CHAPTER 4

CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS,
HYDROLOGY, LIMNOLOGY AND
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES OF LAKE
TAAL, PHILIPPINES
1

Teresita Perez, 1 Evangeline E. Enriquez, 2 Rafael D. Guerrero III,

3
David Simon & 4* Fritz Schiemer

Ateneo de Manila University, Katipunan Road, Loyola Heights, Quezon City 1108,
Philippines and previously Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the
Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
2
Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Baos,
Laguna, Philippines.
3
Centre for Developing Areas Research, Dept. of Geography, Royal Holloway,
University of London, EGHAM, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK.
4
Department of Freshwater Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna,
Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
(* Author for Correspondence: Tel.: +43-1-4277-54340;
Fax: +43-1-4277-9572; E-mail: friedrich.schiemer@univie.ac.at)
1

Key Words: Lake Taal, trophic state, biotic community, socio-economy of fisheries

Abstract
The chapter provides a synthetic overview of Lake Taal and its catchment in southern
Luzon Island, the Philippines, as context to the detailed comparative research undertaken
by the international FISHSTRAT project. The material presented complements a survey
of existing secondary sources with selected summary findings from this project which
have filled gaps in our knowledge. The holistic and multidisciplinary approach adopted
by the project necessitates an integration of limnological, ecological and socio-economic
perspectives. Accordingly, the principal foci here are the lakes catchment characteristics,
hydrology, limnology and the demographic features and socio-economic conditions of
the littoral population.

64

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

Introduction
Lake Taal, the third largest lake in the Philippines, is economically significant as a source
of livelihood for the littoral population through open water fishery and fish cage culture.
The lake is a multi-use resource where the dominant activity is fisheries but it is also used
for navigation and tourism centred on the central volcano island.
Maintaining the integrity of the lake is important in respect of its various uses and
the numerous activities in its catchment area. Several issues and problems threaten the
lakes integrity and ecological balance. The FISHSTRAT project analysed the structure,
ecosystem processes and dynamics of Lake Taal in deriving a management tool for capture
fishery and aquaculture practices. The project studied the fisherys potential as a resource
base and the socio-economics of fishermen living around the lake as the basis on which
proposals for sound sustainable management strategies are made (Chapter 23). Drawing
on the projects results on limnology, fisheries and the socio-economics of the fisherfolk
and aquaculturists, combined with complementary data gathered from various sources,
this chapter surveys the key characteristics of Lake Taal and its littoral environs.

Location and morphology of the lake

Taal Lake is the third largest lake in the Philippines (after Laguna de Bay and Lake
Lanao). It is of volcanic origin, located in the southern part of Luzon Island, about 60 km
south of Manila, situated only a few km from the South China Sea at an elevation of 2.5
m above sea level (Fig. 4.1). The lake lies within a caldera with walls that are 150-304 m
high. The entire lake comprises the crater of a prehistoric volcano with the surrounding

Figure 4.1: Catchment area of Lake Taal

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

65

Plate 4.1: View of Lake Taal with Taal Island. In the foreground are fishcages (Photo: R.
Guerrero III).

mountains and the Tagaytay ridge as its caldera walls (Hargrove, 1991), and was once
part of the sea (Plate 4.1).
The lake has an aggregate area (including islands) of 268 km2 and an aquatic surface
area of 236.9 km2, with a maximum depth of 198 m (Castillo et al., 1974; Castillo &
Gonzales, 1976). It is more than 27 km long and about 20 km wide, with a total shoreline
of 120 km. It should be noted that other sources including the Integrated Master Plan
(Presidential Commission on Tagaytay-Taal, 1997) cite different figures, including an

Figure 4.2: Bathymetric map of Lake Taal. Indicated are the limnological sampling stations 1,2
and 4.

66

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

aquatic surface area of 240 260 km2. In the centre of the lake lies a volcanic island (2.38
km2), the central feature of which is Taal Volcano, one of the smallest active volcanoes
in the world. It reportedly erupted 42 times from 1572 to 1977 (Hargrove, 1991) and
threatened to erupt during 1999. The main active crater contains a small crater lake as a
lake within Lake Taal (see Hutchinson, 1975), surrounded by numerous craters and cones
from previous eruptions. Thermal vents are found on the bed of both the crater lake and
the main lake. In contrast to the fresh water in the latter, the crater lakes water is very
acidic (pH 2.0).
The bathymetry of Lake Taal (Fig. 4.2) reveals the existence of two basins separated
by the volcanic island. The northern basin is smaller and less deep (maximum depth 90
metres, the southern basin is larger and deeper (maximum depth 198 m) (Castillo et al.,
1974). Ramos (1986) prepared a bathymetric map using a marine echo-sounder. Fig. 4.2
shows a simplified version based on his original isopleths.

Catchment characteristics
A mountainous terrain surrounds the lake, particularly in the northwestern portion where
Tagaytay Ridge is found. The total area of the catchment is 683.73 km (Fig. 4.1; Castillo
& Gonzales, 1976) extending through the greater part of the province of Batangas, and
portions of Cavite and Laguna provinces (Tab. 4.1). The western and eastern lakeshore
areas comprise rugged terrain dissected by deep, steep-sloped V-shaped gullies, while the
northeast and southern shores have relatively flat plains. The slopes range from 10 to more
than 40 percent with short and steep creeks draining into the watershed (UPLBF, 1996).
The catchment is basically composed of volcanic ash and tuff covers. It is characterized
by an elevation range from 10-957 m above mean sea level, with Mt. Macolod as the
highest peak, followed by the Tagaytay ridge. Lower elevations are found in the nonlittoral municipalities of Taal, Ibaan and Sibul. The steep slopes cover about 30% of the
catchment.
Table 4.1: Location and general characteristics of Lake Taal.
type
location
altitude (m-amsl)
area (km
)
mean depth (zmean, m)
max. depth (zmax, m)
volume (x 106m3)
catchment area (km
)
shoreline (km)
fetch (km)
retention (years)
geology
inflows
mean outflow (ms-1)

volcanic lake
1355-1405N; 12055-121105E
2.5
236.9
90.4
198
21,426
682.8
120+ (inc. main crater island)
ca. 10 km
45
volcanic ash and tuffs
37 small (and in part seasonal) rivers
15

Year
1999
2000
1999
2000
1999
2000
1999
2000

Jan
13
10
42.4
44.3
26.6
26.4
83
82

Feb
13
9
8.5
79.4
26
26.3
76
84

Mar
12
10
169
73.6
27.6
27.5
84
80

Apr
10
5
159.7
35.8
28.3
28.1
82
79

May
8
17
96.4
220.6
28.6
27.9
83
86

Jun
22
22
319.6
156.8
27.8
28.2
86
86

Jul
22
22
122.7
429.3
27.8
26.6
87
89

Aug
21
20
452.9
278.7
27.4
27.1
87
87

Sep
14
24
170.8
395.5
27.5
27
86
88

Oct
12
20
96.5
399.1
27.6
27.1
86
87

Nov
16
23
159.2
210.4
27.2
26.9
85
87

Dec
15
15
161.9
133.5
26.6
26.4
85
86

26.5

26.5

8.5

1650

420

4.0

7.2

stratification

temp. (at surface C)

temp. (80m depth C)

O2 (80m depth mg l-1)

conductivity (
S cm-1)

zSD (cm)

chl-a (
g l-1)

pH

7.5

375

1673

5.8

27.5

29.0

Apr

Mar

Parameter

1999

7.5

370

1671

3.2

27.8

32.7

May

7.4

220

1646

3.5

27.8

29.5

Jun

7.3

5.8

310

1680

2.2

27.4

28.1

Aug

7.2

8.0

410

1640

2.8

27.1

28.0

Oct

7.4

10.0

475

1645

4.4

28.0

Nov

7.1

6.0

410

1612

8.5

25.4

25.5

Jan

2000

7.1

8.0

521

1667

8.5

26.9

26.9

Feb

7.3

18.0

633

1698

8.1

27.0

27.3

Mar

7.4

50.0

272

1705

2.8

31.6

Apr

8.9

25.0

199

1705

2.3

27.4

30.3

May

8.7

20.0

383

1729

1.6

26.6

29.7

Jun

7.4

20.0

352

1689

1.6

27.9

29.0

Jul

Table 4.3: Seasonal change in physiographic conditions of Lake Taal (Northern basin) during the FISHSTRAT study period. + means stratification, open
circle arrow means water column mixing.Lake Taal with Taal Island. In the forefront fishcages (Photo: R. Guerrero III).

relative humidity (%)

temp (C)

rain (mm)

Parameter
number of rainy days

Table 4.2: Climatological Data for Lake Taal

Source: PAGASA, Station: 432 Ambulong; Latitude: 140 05 N; Longitude: 1210 03 E; Elevation: 10.0 m.

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

67

68

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

Climate and weather

The entire Lake Taal watershed has a climate characterized by a pronounced dry and wet
season. The dry season from November to March represents the north-east monsoon, and
the wet season from July to September the south-west monsoon. October to November
and April-June are intermonsoonal periods.
During the principal field research period (1999-2000), the lowest rainfall was recorded
in January and February 1999 and in January 2000. Rainfall peaked during August 1999
and July 2000 (Tab. 4.2). Mean monthly temperatures ranged from 26.0C in February
to 28.6C in May 1999 and from 26.3C (February) to 28.2C (June) in 2000. Wind is
strong during the dry season and because of the large wind fetch leads to high waves
and strong mixing. Thermal stratification of the water column builds up during the rainy
period from May onwards (Tab. 4.3).

Hydrology
Thirty-seven tributaries drain into the lake, most of them only seasonally. No long-term
records of their inflows exist. In the course of her work on external nutrient loading, Hilario
(2000) recorded the flow of three main inflows, with average values for the period August
1999 to February 2000 of 0.07 m3s-1 for the Laurel River, 1.0 for the Balete River and
0.74 for the Wawa River. The only outlet from the lake is the 8.2-km long Pansipit River,
located between the municipalities of Agoncillo and San Nicolas on the south-western
shore, which opens into the Balayan Bay of the South China Sea (Fig. 4.1). According to
the Philippine National Water Resources Board (NWRB; see NWRC, 1983) the average
outflow rate of the Pansipit River is 15 m3s-1 based on a time series of 12 years. The
monthly means range from lows of 7.0-7.5 m3s-1 in April and May to highs of 20-23 m3s-1
during September to November. Based on the outflow data and the huge volume of Lake
Taal basin (21,426 106 m3), the theoretical retention time is 45 years. The annual seasonal
water level fluctuation for the period 1987-1994 was about 0.75 m as reported by the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS, unpubl.).

Figure 4.3: Hypsographic curve of Lake Taal

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

69

Limnological conditions
Temperature, stratification, transparency
Temperature and oxygen profiles were measured in the northern basin (station 1 see Fig.
4.2) at monthly intervals from February 1999 to August 2000 (Tab. 4.3). Temperature in
the surface layers of the open water column ranged from 25.5-32.7 C and in deep water
(80m) from 25.5-27.5 C. Lowest values, both at the surface and at 80m depth, occurred
in January to March and highest values in April to June. Water temperature is higher
(by 2.5-4.5 C) during the early part of the rainy season than in the dry season. Higher
temperatures were also observed in the areas with intensified fish cage culturing.
Based on temperature and oxygen gradients, it is apparent that the water column
was stratified during the period May to November 1999 and from April 2000 onwards.
Complete mixing occurs under conditions of lower water temperature in the period of the
north-east monsoon from January to March. The consequence of complete water column
mixing, locally known as duong, for the oxygen distribution in the water column is shown
in Fig. 4.4: The whole column becomes unsaturated and represents a heterotrophic state
(see Chapter 22 for further discussion). Chl-a levels and trophic status change seasonally
from mesotrophic to eutrophic conditions depending on temperature stratification and
mixing. Under conditions of deep mixing and low values of zeu/zmix, we find lower chl-a
levels. Seasonal variability is high: chl-a peaks under conditions pertaining at the onset
of thermal stratification. Our measurements revealed a mean Secchi disk reading of 3.2m
for the area with cages and 4.4m in the area without cages over a 13-month period (Oct.
1998 Nov. 2000).

Figure 4.4. Temperature (a) and oxygen (b) stratification in the northern basin of Lake Taal (max.
depth 90m) in February (full line) and August (broken line) 1999. Graph (c) compares Secchi depth
(zSD), the depth of the euphotic zone (zeu) and the mixing depth (zmix) at the two seasons (from
Schiemer et al., 2001).

70

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

Water chemistry, nutrients, trophic state

Several academic and governmental agencies have monitored the lake for varying periods.
The geochemical features of the lake are characterised by high electrical conductivity (i.e.
high ionic content), moderately hard water with a high chloride content (Zafaralla, 1993;
Zafaralla et al., 1992). In terms of nutrient chemistry, the lake is characterised by low
levels of nitrogen but high levels of phosphorus (Castillo & Gonzales, 1974; Zafaralla,
1993; Zafaralla et al. 1992).
During the FISHSTRAT research phase from February 1999 to July 2000, a
hydrochemical sampling programme was carried out at station 1 (open waters in the
northern part of the lake) and station 2 (located in the fish sanctuary where there had been
a proliferation of fish cages). At station 1, parameters were measured at depths of 2.5 m,
20 m, 40 m, 60 m and 80 m, while in the fish sanctuary (station 2) sampling depths were
2.5 m and 20 m. Data summarised in Table 4.4 characterise the hydrochemical nature of
the lake and some of its tributaries. These values support the earlier findings.
Conductivity ranged from 1600 to 1700 S.cm-1 (Tab. 4.3) during the study period.
The inflows (Laurel and Balete) are characterised by much lower conductivities due
to distinctly lower NaCl concentrations. Ionic composition differs from the standard
composition and is characterised by the prominence of sodium chloride (NaCl), resulting
from the vicinity of the sea. In terms of m-equivalent cations, the range is Na+ - Mg2+
- Ca2+ - K+ , and in anions Cl1- , SO42- - HCO3-. The pH values of the euphotic zone of the
lake lie in the neutral to slightly alkaline range (annual mean pH of 7.4). Higher values >
9 are an expression of high phytoplankton production. In the Laurel River, Hilario (2000)
reported large quantities of particulate and dissolved materials from the watershed as a
result of agricultural activities and widening of the river.
Lake Taal was initially described as oligotrophic, deep and generally clear with limited
biological activity (Zafaralla, 1993). Over time, reflecting anthropogenic activities in the
catchment and excessive feeding in the fish cages (Castillo & Gonzales, 1976; Chapter
18), the lake has been transformed into mesotrophic conditions and might be in the early
stage of eutrophication in some areas.
With the onset of the wet season, a pronounced increase in the nutrient concentration
(NO3 N and NH4 N, total phosphate and soluble phosphate) occurs. This is sustained
during its entire hydrological regime (Tab. 4.4). Zafaralla (1993) and Alcanises (1997)
also observed an increase in nutrient concentration during the entire wet season.
Hilario (2000) analysed the nutrient inputs from three major tributaries in detail.
Nutrient loading from the Balete and Wawa rivers, which combine high loadings of
phosphorus, nitrates and ammonia with comparatively high flow, has a substantial
impact. Sediments and silt, including municipal waste, are also discharged in substantial
volumes. Agricultural activities have also contributed significant nutrient loadings into
the lake water.
In the areas of high fish cage concentrations, reduced dissolved oxygen was observed
at 10 or 15 metre depths due to the accumulation of unconsumed feeds as a result of the
excessive feeding practice. Our comparison of the dissolved oxygen levels and Secchi
disk readings in areas with and without cages showed distinct effects of cage culture on
the limnological conditions. Total phosphorus, soluble phosphorus and NO3 N levels in
the fish cage areas were statistically higher compared to the open water (Enriquez, 2001)
(Plates 4.2 & 3).

Date

1.3.99
1.3.99
1.3.99
1.3.99
1.3.99
5.3.99
1.3.99

26.8.99
26.8.99
26.8.99

29.7.00
29.7.00
29.7.00
29.7.00

Station

Taal 1
Taal 1
Taal 1
Taal 2
Taal 2
Taal 4
Laurel

Taal 1
Taal 1
Laurel

Taal 1
Taal 2
Laurel
Balete

0.5
0.5
0.2
0.2

0.5
85.0
0.2

Depth
m
0.5
40.0
85.0
2.5
20.0
0.5
0.2

1690
1685
450
470

1680
1680
460

cond.

S
1640
1660
1640
1640
1640
1649
450

8.8
8.6
8.0
8.0

8.5
7.9

7.1
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.2

pH

1.88
1.88
2.13
1.75

2.08
-

Ca
mval
1.88
1.13
1.88
1.88
1.88
2.50
2.13

2.62
3.00
1.12
1.38

2.80
-

Mg
mval
2.70
3.42
2.95
2.70
2.67
1.90
1.15

11.96
11.96
2.22
2.04

12.00
-

Na
mval
12.83
12.18
11.74
12.83
12.18
11.74
1.70

0.66
0.69
0.36
0.33

0.82
-

K
mval
0.77
0.72
0.72
0.74
0.72
0.69
0.31

3.36
3.40
3.64
4.30

3.40
3.42
3.46

A
mval
-

10.75
10.58
0.68
0.20

10.66
-

Cl
mval
10.89
10.69
10.89
11.06
10.92
10.86
0.51

196
178
193
333

208
216
240

P-PO4
g/l
208
202
202
191
190
-

206
188
199
334

234
234
268

P-s
g/l
212
204
213
218
230
183
199

221
210
297
355

240
239
442

P-t
g/l
240
215
215
220
234
190
202

72
67
683
1723

36
-

N-NO3
g/l
197
260
230
136
146
92
-

229
192
151
-

369
-

N-sKj
g/l
118
130
192
130
113
-

Table 4.4: Hydrochemical characteristics of Lake Taal and some inflows (Laurel and Balete River). cond. = electrical conductivity

289
310
391
-

763
-

N-tKj
g/l
195
235
171
106

3.2
3.0
44.9
45.5

8.3
12.9
-

Si-SiO4
mg/l
-

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

71

72

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

Plate 4.2: Fish cage area (Photo: R. D. Guerrero III).

Plate 4.3: Fish cage operation (Photo: R. D. Guerrero III).

Biotic communities
The lake has a very interesting fauna and flora which represent a combination of fresh
water elements, short term migrants from the sea and species of marine origin adapted to
freshwater. The best example of the latter is the endemic fresh water sardine, Sardinella
tawilis, which forms the basis of an important commercial fishery. A further interesting
species is the endemic sea snake, Hydrolophis semperi (Garman, 1881).
The species list of phytoplankton identified during the FISHSTRAT research period
by Rott et al. (Chapter 5) comprises 44 species: Cyanophyceae (9 spp., all rare),
Diatomophyceae (5 spp., 2 rare, 3 frequent: Actinocyclus normani, Cyclotella cf. comensis,
Thalassiosira visurgis), Cryptophyceae (3 spp., 2 rare, 1 frequent: Rhodomonas minuta),
Dinophyceae (2 spp., 1 rare, 1 frequent: Ceratium furcoides), Chlorophyceae (20 spp., all

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

73

rare), Zygnemaceae (5 spp., all rare). Taxa richness in Lake Taal is lower than in the other
4 water bodies studied during the FISHSTRAT project; however, the specificity is higher
(35% of the species are found only in Lake Taal). Rott et al. (Chapter 5) characterise
the phytoplankton community as being dominated by large dinoflagellates (Ceratium
furcoides) during the rainy period and thermal stratification and by small centric diatoms
during the dry period with strong winds (Jorge & Pacamara, 2000). Several small centric
diatom taxa e.g. Thalassiosira visurgis, are endemic to Lake Taal (Rott et al., 2001).
Significant seasonal variability is encountered due to the seasonal changes in mixing
pattern and nutrient supply as observed also for Lake Lanao (Lewis, 1978). Lake Taal
is strongly influenced by monsoon winds, especially the NE monsoon, which lasts over
2 months and provides a prolonged period of wind mixing of the water column. The
phytoplankton pattern therefore follows the change from the dry and windy deep mixing
situation (February to March) to an almost stagnant situation in the inter-monsoonal
period, with the first strong rainfalls in May. Zafaralla (1993) reported the phytoplankton
to be composed primarily of non-heterocystous blue-green algae (see also Zafaralla &
Orozco, 1989). A later study in 1996 still mentioned the predominance of Cyanophyta
or blue-green algae (42-71%), followed by the Chlorophyta or green algae (20-52%).
Chrysophyta and Euglenophyta were also collected.
A detailed study of phytoplankton seasonality was executed by Enriquez between 1999
and 2000. The most abundant phytoplankton throughout this period in all months and at
various depths was Ceratium, except for January 2000 when centric diatoms prevailed.
High cell counts were observed during the wet season, particularly in open waters. This
observation coincided with the high chlorophyll-a values concentrated at depths of 2.5
and 5 m during the wet season. The consistency of Ceratium, even at greater depth, may
be due to its characteristic motility and ability to perform vertical migration patterns in
the water column (Reynolds, 1984). Merismopedia and Aulacoseira showed increased
cell counts particularly during May 2000 (Enriquez, 2001).
Although the lakes littoral zone is narrow, fourteen species of macrophytes distributed
along the coastal areas were identified, dominated by Valisneria gigantea (eel grass),
Hydrilla verticillata, the emergent Paspalum sp. Potamogeton blognus, and the floating
Eichhornia crassipes (Bleher, 1996). Eichhornia crassipes and Potamogeton malaianus
were commonly observed in river mouths. These macrophytes provide a good sanctuary
and feeding ground for juvenile finfish.
Zooplankton collected from the open waters consisted of rotifers, cladocerans and
copepods. The copepods were dominant at all stations sampled, including those in the
fish cage area. Rotifers and cladocerans ranked second and third, respectively (UPLBF,
1996). The density of these organism groups is significant because of their grazing on the
phytoplankton. Our results confirm those of previous studies, which found that copepods
were dominant at most stations sampled, including those in the fish cage areas. Rotifers
and cladocerans ranked second and third, respectively (UPLBF, 1996). Zooplankton
composition is specific when compared with the reservoirs in Sri Lanka and Thailand.
According to Chapter 8, the most abundant species of copepods are Tropodiaptomus
vicinus, Microcyclops varicans and Thermocyclops crassus and among the cladocerans,
Osmina fatalis, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Diaphanosoma sarsi and Moina micrura.
During the FISHSTRAT research period, zooplankton was found down to a depth
of 80m. The seasonal variability in zooplankton densities was high and the secondary

74

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

production distinctly higher compared to the reservoirs studied in Sri Lanka and Thailand
(6.00 vs 0.05-0.09 g dry wt m-2d-1). We found that, relative to its algal biomass, Lake
Taal had not only a high zooplankton production per unit volume, but because of its
large depth, also an extremely high production per unit area. In this lake the whole water
column to a depth of at least 80 m is inhabited by zooplankton. A similar phenomenon was
observed for copepods in Lake Tanganyika (Vuorinen et al., 1999). This high zooplankton
productivity provides a high carrying capacity for zooplanktivorous fish.
The benthic community is dominated by chironomids, followed by amphipods. Other
crustaceans, such as Macrobrachium spp., Caridina sp. and other molluscs, such as
Ampullaria luzonica, Vivipara angularis and Corbicula manilensis, have been identified.
The wide distribution of bottom organisms, including molluscs and arthropods, indicates
their significant role in the food chain. Traditionally, crustaceans and molluscs constitute
an important component of the fishery resources of Lake Taal. A large quantity of atyid
shrimps (family Atyidae) and grapsid crabs are being gathered and used extensively as
human as well as animal food (UPLBF, 1996). Snails (family Melanidae) are collected
for use as duck feed.
The first detailed report on fish species of Lake Taal was produced by Herre (1927a,
b). Bleher (1996) lists 32 species, including migratory diadromous fishes entering Lake
Taal via the Pansipit River (Tab. 4.5). Ten species have been reported as endemic, with
seven species introduced. Among the migratory fishes, Caranx ignobilis and Caranx
sexfasciatus are of high value. Sardinella tawilis, a freshwater sardine, is considered to
be endemic (Aypa et al., 1999). It is of high economic significance (see Chapters 15
and 18). Villadolid (1937) provided the first study of Lake Taals fisheries. Oreochromis
niloticus (tilapia) has been introduced into the lake and is now cultivated in fish cages in
the fish sanctuary (Plate 4.4). Table 4.5 compares the most abundant fish caught during the
seasonal study of FISHSTRAT with adult beach seines and gill nets set in the sublittoral
region with the commercial catch. Apart from the species listed, it is worth mentioning
the presence of small-sized species, e.g. a syngnathid caught in the offshore zone with
ichthyoplankton nets, a small blenniid, and Toxotes jaculatrix in the littoral zone.
Fifteen fish species are caught by fishermen in the lake using various types of fishing
gear. Based on commercial landings, the fish with significant contributions were tawilis
(Sardinella tawilis), silversides (Atherinomorus endrachtensis) and tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus), followed by the cardinal fish (Apogon sp.), common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and
silver perch (Therapon plumbeus). The active types of fishing gear (i.e., motorized push
net, ring net and beach seine) yielded the highest catch per day for the period 1994-1998
(Chapter 15). There has been a drastic decline in the number of migratory fish species in
the Lake Taal Pansipit River system, with a drop of 84% from 31 in 1927 to only 5 in
1996, due to overfishing and the obstruction posed by fishing and fisheries structures (i.e.,
corrals, cages, and pens) that impede the migration of diadromous fish.

Land use in the catchment

Table 4.6 shows the various land uses in the catchment area, where 71% is used for
crop production such as sugarcane, upland rice, vegetables and root crops. A significant
proportion of the watershed is planted with coconut, together with mangoes and other
fruit trees. Non-cultivated areas, on the other hand, are covered with secondary growth

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

75

Plate 4.4: Oreochromis niloticus from fish cages (Photo: R. D. Guerrero III)

forest, bamboo, with patches of swamps at the lakeshore (PCTT, 1993). Residential areas
have been developed on the steeper slopes within Talisay and Laurel towns.
Agriculture is the main use of the watershed (Tab. 4.6), followed by tourism focused on
the Volcano Island and Tagaytay Ridge, and fisheries in the lake. Anthropogenic activities,
such as quarrying, the mushrooming real estate, such as the Tagaytay Highlands and golf
areas, plantations of various crops such as coffee, coconut, mango, corn and cassava
affect the quality of the water that drains into the lake through the river systems.

Table 4.5. Common fish species (19 out of a total of 38 recorded) in the experimental and commercial catch of Lake Taal. The percentage composition is based on a catch of 12,836 fish caught
by adult seine nets and 14,115 fish caught by gill netting. The commercial catch is expressed in %
of biomass.
Family

Species

Anguillidae
Clupeidae
Chanidae
Cyprinidae

Anguilla bicolor McClelland

Sardinella tawilis (Herre)
Chanos chanos (Forsskl)
Carassius auratus auratus (L.)
Cyprinus carpio L.
Clarias batrachus (L.)
spp.
Atherinomorus endrachtensis Quoy & Gaimard
Leiopotherapon plumbeus (Kner)
Apogon thermalis Cuv.
Ambassis sp.
Caranx ignobilis (Forsskl)
Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard
Oreochromis niloticus (L.)
Glossogobius celebius (Val.)
Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton)
Oligolepis acutipennis (Val.)
Channa striata (Bloch)
Mugil sp.

Clariidae
Hemirhamphidae
Atherinidae
Teraponidae
Apogonidae
Carangidae
Cichlidae
Gobiidae
Channidae
Mugilidae

Adult seine [%]

Gill nets [%]

comm. catch [%]

3.4
1.2

0.2
-

58.7
3.3

1.6
4.4
28.6
25.2

84.0
2.4
7.4

15.4
2.1
5.4

0.3

0.1

1.4

33.4
1.5

1.3
2.4

12.0
-

0.04

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

76

Socio-economics and demography

The socio-economic environment is one of the major determinants of the potential for
sustainable use/management of fisheries resources. Relevant information is only patchily
available, and the following paragraphs summarise key contextual variables as a prelude
to the primary field research reported in Chapters 18-20.
Given the number and diversity of administrative units in the Taal catchment, precise
determination of the de facto littoral population proved difficult. Accordingly, data from
the 11 littoral municipalities, namely San Nicolas, Agoncillo, Cuenca, Santa Teresita,
Alitagtag, Balete, Mataas na Kahoy, Lipa City, Talisay, Tanauan and Laurel, provide a
reasonable approximation (Tab. 4.7). Based on the 2000 population survey, the large
urban area of Lipa City had the highest total population (218,447); of the remaining
municipalities, Tanauan had the highest population (117,539) and San Nicolas the
smallest (16,278). These 11 municipalities accounted for approximately 535,000 (28%)
of Batangas Provinces total population of 1,900,000, and 102,000 (27.34%) of the
provinces 373,000 households. Since these municipalities constitute only 19.5% of the
surface area of Batangas Province, they had higher population densities than non-littoral
municipalities. Average household size was 5.25, while population densities ranged from
11.5 per ha in Talisay to a modest 4.05 in Laurel (Tab. 4.7).
Table 4.6: Land use of Lake Taal catchment (1995).
Area (km2)

Percent (%)

sugarcane with corn patches

80

12.0

rice land with corn intercrop

60

9.0

Land use type

coconut, mango and other fruit trees

170

25.0

forest

100

14.0

20

4.0

250

36.0

volcano island
lake water
swamp and marshes

2.8

0.4

This table also reveals the rapid recent growth rates since 1995, reflecting a combination
of natural increase and net migration over the period of this research project. Growth
rates were faster during the 1990s than the 1980s. As with many poor countries, the
age pyramid is steep, with 36.5% of the Batangas population aged under 15 in 1995;
in all 5-year cohorts up to 44, men outnumber women but above that age the balance is
reversed.
In April 1996, the Batangas labour force comprised 606,000 employed and 63,000
unemployed adults (out of a total population aged 15 and over of 1,063,000). However,
there was a sharp gender difference, with 365,000 males and 242,000 females working
and 42,000 males and 19,000 females unemployed. The summary statistics do not reveal
the proportions of full- versus part-time employment. Agriculture was still the most
important employment sector, accounting for 158,000 full- and part-time jobs, of which
140,000 were held by men and only 18,000 by women (i.e. 38.4% and 7.4% of those
employed, respectively), reflecting traditional local gender divisions of labour.
In 1995 monthly household and per capita monetary incomes in Pesos (i.e. excluding
subsistence production) in the 11 municipalities varied considerably, with Talisay the

Chapter 4 Lake Taal, Philippines

77

lowest (P 1,849 and P 345, respectively), most between P 2150 and P 2900 (P 380-P 500
per capita), and Mataas na Kahoy (P 4131 and P 815 respectively) and Lipa City the
highest (P 6247 and P 1211, respectively), again demonstrating the effect of larger cities.
Poverty was substantial in Batangas, with 25.6% and 25.9% of the population classified
as living below the provincial annual per capita poverty threshold of P 13,313 in 1997 and
P15,305 in 2000 respectively. However, this was below the Philippines national averages
of 33.0% and 34%, respectively, despite lower monetary thresholds of P 9,843 and P
11,605, respectively. The provincial poverty level therefore rose more slowly than the
national average. The Batangas annual per capita food thresholds (i.e. income required
to meet basic food needs) were P 8,283 and P 9,484 in 1997 and 2000, compared to the
national averages of P 6,801 and P 7,829, respectively.
The socio-economic characteristics of the capture fishers and fish cage operators in our
sample broadly mirrored those of the wider littoral populations (Chapter 19), especially
those engaged in agriculture. Almost 32% had received no or only some primary education,
25% had completed primary school and 52% had post-primary education. The fishers and
cage operators were overwhelmingly male (90% and 92%, respectively), married (88%
overall) and derived no incomes from secondary livelihood activities (75% of fishers
and 83% of cage operators). Most had incomes well above the official poverty level.
However, the lowest-earning 18% of fishers needed a secondary income to stay above the
official poverty level for a family of five (the Batangas average) or six (the average size
in our survey). In the poorest households, even a low-waged second income earner would
not have been adequate, with some households earning only 39% of the family poverty
level without pensions or other welfare payments. Competitive pressures, both among
capture fishers and between fishers and cage operators in terms of use of the lake surface,
have been increasing substantially and many capture fishers feel their livelihoods to be
less secure nowadays.

Table 4.7: Lake Taal littoral population (Census 2000). Source: Office of the Provincial Planning
Development Coordinator, Batangas City, 1996 & 2001.
Land area (ha)

Population (1995)

Population (2000)

Density.ha-1 (2000)

Households (2000)

Laurel

6,812

23,781

27,604

4.05

5,153

Talisay

2,822

26,997

32,465

11.50

6,246

Tanauan

10,716

103,868

117,539

10.97

21,912

Balete

2,504

14,383

15,792

6.31

3,067

Municipality

Mataas na Kahoy

2,213

16,726

20,706

9.36

3,918

Lipa City

20,924

177,894

218,447

8.50

41,962

Cuenca

4,036

22,758

25,642

6.35

5,222

Alitagtag

2,344

18,639

20,192

8.61

3,708

Santa Teresita

1,250

14,017

14,074

11.26

2,762

San Nicolas

2,664

14,509

16,278

6.11

2,946

Agoncillo

5,468

23,358

26,584

4.86

5,029

TOTAL

61,753

456,930

535,323

x = 7.99

101,925

Batangas

316,581

1,658,567

1,905,348

372,896

78

T. Perez, E.E. Enriquez, R.D. Guerrero III, D. Simon & F. Schiemer

Conclusion
This picture of substantial and slowly increasing poverty levels with a rapidly growing
population in littoral municipalities, against a background of national economic crisis
and stagnation, presents substantial challenges to sustainable fisheries management.
Competition over access to Lake Taals resources has been intensifying, especially in
relation to fisheries and leisure usages, although water abstraction and wastewater inflow
from the growing urban and tourist developments within the steeply sloping caldera
surrounding the lake, poses particular problems. Data in subsequent chapters highlight
declining water quality, a substantial progressive increase in the level of fish cage culture
(despite some efforts at control), and an annual average decrease in capture fishery catches
of 3.3%.
Two immediate implications are a decrease in the labour productivity and incomes of
small/artisanal capture fisherfolk, and the increasing conflict between aquaculture and
capture fisheries through direct competition for space and the impact of mass fishkills
triggered by excessive concentrations of fish culture cages. An indirect implication but
one of central importance to this study is the extent to which the lake can continue to
exist as a sustainable protein source for the people.

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