ENGR 202 Electrical Fundamentals II

First, where have we been and where are we

going!
ENGR 201 ---DC Circuits and Analysis Techniques
ENGR 202 ---Apply AC Circuit Analysis to solve
engineering problems
ENGR 203 Develop mathematical tools (namely the
Lapace and Fourier Transform) to simplify more
complex circuits and analyses
1

Quick Review of ENGR 201

1st

Ohms Law V = IR (constant (dc), V & I upper case for dc, Ave, rms)
v = iR (time varying (ac), v & i lower case)
2 nd

Kirchoffs Laws (What circuit analysis is based on)

ia

ib

1. Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL)

'
'
i
s
in
=
i
ic

s out , ia = ib + ic
or i ' s entering = 0 , ia ib ic = 0
or i ' s leaving = 0 , ia + ib + ic = 0 (We use this for Node Voltage)

Quick Review of ENGR 201

2. Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of the voltages ( v ' s ) around any closed loop equals zero.
(Defn of Loop Closed path - Begin at a given node and trace a path through the circuit
back to the original node without passing through any intermediate node
more than once)
(resistors)

e.g.,

(sources)

drops

= Vrises

Quick Review of ENGR 201

The systematic Approaches to Circuit Analysis
(valid for dc and ac analysis which we simplify with phasors)
V1
R1

V2

R2
R3

Vs

R4

Is

1. Circuit Reduction
R

a
V
R

R
b

combining elements (R1 + R2) in series (share the same current) / parallel
(share the same voltage) [(R3*R4)/(R3 + R4)], Y transformations (
Zy =

Z
), Source transformations (above), Thev. and Norton Equivalent
3

(R above is replaced by Req), for when only interested in terminal

behavior, e.g., with a power-supply, we know there is a variety of
circuitry in there, but we mainly want to know what voltage, current i.e.,
power it can supply
4

Quick Review of ENGR 201

2. Circuit Recognition (of common configurations)
voltage / current dividers, bridges
V1
= I 1 , parallel comb.
R1

[(R1*R2)/(R1 + R2)]
R1

I
Vi

Rout

+
Vo

V1

I
I1

R1

R2

I2

Vo =

Vi Rout
Vi
, (I =
)
R1 + Rout
R1 + Rout

V1/R1 V2/R2
IR1 R2
I ( R2 )
I ( R1 )
V1 =
= I 1 R1 , I 1 =
, I2 =
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
R1 + R2

3. Node Voltage Method (need ne 1 node voltage (KCL) equations)

ne essential node where 3 or more circuit elements join
We write KCL at the essential nodes ( ne ) minus the reference node.
(typically end up with fewer equations than for Mesh Current Method)
(end up with 2 equations in the example above) -If circuit not reduced
5

Quick Review of ENGR 201

2
1

V1

Vs

V2

Is

4. Mesh Current Method ( need be (ne 1) mesh current (KVL) equations)

be essential branch that connects essential nodes
without passing through an essential node.
We write KVL for each mesh current loop (need to solve 3 equations)
5. Superposition ---kill( short voltage source, open current source) all
independent sources but one, and sum the response for each.

Ch. 9: Sinusoids and Phasors

This chapter will cover alternating current (AC).
A discussion of complex numbers is included
prior to introducing phasors.
Applications of phasors and frequency domain
analysis for circuits including resistors,
capacitors, and inductors will be covered.
The concept of impedance and admittance is also
introduced.

Alternating Current (AC)

AC circuits are used for generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of
electric energy, also the dominant form of signals in communications. So time
varying, we deal mostly with sinusoidal excitation (input) and response (output).
v or i
+

V or I

Sinusoidal
" ac"

" dc"

Favored by Edison

favored by Westinghouse and Tesla

After a bitter battle in electrical power generation and transmission, ac won

over because: (in 1890 )
i) It is easier to generate;
ii) It is easier to change the voltage (through a transformer) for efficient
transmission of electric power. I.e., higher voltage, lower I 2 R losses, more
suitable for higher power motors.
8

Alternating Current (AC)

Disadvantage: ac cannot be stored as easily as dc (no ac equivalent of batteries
or capacitors).
Why do we use sinusoidal time variation?
-

Sin and cos are simple periodic, continuous functions, easy to deal with
(derivative and integral of a sinusoid is also a sinusoid, see below)

Cosine is sine advanced by 90

d
1
(sin t ) = cos t ; sin t dt = cos t ;
dt

Any periodic waveform (no matter how complicated) can be represented

as a sum of sinusoids of different frequencies (Fourier Series in 203)
(power supply example)

- From the superposition principle: we find the circuit response

for each individual frequency and sum the response to get the full behavior
9

Steady State Sinusoidal Analysis

Vm

R
v

v (t )
i (t )

L
T

f=1/T Hz, =2f (rad/sec) (angular freq.)

Most often we are interested in the steady-state response of a circuit, which
exists for t , rather than the transient, which dies off as t . The
time depends on the time constant = L R (smaller dies away quicker).
What we find is that the sinusoidal excitation (input/source) i.e.,
v = Vm cos(t + ) produces a steady-state (s.s.) sinusoidal response, i.e.,
i = I m cos(t + ) of the same frequency ( = 2f ). Theta () is the phase shift
due to capacitors or inductors, etc.
Our ac circuit problems are a matter of determining:
1. magnitudes (i.e., I m )
L
2. phase angles (i.e., = tan 1 ( ) for RL circuit)
R
10

Characteristics of a Sinusoidal Function

v

Vm

v = Vm cos(t + ) ;

Vm
t
Vm
Vm

T
Period

i = I m cos(t + ) ;

specified by 3 parameters:
Vm = amplitude
= angular freq. (rad/sec)
, = phase angle

(or troughs)
Period ( T ) sec s = the time between successive peaks of the same sign
2
(The function repeats itself every T seconds,
T=

1
, cycles per second ( Hertz, Hz )
T
ex: U.S. electric utility frequency 60 Hz = f
1
period = T =
= 16.67ms
60
The angular equivalent of the period is 360 or 2 radians
1
2 ( rad )
= , ( f = ),
the angular frequency is
T
T (sec)
2
which we refer to as omega: =
= 2f rad / sec
T

Period is inversely related to Frequency f =

11

Characteristics of a Sinusoidal Function

More generally, we need to account for relative
timing of one wave versus another.
This can be done by including a phase shift,
(degrees or radians)
Consider the two sinusoids below
If is positive, sinusoid shifts to left
If is negative, sinusoid shifts to right.

=
v1 ( t ) Vm sin t and=
v2 ( t ) Vm sin (t + )

12

Sinusoids
If two sinusoids are in phase, then this
means that the reach their maximum and
minimum at the same time.
Sinusoids may be expressed as sine or
cosine.
The conversion between them is:
sin (t 180 ) =
sin t
cos (t 180 ) =
cos t
sin (t 90 ) =
cos t
sin t
cos (t 90 ) =

13

Complex Numbers

A powerful method
for representing
sinusoids is the
Phasor: an effective
way of dealing with
ac circuit problems,
and much simpler
than dealing with
sinusoidal
quantities.
Phasor: a complex
number that carries
the magnitude and
phase angle
information of a
sinusoidal function.

v = Vm cos(t + ) Vm = V in phasor form (angular or polar) (bold in text)

Vector in the Complex Plane

Im
b

Vm

1
a

-The length of the

vector is the amplitude
of the sinusoid.
-The vector,V, in polar
form, is at an angle
Re with respect to the
positive real axis.

We can put this in rectangular form as follows:

a = Vm cos ,

b = Vm sin , (from Eulers identity)

e j cos j sin
=

where V = a + jb in rectangular form

j is complex 90 operator that comes into play because of the phase angles
introduced by sinusoidal sources, inductors and capacitors, etc.
( j 2 = 1 )
then Vm = a 2 + b 2 , = tan 1

b
a
14

Complex Numbers
A powerful method for representing sinusoids is the
Phasor: an effective way of dealing with ac circuit
problems, and much simpler than dealing with sinusoidal
quantities.
Phasor: a complex number that carries the magnitude and
phase angle information of a sinusoidal function.
A complex number z can be represented in rectangular
form as:

z= x + jy
It can also be written in polar or exponential form as:

z = r = re

15

Complex Numbers
In general, a complex number z can be represented in
rectangular form as: z= x + jy
And it can be written in polar or exponential form as:

z = r = re

Again, the different forms can be

interconverted.
Starting with rectangular form, one
can go to polar:
y
r =x 2 + y 2

=
tan 1

Likewise, from polar to rectangular

form goes as follows:
=
x r=
cos y r sin
16

Complex Numbers
The following mathematical operations are
important
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
z1 + z2 =( x1 + x2 ) + j ( y1 + y2 ) z1 z2 =( x1 x2 ) + j ( y1 y2 ) z1 z2 =r1r2 (1 + 2 )
Division
z1 r1
=
(1 2 )
z2 r2

Reciprocal
1 1
= ( )
z r

Square Root
z=

r ( / 2 )

Complex Conjugate
z * = x jy = r = re j

17

Sinusoid-Phasor
Transformation
Here is a handy table for transforming
various time domain sinusoids into phasor
domain:

18

Phasor Relationships for

Resistors
Each circuit element has a
relationship between its current and
voltage.
These can be mapped into phasor
relationships very simply for
resistors capacitors and inductors.
For the resistor, the voltage and
current are related via Ohms law.
As such, the voltage and current are
in phase with each other - see the
Complex Plane/Phasor Diagram.
19

Phasor Relationships for

Inductors
Inductors on the other hand have a
phase shift between the voltage and
current.
In this case, the voltage leads the
current by 90. (ELI the ICE man)
Or one says the current lags the
voltage, which is the standard
convention.
This is represented on the phasor
diagram by a positive phase angle
between the voltage and current.
is the angular frequency
20

Phasor Relationships for

Capacitors
Capacitors have the opposite
phase relationship as
compared to inductors.
In their case, the current leads
the voltage.
In a phasor diagram, this
corresponds to a negative
phase angle between the
voltage and current.

21

Overview of Representing Complex Numbers

in the Complex Plane
v = V cos(t + )

Polar: V = V

Im
y

V
V

Rectangular: V = X + jY ;

X = V cos , Y = V sin
x

Re

so related back to polar:

V =

V = V with angular frequency

X 2 +Y2

= tan 1(

Y
)
X

back in sinusoidal form

v = V cos(t + )

22

Voltage current relationships

23

(Complex) Impedance
We now use complex arithmetic for all of the Systematic Approaches developed

for dc analysis.
For example, we introduce the concept of impedance Z , and Ohms law becomes:
V = IZ , where Z ( ) = R + jX ( )
R =real (resistive) component
X =imaginary (reactive) component

24

Impedance
In frequency domain, the values
obtained for impedance are only valid at
that frequency.
Changing to a new frequency will
require recalculating the values.
As a complex quantity, the impedance
may be expressed in rectangular form
(real part is the resistance R, imaginary
component is the reactance, X).
The impedance of capacitors:
inductors:

reactance X L = L()

XC =

1
()
C

Z ( ) =+
R j(X L + X c )
25

Impedance and Admittance

Z ( ) =+
R j(X L + X c )
When the overall reactance X is positive, we say the
impedance is inductive, and capacitive when it is negative.

reactance X L = L()

XC =

1
()
C

The impedance of a circuit element is the ratio of the

phasor voltage to the phasor current.
Z
=

V
or V ZI
=
I

Admittance is simply the inverse of impedance.

26

Impedance and Admittance

Admittance, being the reciprocal of the impedance,
is also a complex number.
It is measured in units of Siemens
The real part of the admittance is called the
conductance, G
The imaginary part is called the susceptance, B
These are all expressed in Siemens or (mhos)
The impedance and admittance components can be
related to each other:
G=

R
R2 + X 2

B=

X
R2 + X 2
27

Impedance and Admittance

28

Kirchoffs Laws in Frequency

Domain
A powerful aspect of phasors is that
Kirchoffs laws apply to them as well.
This means that a circuit transformed to
frequency domain can be evaluated by the
same methodology developed for KVL and
KCL.
One consequence is that there will likely be
complex values.

29

Impedance Combinations
Once in frequency domain, the impedance
elements are generalized.
Combinations will follow the rules for
resistors:

30

Impedance Combinations
Series combinations will result in a sum of
the impedance elements:

Z eq = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + + Z N
Here then two elements in series can act like
a voltage divider

V1

Z1
Z2
=
V V2
V
Z1 + Z 2
Z1 + Z 2

31

Parallel Combination
Likewise, elements combined in parallel will
combine in the same fashion as resistors in
parallel:
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ +
Z eq Z1 Z 2 Z 3
ZN

32

Admittance
Expressed as admittance, though, they are
again a sum:

Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + + YN
Once again, these elements can act as a
current divider:

I1

Z2
Z1
=
I I2
I
Z1 + Z 2
Z1 + Z 2

33