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Ohms Law V = IR (constant (dc), V & I upper case for dc, Ave, rms)
v = iR (time varying (ac), v & i lower case)
2 nd
ia
ib
s out , ia = ib + ic
or i ' s entering = 0 , ia ib ic = 0
or i ' s leaving = 0 , ia + ib + ic = 0 (We use this for Node Voltage)
e.g.,
(sources)
drops
= Vrises
V2
R2
R3
Vs
R4
Is
1. Circuit Reduction
R
a
V
R
R
b
combining elements (R1 + R2) in series (share the same current) / parallel
(share the same voltage) [(R3*R4)/(R3 + R4)], Y transformations (
Zy =
Z
), Source transformations (above), Thev. and Norton Equivalent
3
[(R1*R2)/(R1 + R2)]
R1
I
Vi
Rout
+
Vo
V1
I
I1
R1
R2
I2
Vo =
Vi Rout
Vi
, (I =
)
R1 + Rout
R1 + Rout
V1/R1 V2/R2
IR1 R2
I ( R2 )
I ( R1 )
V1 =
= I 1 R1 , I 1 =
, I2 =
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
V1
Vs
V2
Is
V or I
Sinusoidal
" ac"
" dc"
Favored by Edison
Sin and cos are simple periodic, continuous functions, easy to deal with
(derivative and integral of a sinusoid is also a sinusoid, see below)
d
1
(sin t ) = cos t ; sin t dt = cos t ;
dt
R
v
v (t )
i (t )
L
T
Vm
v = Vm cos(t + ) ;
Vm
t
Vm
Vm
T
Period
i = I m cos(t + ) ;
specified by 3 parameters:
Vm = amplitude
= angular freq. (rad/sec)
, = phase angle
(or troughs)
Period ( T ) sec s = the time between successive peaks of the same sign
2
(The function repeats itself every T seconds,
T=
1
, cycles per second ( Hertz, Hz )
T
ex: U.S. electric utility frequency 60 Hz = f
1
period = T =
= 16.67ms
60
The angular equivalent of the period is 360 or 2 radians
1
2 ( rad )
= , ( f = ),
the angular frequency is
T
T (sec)
2
which we refer to as omega: =
= 2f rad / sec
T
11
=
v1 ( t ) Vm sin t and=
v2 ( t ) Vm sin (t + )
12
Sinusoids
If two sinusoids are in phase, then this
means that the reach their maximum and
minimum at the same time.
Sinusoids may be expressed as sine or
cosine.
The conversion between them is:
sin (t 180 ) =
sin t
cos (t 180 ) =
cos t
sin (t 90 ) =
cos t
sin t
cos (t 90 ) =
13
Complex Numbers
A powerful method
for representing
sinusoids is the
Phasor: an effective
way of dealing with
ac circuit problems,
and much simpler
than dealing with
sinusoidal
quantities.
Phasor: a complex
number that carries
the magnitude and
phase angle
information of a
sinusoidal function.
Vm
1
a
e j cos j sin
=
b
a
14
Complex Numbers
A powerful method for representing sinusoids is the
Phasor: an effective way of dealing with ac circuit
problems, and much simpler than dealing with sinusoidal
quantities.
Phasor: a complex number that carries the magnitude and
phase angle information of a sinusoidal function.
A complex number z can be represented in rectangular
form as:
z= x + jy
It can also be written in polar or exponential form as:
z = r = re
15
Complex Numbers
In general, a complex number z can be represented in
rectangular form as: z= x + jy
And it can be written in polar or exponential form as:
z = r = re
=
tan 1
Complex Numbers
The following mathematical operations are
important
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
z1 + z2 =( x1 + x2 ) + j ( y1 + y2 ) z1 z2 =( x1 x2 ) + j ( y1 y2 ) z1 z2 =r1r2 (1 + 2 )
Division
z1 r1
=
(1 2 )
z2 r2
Reciprocal
1 1
= ( )
z r
Square Root
z=
r ( / 2 )
Complex Conjugate
z * = x jy = r = re j
17
Sinusoid-Phasor
Transformation
Here is a handy table for transforming
various time domain sinusoids into phasor
domain:
18
21
Polar: V = V
Im
y
V
V
Rectangular: V = X + jY ;
X = V cos , Y = V sin
x
Re
X 2 +Y2
= tan 1(
Y
)
X
22
23
(Complex) Impedance
We now use complex arithmetic for all of the Systematic Approaches developed
for dc analysis.
For example, we introduce the concept of impedance Z , and Ohms law becomes:
V = IZ , where Z ( ) = R + jX ( )
R =real (resistive) component
X =imaginary (reactive) component
24
Impedance
In frequency domain, the values
obtained for impedance are only valid at
that frequency.
Changing to a new frequency will
require recalculating the values.
As a complex quantity, the impedance
may be expressed in rectangular form
(real part is the resistance R, imaginary
component is the reactance, X).
The impedance of capacitors:
inductors:
reactance X L = L()
XC =
1
()
C
Z ( ) =+
R j(X L + X c )
25
reactance X L = L()
XC =
1
()
C
V
or V ZI
=
I
26
R
R2 + X 2
B=
X
R2 + X 2
27
28
29
Impedance Combinations
Once in frequency domain, the impedance
elements are generalized.
Combinations will follow the rules for
resistors:
30
Impedance Combinations
Series combinations will result in a sum of
the impedance elements:
Z eq = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + + Z N
Here then two elements in series can act like
a voltage divider
V1
Z1
Z2
=
V V2
V
Z1 + Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
31
Parallel Combination
Likewise, elements combined in parallel will
combine in the same fashion as resistors in
parallel:
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ +
Z eq Z1 Z 2 Z 3
ZN
32
Admittance
Expressed as admittance, though, they are
again a sum:
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + + YN
Once again, these elements can act as a
current divider:
I1
Z2
Z1
=
I I2
I
Z1 + Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
33