 30 min. without running
nitrogen through the POClz bubbler in the tube to preserve
the surface quality and smoothness (this will be explained
later in Section V). This polysilicon layer wraps around the
oxidelnitrideloxide layer and prevents its contact with moisture
and therefore blocks the water permeation through these layers
inside the package [Fig. 3(e)]. The second polysilicon is used
as the bonding overlayer and is patterned to define the bonding

surface to the glass capsule. This is followed by opening

contacts to the first polysilicon film and depositing a metal
layer to achieve electrical contacts and to form the stimulating
electrodes (a thorough discussion of the electrode structure
and material can be found in [15]). An extra mask is used
for contact to the second fine-grain polysilicon and to form
interdigitated comb structures that serve as dew point sensors.
Finally, the wafer is diced to separate the substrates which
are subsequently cleaned by a thorough cleaning procedure
(Section VII). The microstimulator receiver circuitry (which
is fabricated using a bipolar-CMOS process) [14], receiver
coil, and hybrid chip capacitor are assembled separately and
glued to the substrate. The substrate is then electrostatically
bonded to the glass capsule to form the final device. All the
materials used in the package structure that are exposed to the
body (i.e., glass, silicon, silicon dioxide, and polysilicon) are
biocompatible [ 161, [ 171 and do not cause any adverse reaction
in biological tissue (the package material biocompatibility is
further demonstrated in Section VI11 when in vivo test results
are presented). The substrate fabrication process requires a
total of six masking steps.
IV. LOW-TEMPERATURE
ELECTROSTATIC
BONDING
Electrostatic (or anodic) bonding technique can be used for
permanently bonding silicon to glass [lo]-[ 131. In this process,
a silicon wafer is placed against a glass wafer that has a similar
thermal expansion coefficient as silicon. Coming type 7740
glass with a thermal expansion coefficient of ~ 3 . x2 10e6/"C
is widely used for this purpose (silicon's is 2.6 x 10-6/"C).
The glass-silicon sandwich is heated to 30045O0C, and a
voltage of several hundred volts (-200 V to 2000 V) is applied
across the wafers with the glass biased negatively. At these
temperatures, glass is a weak conductor, so most of the applied
voltage is dropped across the interface between the glass and
the silicon. The high field in that region pulls the two wafers
into intimate contact and brings oxygen out of the glass to

ZIAIE et al.: GLASSSILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

I Substrate

Substrate

169

(4

Poly,-Si
lnterco nne

Substrate

I Substrate

I Substrate

(b)
Fig. 3.

Cross section of the microstimulator substrate fabrication process.

bond with the silicon surface [12]. The nature of the bond is
chemical and is due to the formation of a thin silicon dioxide
layer at the interface. The bond is stronger than either of the
two materials (i.e., silicon and glass), and any attempt to break
the bond would result in breaking either glass or silicon. The
quality of the bond depends on the surface roughness and
cleanness of the silicon and glass in the areas where they
come into contact. Any surface nonplanarity of more than a
few hundred angstroms results in unbonded areas and eventual
leakage. Therefore, it is very critical to thoroughly clean the
bonding surfaces for a high yield process.
Fig. 4(a) shows a SEM photograph of a typical glass capsule
used in the package structure which is 8 mm long, 2 mm
wide, 2 mm high, and 250 pm thick. The glass capsules
are fabricated by an external vendor that specializes in glass
microworking and can be ordered in different sizes. This glass
capsule is bonded to the substrate that supports the circuit chip
and other hybrid elements (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 4(b) shows
a photograph of a glass capsule bonded to a bare silicon
substrate.
As was mentioned before, polysilicon feedthrough lines are
used to connect the sensors to the circuitry inside the package.
These feedthrough lines have to be insulated from the body
fluids on top in order to prevent electrical shorts. This is
done by depositing dielectric layers of SiOZ/SiSN4/SiOz on
top of the feedthroughs (Section 111). In order to bond the
glass capsule to the dielectric sandwich layers, one needs
to raise the temperature to at least 430C. This is mainly
due to the greater difficulty of bonding between the glass
capsule and silicon dioxide. The reason for this is the voltage
drop across the dielectric layer, although it seems that the
decreased availability of silicon atoms necessary for bonding

at the silicon dioxide interface can also be a contributing

factor. Raising the temperature to above 4OOOC increases the
conductivity in the dielectric sandwich layer and increases the
voltage drop at the interface. At this temperature, however,
most hybrid components would1 normally be destroyed. This
problem was overcome by adding a polysilicon overlayer
on top of the dielectric sandwich and bonding the glass
capsule to this polysilicon layer, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Bonding to a polysilicon overlayer effectively reduces the
bonding temperature to the range tolerable by the hybrid
components (-320C). This is mainly because the voltage is
now applied across the polysilicon-glass system (Fig. 2) and
the thickness of the underlying dielectric does not affect the
bond temperature.
The polysilicon overlayer used for bonding must have
a very smooth surface if a good bond is to be achieved.
Polysilicon microstructure is strongly influenced by dopants,
impurities, deposition temperature, and post-deposition heat
cycles [ 181. Polysilicon deposited below 575C is fine-grain
and has a smooth surface, whereas the polysilicon deposited
above 625C is coarse-grain and has columnar structure [19],
[20]. In order to achieve a smooth surface for electrostatic
bonding of the glass capsule, polysilicon deposited at 570C
was chosen in this work [21]. Fig. 5 shows SEM photographs
of the two undoped polysilicon films deposited at 570 and
625C. As shown, there is no detectable surface roughness in
fine grain polysilicon.
The polysilicon was doped in order to reduce its sheet
resistance (this reduces the voltage drop in the polysilicon
conductor and improves the bond quality). In our lab, liquid
source (Phosphorus Oxychloride, POC13, a liquid at room
temperature) is used for doping the polysilicon with phos-

JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS, VOL. 5 , NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 1996

170

(b)
(b)
Fig. 4. (a) SEM photograph of a custom-made glass capsule used to encapsulate the microstimulator receiver circuitry. (b) SEM photograph of a glass
capsule bonded to a silicon substrate.

phorus (ion-implantation can also be used to dope the top

polysilicon layer if it does not increase the surface roughness).
In order to bring the POC13 into the furnace, a carrier gas
(usually nitrogen) is passed through a bubbler and brings the
vapor into the diffusion furnace. The gas stream also contains
oxygen, and PzO5 glass is deposited on the surface of the
wafers. It was noticed that doping fine-grain polysilicon by
the diffusion of phosphorous at 900-950C with a POC13
flow of 400 sccm for 30 min (sheet resistance -10 Ohquare)
increases the surface roughness. The surface roughness of the
POCl3-doped fine-grain polysilicon is related to phosphorus
concentration [22]. Therefore, we decided to preserve the
surface quality by simply exposing the wafer to residual
impurities in a phosphorus diffusion tube at 950C for 30
min without actually running POClz in the tube. This reduces
the sheet resistance to about 80 Rlsquare, which is adequate
for a good bond while maintaining the surface quality. The
polysilicon surface roughness was also measured using Atomic
Force Microscopy (AFM). Table I shows the results of these
measurements for doped and undoped fine-grain and coarsegrain polysilicon. As can be seen, the lightly doped fine-grain

Fig. 5. SEM photographs of the surface of (a) an undoped fine-grain and

(b) a coarse-grain polysilicon film.

TABLE I
COMPARISON
OF SURFACE
ROUGHNESS
OF VARIOUS
POLYSLICON FILMS AND CRYSTALLWE SILICON (THESE
WERE MEASURED
USING ATOMICFORCE
MICROSCOPY)

Roughness (Angstrom rms)

Polished crystalline silicon

Fine-grain polysilicon, lightly doped

Coarse-grain polysilicon, undoped

200

polysilicon has a very smooth surface (surface roughness of

POCl3 doped coarse-grain polysilicon was not measured in
this study but it is expected to be more than undoped coarsegrain polysilicon which is -200 A).

v.

MULTIPLEFEEDTHROUGH TECHNOLOGY

The electrostatic bonding of glass to polysilicon that was

described in the previous section provides a means to hermetically seal the circuitry and hybrid elements. The package
must also be able to provide feedthrough lines for connecting
the circuitry inside the package to the sensors outside. This
lead transfer should be done without disturbing the surface

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

171

as follows. There is a certain distance (dl) that the top PSG

layer has to cover in order to reach its final height (Ah). By
using grid-shaped lines, one actually creates an interference
region, i.e., the PSG layer does not have enough space ( d 2 )
to reach its final height, and an overlap between the lines
creates a more planar surface. As was mentioned previously,
the amount of PSG required for the planarization depends on
the spacing between the lines; therefore, it is advantageous
to use thick (to reduce the series resistance) and closely space
polysilicon lines. Fig. 8(a) shows grid feedthrough lines ( 3 pm
lines with 2 pm spacing resulting in 200 feedthrough lines per
millimeter) after PSG deposition and before any reflow. This
photograph shows that PSG deposition is conformal to the
grid feedthroughs. A reflow of at least two hours at 1100C
Fig. 6. SEM photograph of two polysilicon feedthrough lines with top PSG
in steam is required to planarize the grid feedthrough lines.
layer.
Fig. 8(b)-(d) shows the grid feedthrough lines after 30 min,
1 and 2 h of reflow. Surface dimples of ~ 0 . 7 p m and
,
0.3
over the feedthrough lines. Any nonplanarity (more than 100 pm can be seen in these photographs after 30 min and 1 h
A) over these areas compromises the glass capsule to the of planarization as compared to the near perfect planarization
silicon substrate bond in that region [12]. Therefore, a lead after 2 h. Fig. 9 is a SEM photograph of the cross section
transfer technique had to be adopted to enable us to transfer of the grid feedthrough structure showing the high degree of
feedthrough lines from inside the package to the outside while planarity over polysilicon feedthrough lines.
It should be mentioned that in the final microstimulator
allowing the creation of a planar surface.
A technique was developed for this purpose that utilized structure only two feedthrough lines are required to connect
the deposition of phosphosilicate glass (PSG) films to fill the stimulating electrodes to the receiver circuitry inside the
the gaps between closely spaced feedthrough conductor lines package. Therefore, one has the option of connecting all
and high-temperature annealing to reflow the PSG and pla- the parallel polysilicon lines together or leaving some of
narize the top bonding surface [18]. Our approach to the them floating. In other applications that might require more
planarization problem was to use a well known trench-refilling feedthrough lines, various other configurations can be used to
technique [23]. This method uses LPCVD deposited thin- connect the inside of the package to the outside. This has
films to refill trenches in deep trench isolation technology. to be done in a way that the grid pattern in between the
Various LPCVD thin-films like polysilicon, phosphosilicate lines under the bonding areas is not disturbed, i.e., polysilicon
glass (PSG), and low-temperature oxide (LTO) have been lines of minimum spacing are required in these areas (at the
used for trench refilling; LPCVD phosphosilicate glass (PSG) extreme ends of the substrate nonplanarity does not cause any
was chosen for planarization of the feedthroughs in this problem due to its separation ffrom the bonding areas). Two
application. It is known that LPCVD phosphosilicate glass important parameters in designing multiple feedthrough lines
(PSG) can reflow and fill surface nonuniformities if subjected are line resistance and parasitic capacitances (line-line and
to high temperature in steam [181. Therefore, if the polysilicon line-substrate). The resistance depends on the first polysilicon
feedthrough lines are spaced closely, a thick PSG layer can be layer sheet resistance and dimensions. In our process the
used to fill the space between these lines and planarize the first poly is doped heavily to reduce the sheet resistance
surface. This requires that the sidewalls of the feedthrough (-10 Wsquare) and unless the lines are very narrow and long
conductor lines produced after pattern transfer using dry this does not cause any problem (connecting lines in parallel
etching be vertical, and that these lines be spaced closely to can be used to further reduce the resistance). The line-line
allow adequate filling by the PSG. The vertical sidewalls are and line-substrate capacitances can be calculated to be 15 and
required because of the conformal nature of PSG deposition. 220 fF/mm, respectively, for a 2 pm wide line with 2 pm
With the sloped sidewalls one needs more PSG to planarize the separation to the adjacent line both over 1 pm silicon dioxide
surface. Since the PSG deposition is conformal, the thickness and covered with 1 pm PSG [24]. Generally speaking, the
of PSG that is required to completely fill the trench is half the amount of crosstalk between two adjacent lines depends on the
trench width. Therefore, closer-spaced polysilicon lines require Cline-linelCline-substrate ratio (smaller ratio results in reduced
less PSG for planarization. Fig. 6 shows an SEM photograph crosstalk) [25]. Although crosstalk is not a problem in the
microstimulator application, the ability to ground every other
of two polysilicon feedthrough lines with top PSG layer.
As can be seen from Fig. 6 the planarization is not perfect line or connecting many lines in parallel provides an easy way
and a small dimple (a few hundred A high) is noticeable on to reduce the crosstalk wherever it is found to be necessary.
the surface. In order to reduce the height of this nonplanarity
Using the aforementioned multiple feedthrough technique
and to achieve a more planar surface over the feedthrough and fine-grain polysilicon overlayer, the microstimulator sublines a grid structure was used. Fig. 7 shows the basic idea strates were fabricated and electrostatically bonded to the glass
behind the grid feedthrough structure. The fact that using capsules. The packages were then soaked in DI water and
grid feedthrough lines improves planarity can be explained saline to determine their hermeticity.

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Fig. 7. Gnd feedthrough technique with closely spaced polysilicon lines and top PSG layer.

Fig. 8. (a) SEM photograph of the grid feedthrough lines with the top PSG before reflow and after (b) 30 miu, (c) 1 h, and (d) 2 h of reflow. Note surface
dimples of 0.3 and 0.7 p m after 30 min and 1 h of reflow compared to the flat surface after 2 h of reflow.

VI. PACKAGEHEMETICITY
As was mentioned in Section 11, the microstimulator package must operate in the body for a period of 40 years. This
requires the ability to withstand the harsh body environment
without permitting water to penetrate inside. Moisture is a
major cause of failure in nonhermetic packaging, and, together
with temperature, is responsible for over 50% of microelectronics device failures [26]. The common causes of failure due
to moisture are: 1) charge separation and surface inversion in
MOS devices; 2) corrosion of the wire bonds, wire bond pads,

and metal runs; and 3) gold and/or silver migration between

conducting paths [27]. In the microstimulator application,
water penetration inside the package can be a major source
of failure (bonding pads, metal runs, and bond wires are
the most susceptible parts to moisture). Five possible sources
of water vapor inside the package are: 1) moisture leakage
through holes and cracks at the silicon-glass interface; 2)
moisture diffusion through the glass; 3) moisture diffusion
through thin-films used in the substrate fabrication; 4) water
outgassing from glass or substrate during high-temperature
bonding; and 5) moisture adsorption on the internal surfaces

173

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

Fig. 9. SEM photograph of the cross section of the grid feedthrough structure.

of the package and components. The first three sources of

moisture penetration into the package are the most important
and need to be monitored over time. The last two sources are
somewhat less important and can be significantly reduced by
baking the components at a vacuum level of a few Torr at
200C for 24 h prior to electrostatic bonding 1271.
Moisture diffusion through the silicon-glass bond area depends on the quality and uniformity of the bond and can be
stopped if the glass-polysilicon bond is uniform all around the
glass edge. The permeation of moisture through the glass capsule is very slow (water diffusivity and solubility in commercial borosilicate glass such as #7740 is -4.8 x
cm2/sec
and 0.011 gm/cc, respectively, at body temperature [28]) and
the time required for enough moisture to diffuse through the
glass capsule to cause condensation inside can be calculated.
Based on the diffusivity and solubility values given above, it
takes -130 years before there will be condensation inside the
glass capsule (thickness -0.2 mm) due to diffusion at body
temperature [29]. The diffusion of water through various thin
films used in the packaging structure is different for nitride,
oxide, and polysilicon. LPCVD silicon nitride is an excellent
moisture barrier, with a diffusion rate of practically zero, even
at temperatures of up to 1100C used in silicon processing
1301. Polysilicon is a good moisture barrier, but not as good
as Si3N4. Diffusion in polysilicon occurs predominantly along
grain boundaries. Silicon dioxide and especially PSG can
absorb moisture very fast 1301. The diffusion constant of water
in amorphous Si02 at 300C is 1.1x
cm2/sec, and for
PSG the diffusion constant is appreciably higher [30]. As was
mentioned sidewall passivation blocks the exposure of PSG
and oxide to the body fluids and prevents the diffusion of
moisture through these areas.
In order to test for hermeticity, the environment inside the
package should be monitored for moisture condensation. In
this work a dew point sensor was incorporated on the substrate, and hermeticity evaluation was done without the actual
receiver circuitry and hybrid elements inside the package 1311.
The dew-point sensor is based on an interdigitated structure
formed by the top metal layer added to the substrate (Section
111). Any condensation of water on the surface causes a

decrease in the impedance between the two interdigitated electrodes, which can be detected outside of the package through
the feedthrough lines. This structure is simple, compatible with
our circuit fabrication technology, has good sensitivity and can
be added to the layout as part of the receiver circuitry.
Since the package should operate inside the body for a
period of 40 years, accelerated testing schemes must be used
in order to determine the reliability of the package during
this working period [27], [32]. Different variables can be used
for accelerated tests depending on the failure mechanisms.
Penetration of moisture inside the package occurs through
diffusion and permeation, both of which can be accelerated
by temperature and humidity. Since the microstimulator will
ultimately be implanted inside the body, which is essentially
a liquid environment, humidity is not a suitable accelerating
parameter. Therefore, elevated temperatures were chosen in
this study to accelerate leakage. Temperature is an easy
variable to control and because moisture diffusion is an
exponential function of temperature, acceleration factors of
well over 100 can be easily obtained.

VII. TEST mOCEDURE

In these tests the package substrates with dew-point sensors
on them and the glass capsules were first carefully cleaned in
acetone and IPA to remove any particulate and residues due to
handling. This is necessary, because even a small particle on
the surface will cause a nonuniform bond and eventual package
failure. Then, the glass capsules were electrostatically bonded
to the substrates at 320C by applying 2000 V for 10 min.
The bonds were performed on a digitally controlled hot plate
in a clean room. The bonded substrates were immersed in a
saline bath and deionized water at elevated temperatures of
85 and 95C (temperature-accelerated soak tests have been
performed primarily in DI water).
The substrates were tested every three days for any room
temperature moisture condensation. This was done by pulling
the substrates out of the soak bath, rinsing them with DI
water, inspecting for condensation visually, probing the pads
connected to the dew-point sensors inside the package, and
measuring the dew-point sensor impedance with an impedance
meter. Any condensation of moisture on the surface of the
dew-point sensor was detected as a decrease in the impedance
magnitude and phase and the package was considered failed at
that point. Fig. 10 shows the impedance and phase (measured
at 5 KHz) of a dew-point sensor in a package that failed after
soaking for eight days in saline solution at 95C. Initially
the phase is around -89", which shows an almost purely
capacitive impedance due to the capacitance between the dewpoint sensor interdigitated lines. A change toward the more
positive phase is an indication of moisture penetration and is
due to the contribution of more resistive elements associated
with moisture condensation. Generally, we are able to measure
condensation electrically a few days before we can observe
it visually. For the lifetime studies reported here, we define
package failure as condensation at room temperature, which
corresponds to <5% relative humidity (RH) at a soaking
temperature of 95OC, and <lo% RH at a soaking temperature

JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS, VOL. 5, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 1996

174

-30

'
"
7
3
40

-50

Impedance

a
-60

L4

Phase

-70

-80

-90

10

12

Days
Fig. 10. Impedance and phase of a dew-point sensor at 5 KHz in a package that failed after eight days of soaking at 95OC

of 85C [33]. The failed substrates were pulled apart after the
soak test to inspect the bond area for uniformity. Fig. ll(a)
shows a photograph of a bonded substrate that was pulled
apart in order to observe the bond quality. The breakage of
the polysilicon overlayer or glass capsule are signs of a good
bond. As can be seen, the bond is uniform all around the
perimeter. Fig. 1l(b) is a SEM photograph of the bonded area
from the same substrate showing a glass piece and polysilicon
feedthrough lines.

VIII. TEST

RESULTS

Over the past few years, over a hundred of these packages

have been bonded and tested. The yield initially was about
20% and the high failure rate was mainly due to insufficient
pre-bond cleaning, poor bonding alignment, lithography and
glass capsule defects, nonuniform bonding electric field, and
stress due to bonding temperature nonuniformities. Recently,
we have improved our yield dramatically and it is now about
85%. Yield is defined as the percentage of packages that have
no internal condensation after more than 24 h soaking at
95C. Generally either packages fail within 24 h, or they last
many months at the accelerated temperatures (the equivalent
of many years at body temperature). The yield was increased
by considering the following factors:

1) The glass and silicon substrate should be extensively

cleaned before bonding. Standard solvent cleaning in hot
acetone (3 min followed by 30 s ultrasound) and hot IPA (3
min) followed by a DI water rinse is sufficient.
2) In some instances it helps if the silicon substrate is
thinned to 100 p m . This makes the substrate more conformal
to any curvature on the glass capsule. It should be noted that
this is a problem when the glass capsules are individually
fabricated using either a molding technique or by manually
working and polishing them. One way to circumvent this
problem is to ultrasonically machine the capsules from thick
wafers of glass. In this process, a 2-mm-thick #7740 glass
wafer is ultrasonically machined to create cavities inside of it.
The wafer is then diced to separate the individual cavities. This
technique has several advantages, including the use of glass
wafer with much better surface planarity and polish, lower
cost, and compatibility with batch fabrication and wafer level
encapsulation. Fig. 12 shows a SEM photograph of a glass
capsule fabricated using this technique.
3) The temperature must be uniform during bonding. Since
the glass package is rather thick, steps need to be taken
to maintain a constant temperature across the glass-silicon
sandwich. This can be achieved by placing the glass-silicon
sandwich in an enclosure to prevent any heat loss due to
N

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

175

Fig. 12. SEM photograph of an ultrasonically machined glass capsule.

the surface of the glass or silicon substrate. Second, many of

the packages that failed in both of these tests were lost due
to excessive handling and not because of the failure of the
package itself (at least three packages in the 85OC test and
two in the 95C test are known to have leaked immediately
after being dropped). Third, we have repeatedly observed in
saline-soaked high-temperature tests that the silicon substrate
dissolves away slowly causing a failure. Dissolution rates of
up to a few microns per day at 95C in saline have been
measured. The dissolution rate of silicon in DI water is much
smaller and does not affect the package significantly, and it
has allowed us to obtain the above results. It should be noted
that the dissolution of silicon in saline is much slower at
body temperature and will not be a major issue in biomedical
applications. Very thin pieces of silicon ( 2 pm) have been
soaked in saline for over three years at room temperature and
have been implanted in guinea pigs for over 11 months with no
observed dissolution of the silicon in either case [34]. Fourth,
it should also be noted that corrosion of the thin films used
can be a cause for failure, although we have not observed any
significant corrosion effects in these packages yet further tests
have to be done to verify this. Finally, the continuous cooling
and heating of the packages when they are pulled out of the
soaking solution for testing causes an unnecessary stress on
the package, which may cause premature failure. In spite of
these problems, the above data shows that these packages have
lasted for a very long time in DI water.
Moisture penetration into packages is an Arrhenius process
and the mean time to failure (MTTF) can be modeled as
MTTF = Aexp (-Q/lcT) [27], [31]. In order to predict the
lifetime of the package, one needs to determine MTTF and the
activation energy (Q). Although the soak tests of this package
are ongoing, we can extrapolate a Q of 0.997 eV from the
MTTFs of the packages so far. This activation energy gives
an acceleration factor for the 85C soak tests of 149, and for
the 95C soak tests of 358.8. These acceleration factors along
with the MTTFs so far (see Figs. 13 and 14) give an average
lifetime of 116 years at body temperature (37C). We caution,
however, that the sample size in this study is small, and a much
larger study is needed to more accurately predict the package
lifetime. Also, since a few of the packages in these tests have
N

(b)

Fig. 11. (a) Photograph of a broken package showing the bond areas. (b)
SEM photograph of the bonded area on the same substrate.

convection. Note that after bonding, the bonded package

should be cooled slowly (about 10 min to room temperature)
to avoid generating large stresses.
4) The electric field distribution around the bonding area
must be uniform. This can be done by sputtering aluminum
on the top surface of the glass. The aluminum coating is
removed after bonding by a wet etch. Uniform hermetic bonds
are obtained in 10 min using this method. It should also
be mentioned that for the 2-mm-high glass capsules used in
this device a bonding voltage of -2000 V was required for
obtaining consistently strong bonds at 320C. This is due to
the fact that part of the applied voltage drops across the 2-mmhigh glass, which can be reduced in applications that require
shorter glass capsules.
Figs. 13 and 14 summarize the results from long-term soak
tests to date, although the tests are still on-going for some of
the packages [31].
Several points should be made with regard to these data.
First, the failure of the packages that leak after a few days
is due to misalignment of the glass capsule and/or defects on

JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS, VOL. 5, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 1996

176

Actual Data

Curve Fit
1 Dropped
and Broke
Here

50

150

100

200

250

300

350

Days of Soak Testing at 95" C

(a)

MTTF) .

1
Packages lost due to mishandline
Longest lasting packages so far in this study

attributed to mishandlin

Fig. 13. Summary of the results for 95OC soak tests in DI water.

not failed yet, we expect a slightly higher Q and an even longer

average lifetime at body temperature. It should be noted that
the activation energy of 0.997 eV is rather conservative and is
lower than that measured for some plastic packages used by
the IC industry [27].
Soak tests on these packages are also being performed in
saline at room temperature, as summarized in Table 11. So far,
out of six packages tested at room temperature, one leaked
within 24 h (infant mortality), one leaked after 160 days of
soaking, and none of the remaining four have shown any
sign of moisture penetration after an average of 285 days of
soaking.
In addition to in vitro tests, six of these packages have been
implanted in guinea pigs and rats for periods ranging from
one to two months. Four of these devices were placed in the
head of guinea pigs on top of the dura, and two of these
devices were placed in a subcutaneous pocket in the dorsum
of rats. The four devices that were implanted in guinea pigs
were harvested after two months. Three of these packages
showed no signs of leakage and one had fluid inside of it,
probably due to damage in handling. In all four cases, healthy
tissue had regrown up around the glass package. A more
thorough histology was performed on the two devices that

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FOR

TABLE I1
ROOMnMPERATUI(E

SALINE SOAK TESTS

were implanted in rats. There was no evidence of tissue inflammation, edema, or infection indicative of package rejection
macroscopically. At a microscopic level, hematoxylin-eosinstained tissue in direct opposition to the implanted device
appeared normal and showed no sign of rejection. There was
no evidence of edema or inflammatory reaction as suggested
by macrophage or polymorphonucleocyte (PMN) infiltration
of any tissue component including epidermis, hair follicle,
muscle, or connective tissue. These results clearly show the
biocompatibility of the materials used in the package structure.

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

cn
z
0

10

c n 7

-' 5 6
E

$
v)
r

n-

2 Failed Prematurely

Here

kW

5
4

177

Actual Data

1 Dropped and
Broke Here

Curve Fit

1 Broke Here Due to

Probing Accident

1 Dropped
ke
;;a:ni

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Days of Soak Testing at 85" C

(a)

Number of packages in this study

Failed within 24 hours (not included in
WTF)
Packages lost due to mishandling
Longest lasting packages so far in this study

Packages still under tests with no measurable

room temperature condensation inside
Average lifetime to date (MTTF) including
losses attributed to mishandling
Average lifetime to date (MTTF) not
including losses attributed to mishandling

I
I

10
2
366
days
4

187.4
days
284
days

(b)

Fig. 14. Summary of the results for 85OC soak tests in DI water.

IX. CONCLUSION
We have developed a hermetic micropackage with highdensity multiple feedthroughs for sensor and actuator applications. Although this package was developed for an implantable
biomedical device, it can be used in other applications as
well. These might include chemical and biological sensors,
vacuum sensors, and, in general, all kinds of smart sensors in which either the sensor or its associated detection
circuitry has to be protected from a hostile environment.
This packaging technique uses electrostatic bonding of a
custom-made glass capsule (Corning #7740, 2 x 2 x 8mm3)
to a fine-grain polysilicon overlayer. Electrostatic bonding
to the fine-grain polysilicon overlayer reduces the bonding
temperature to -32OoC, a value tolerable by most hybrid
chip elements. Multiple polysilicon feedthrough lines (200
lines per millimeter) planarized by phosphosilicate glass (PSG)
reflow ( 2 h in steam at llOOC) provide a way to transfer
multiple leads from inside of the package to the outside.
The package hermeticity was tested by monitoring for room
temperature condensation inside the package during elevated
temperature (85 and 95C) soak tests in saline and DI water.
In order to monitor for condensation a dew-point sensor
was used. Preliminary results have shown a mean time to

failure (MTTF) of 284 days and 118 days at 85 and 9 5 C

respectively, in DI water. An Arrhenius diffusion model for
moisture penetration yields an expected lifetime of 116 years
at body temperature (37OC) for these packages. In vivo tests
in guinea pigs and rats for periods ranging from one to
two months have shown no sign of infection, inflammation,
or tissue abnormality around the implanted package. This
clearly demonstrates the biocompatibility of the materials used
in the package structure, which are in contact with body
fluids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Dr. F.T. Hambrecht and Dr.
W. Heetderks of the Neural Prosthesis Program (NINDS) for
their encouragement and support throughout this work. They
would also like to thank Dr. M. W. Putty and the General
Motors Research and Development Center, Warren, MI, for
help in PSG and LTO deposition. The assistance of Mr. J.
Wiler, Ms. J. Hetke, and Mr. P. Finger with in vivo testing in
guinea pigs and Mr. D. Wise for evaluating electrostatic bonds
is also greatly appreciated. In vivo testing and histology in rats
were performed at Vanderbilt University under supervision of
Professor D. Zealear.

JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS, VOL. 5, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 1996

178

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Babak Ziaie received the B.S.E.E. degree from

Tehran University, Tehran, Iran, in 1986 and the
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1992 and 1994, respectively. His Ph.D. thesis concentrated on the design
and development of a single-channel mcrostimulator for functional neuromuscular stimulabon.
In 1994-95, he was a Postdoctoral Research
Fellow at the Cardm Rhythm Management Laboratory, University of Alabama at B m n g h a m ,
where he was involved in developing high-density
recording electrode arrays for mapping cardiac arrhytbma. Smce 1995 he has
been employed as a Research Scientist at the Center for Integrated Sensors
and Circuits, Department of Electncal Engineering and Computer Science,
Urnversity of Michgan, where he has been involved in research and development of integrated sensors and actuators, mcrostructures. mcrotelemetry
systems for biomedical applications, and packaging and encapsulation of
implantable sensors. His major areas of interest include solid-state integrated
sensors, mcromachining technologies, VLSI and custom integrated c ~ c u i t s ,
instrumentation, and biotelemetry.
Dr Ziaie is a member of Tau Beta Pi.

Jeffrey A. Von Arx received the B.S.E.E. degree

summa cum laude from Tufts University, Boston,
MA, in 1991 and the M.S. degree in electrical
engineenng from the University of Michgan, Ann
Arbor, in 1993, where he is currently a Ph.D.
candidate.
From 1989 to 1991 he worked on an apphcationspecific neural network at Tufts University. In 1991
he began research at the University of Michigan on
implantable solid-state systems for functional neuromuscular stimulation. His research interests include
mxed mode integrated circuit design, hermetic packaging, RF telemetry, and
thin-film electrodes.
Mr Von Arx won the B. G . Brown award for outstanding scientific research
at Tufts University for h s work on an application-specific neural network He
is a member of Tau Beta Pi and Eta Kappa Nu.

Mehmet R. Dokmeci received the B.S.E.E. (with

distinction) and M.S.E.E. degrees, both from the
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, in 1989 and
1992, respectively.
He is currently a Ph.D. student at the University of Michigan, where his research interests are
concentrated in the areas of bioimplantable sensors,
micromachining and its applications to biomedical
devices, and packaging for implantable sensing devices.

ZIAIE et al.: GLASS-SILICON MICROPACKAGE WITH HIGH-DENSITY FEEDTHROUGHS

Khalil Najafi (S84-M86) was bom in 1958 in

Iran. He received the B.S.E.E degree in 1980 and the
M.S.E.E. degree in 1981 both from the University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He received the Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering from the University
of Michigan in 1986.
From 1986 to 1988 he was employed as a Research Fellow, from 1988 to 1990 as an Assistant
Research Scientist, from 1990 to 1993 as an Assistant Professor, and since September 1993 as an
Associate Professor in the Center for Integrated
Sensors and Circuits, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science, University of Michigan. His research interests include the development and design of solid-state integrated sensors and microactuators;
analog and digital integrated circuits; implantable microtelemetry systems and
transducers for biomedical applications;technologies and structures for micro
electromechanicalsystems and microstructures; and packaging techniques for
microtransducers.
Dr. Najafi was awarded a National Science Foundation Young Investigator
Award from 1992-1997, was the recipient of the Beatrice Winner Award for
Editorial Excellence at the 1986 Intemational Solid-state Circuits Conference
and the Paul Rappaport Award for co-authoring the Best Paper published
in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON ELECTRON
DEVICES.In 1994 he received the
University of Michigans Henry Russel Award for outstanding achievement
and scholarship and was selected by students in the Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science Department as the Professor of the Year in 1993. He is
an Associate Editor for the Joumal of Micromechanics and Microengineerwag.

179