Marketing Intelligence & Planning

A model of behavioral intention to buy domestic versus imported products in a Confucian culture
Jae-Eun Chung Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik

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Cheng Lu Wang, Zhen Xiong Chen, (2004),"Consumer ethnocentrism and willingness to buy domestic products in a
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A model of behavioral intention to buy domestic

versus imported products in a Confucian culture

Jae-Eun Chung
PhD Candidate, International Center, Michigan State University, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA
Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
Associate Professor and Associate Dean, International Center, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

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Keywords

Consumer behaviour,
National cultures, Country of origin,
Confucianism

Abstract

This study examines the

predictors of Korean consumers'
behavioral intention to buy
imported and domestic products,
based on Lee's revised Fishbein
model. The revised model
incorporated two salient
Confucian concepts face saving
and group conformity. There were
two phases to the study,
qualitative (focus group
interviews) and empirical
(experimental survey design).
From the focus group data,
parallel self-report mail survey
instruments were developed and
sent to Korean students studying
temporarily at a large midwestern
university in the USA. Instruments
were randomly assigned to
subjects using a between-subject
experimental design. Findings
indicate that there is a positive
relationship between Korean
consumers' attitudes toward a
product and their product
evaluation. Further, there is a
positive relationship between their
attitudes and their intention to buy
either domestic or imported
products. The components of
cultural pressure, face saving and
group conformity have a weaker
influence on attitudes than
product evaluation, and they are
significant predictors for domestic
products but not for imported
products. Finally, managerial
implications and marketing
strategies are discussed for
multinational and domestic
marketers.

Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0263-4503]

Introduction
Koreans' consumption of imported products
has rapidly increased in various product
categories since the Korean market recently
opened its doors to international marketers
(Chun, 1992). For example, according to the
International Trade Administration (1995),
the imported-apparel market has increased
30 per cent annually over the past two to
three years, and this trend is expected to
continue and accelerate in the future. There
is a need, therefore, to identify the
underlying factors influencing Korean
consumers' decision making practices so that
international and domestic marketers will be
able to develop informed marketing
strategies.
To better understand the behavioral
intentions of Koreans, Lee (1990) proposed a
modification of Fishbein's behavioral
intention model. Because Korea is a country
that is strongly influenced by Confucian
values (Jacobs, 1986), Lee (1990) incorporated
two salient Confucian concepts face saving
and group conformity to Fishbein's
behavioral intention model. Both of these
concepts have been found to influence the
attitudes and behaviors of consumers in
Confucian cultures (Hofstede, 1980; Yau,
1986). The purpose of the current study,
therefore, is to examine predictors of Korean
consumers' behavioral intentions toward
imported versus domestic products using
Lee's (1990) modified behavioral intention
model.

modified Fishbein behavioral intention

model was employed. For a better
understanding of Lee's model, Fishbein's
model is reviewed briefly.

Fishbein's behavioral intention model

As described below, Fishbein proposed that

behavioral intention (BI) leads to behavior
(B), and that behavioral intention (BI) is
determined by the consumer's attitudes
toward purchasing or using a brand (Aact)
and by a normative value or subjective norm
(SN) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).
B  BI Aactw1 SN w2
where,
Aact

n
X
i1

Bi Ei and SN

k
X

NBj MCj

j1

To identify the underlying mechanism

determining Korean consumers' choice of
imported or domestic products, Lee's (1990)

The personal attitudes toward the behavior

refer to whether the person is in favor of or
against performing the behavior in question.
The subjective norm is the person's
perception of the social pressures for or
against performing the behavior. The w1 and
w2 components represent empirically
determined regression coefficients.
The attitudes toward purchasing or using a
brand are, in turn, a function of the cognitive
P
belief structure ( ni1 Bi Ei ). The cognitive
belief structure is a belief-evaluation
composite where Bi is the belief that
performance of the behavior will lead to a
specific outcome, i, and Ei is the evaluation of
each consequence, and n is the number of
salient outcomes. The subjective norm (SN)
is represented as a function of a normative
P
structure ( kj1 NBj MCj ), where NBj is the
perceived expectation that referent j thinks
the individual should or should not perform
the behavior. MCj is the consumer's
motivation to comply with referent j, and k is
the number of salient referents. Support for

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Theoretical framework and

literature review

[ 281 ]

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

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the Fishbein model has been extensive in the

consumer behavior literature (Farley et al.,
1981; Ryan and Bonfield, 1980; Sheppard et al.,
1988). Its strong predictive power for Western
consumers has been demonstrated with a
variety of consumer products, such as dress
(Miniard and Cohen, 1983), toothpaste (Ryan,
1982), dog food and beer (Miniard and Cohen,
1983), mineral water (Knox and Chernatony,
1989) and facial tissue (Mitchell and
Olson, 1981).
Lee and Green (1991) examined the crosscultural applicability of Fishbein's
behavioral intention model. Their study used
student samples in Korea and the USA to
investigate a sample product, sneakers. They
found that the Fishbein model could be
employed to explain consumers' behavioral
intention formation in a Confucian culture as
well as in the USA. However, they also found
that the two samples exhibited substantial
differences in the relative importance of
subjective norms and personal attitudes
derived from product beliefs and product
evaluation. Korean consumers were more
strongly influenced by subjective norms than
personal attitudes, while US consumers were
more strongly influenced by personal
attitudes than by subjective norms.

Modified Fishbein's behavioral intention

model for Confucian consumers

Confucian cultures in Far Eastern countries

are significantly different from Western
culture in terms of collectivism and
individualism (Hofstede, 1980). In the
following section, two fundamental concepts
of Confucian culture will be described in
detail.

Face saving

``Face'' is a concept of central importance

among people in Confucian cultures, and it
has a pervasive influence on their
interpersonal relationships (Yau, 1986). The
Chinese concept of face has two dimensions,
lien and mien-tzu (Hu, 1944). Mien-tzu
represents ``the kind of prestige that is
emphasized in America: a reputation
achieved through getting on in life, through
success and ostentation'' (Hu, 1944, p. 45).
Lien, on the other hand, represents ``the
confidence of society in the integrity of the
ego's moral character, the loss of which
makes it impossible for her/him to function
properly within the community. Lien is ``both
a social sanction for enforcing moral
standards and an internalized sanction'' (Hu,
1944, p. 45). These two concepts of face have
interdependent meanings. If one loses face
(mien-tzu), then the confidence of society in
one's moral integrity (lien) is also lost.

[ 282 ]

Face is lost when conduct or performance

falls below the minimum level considered
acceptable or when some essential
requirements corresponding to one's social
position are not satisfactorily met (Ho, 1977).
Moreover, the possibility of losing face may
arise from how an individual is expected to
act or to be treated by other members in his
or her group. Thus, interpersonal behavior in
Confucian culture will be determined by its
effect on others and on the individual's
reputation, dignity and integrity. People in
this culture are always under strong
constraints to act to meet the expectations of
others so as to maintain face.

Group conformity

In a Confucian society, the dominant

collectivist orientation calls for a primacy of
the goals and welfare of the laterally
extended group (Kluckhohn and Strodbeck,
1961). The collectivist nature of Confucian
society is reflected in strong relationships
among family members and within kinship
systems. The maintenance of group
cohesiveness and integrity is especially acute
(Hofstede, 1980). Chinese and Koreans
sacrifice themselves for benefits that largely
accrue to a particular social unit or even to
the whole society. Thus, most Koreans feel
strong social pressure to comply with the
group norms regardless of their own private
views.

Lee's modification of Fishbein's behavioral

intention model

Since the concept of subjective norms (SN) (a

Western concept) does not capture the
behavioral impetus, the social pressure, or
the nature of personal moral obligation
aroused by the face-saving pressure in a
Confucian culture, Lee (1990) substituted face
saving and group conformity for the
subjective norms in Fishbein's model.
Furthermore, Lee (1990) added a causal
relationship between the social-influence
factor and personal attitudes, while Fishbein
and Ajzen (1975) assumed that there was no
linkage between such attitudes and the
social-influence variables. Lee (1990) argued
that, considering the strong social pressures
on Korean consumers, it is likely that
individuals' attitudes will be heavily
influenced by face saving (FS) and group
conformity (GC) motivations as well as by
personal beliefs and evaluations. Thus, as
indicated in Figure 1, Lee assumed that
beliefs about behavioral consequences (B)
and evaluations (E) have multiplicative
effects on attitudes (Aact), which, in turn,
influence behavioral intention (BI). However,
face saving (FS) and group conformity (GC)
were substituted for the expectations of

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

Downloaded by Universitas Gadjah Mada At 02:21 01 April 2015 (PT)

Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

others (NB6MC) and subjective norms (SN).

A causal path is also assumed between the
social pressure variables (FS and GC) and the
formation of personal attitudes (Aact).

Hypotheses
In order to identify the predictors of Korean
consumers' intentions to buy domestic and
imported products, hypotheses are
formulated in the present study from four
aspects of Lee's (1990) model:
1 the relationship between attitudes (Aact)
and behavioral intention (BI);
2 the relationship between cognitive belief
structure (BiEi) and attitudes;
3 the effect of face saving (FS) on attitudes
and behavioral intention; and
4 the effect of group conformity (GC) on
attitudes and behavioral intention.

Relationship between attitudes (Aact) and

behavioral intention (BI)

The relationship between attitudes and

behavioral intention in Fishbein's (1975)
model is retained in Lee's model (1990),
which is adapted for consumers in Confucian
cultures. As mentioned above, many
researchers have confirmed the association
between attitudes and intention in the
Fishbein model (Knox and Chernatony, 1989;
Lee and Green, 1991; Mitchell and Olson,
1981; Netemeyer and Bearden, 1992; Sheppard
et al., 1988). This relationship was also found
to be significant among Korean consumers
(Lee and Green, 1991).

Figure 1
Lee's (1990) revised model for Confucian consumers based on Fishbein's
behavioral intention model

Although few researchers have attempted

to examine the relationship between
attitudes and behavioral intention in regard
to the choice of domestic or imported
products among Korean consumers, previous
research indicated a strong relationship
between attitudes and behavioral intention
across product categories and cultural
backgrounds, as previously noted. Thus, the
first hypothesis is proposed as follows:
H1: Among Korean consumers, there will be
a positive relationship between attitudes
(Aact) and behavioral intention (BI) in
the choice of both domestic and
imported products.

Relationship between cognitive belief

structure (BiEi) and attitudes

The relationship between the cognitive belief

structure (BiEi) and attitudes in Fishbein's
(1975) model is also retained in Lee's (1990)
model adapted for consumers in Confucian
cultures. Various studies examining the
efficacy of Fishbein's model have confirmed
the relationship between the cognitive belief
structure and attitudes (Knox and
Chernatony, 1989; Lee and Green, 1991;
Mitchell and Olson, 1981; Netemeyer and
Bearden, 1992; Sheppard et al., 1988). Lee and
Green (1991) also found that cognitive
structure was a significant predictor of
attitudes for both US and Korean samples.
Although no study has specifically
investigated the relationship between
cognitive belief structure and attitudes in
determining the choice of domestic or
imported products among Korean
consumers, the following hypothesis is
proposed based on the findings of previous
research:
H2: Among Korean consumers, there will be
a positive relationship between
cognitive belief structure (BiEi) and
attitudes in the choice of domestic and
imported products.

The effect of face saving (FS) on attitudes

and behavioral intention

Lee (1990) proposed that face saving is a

predictor of attitudes and behavioral
intention among consumers in Confucian
cultures, but it is questionable whether face
saving has a significant effect on attitudes
and behavioral intention in the choice of
imported products. In other words, face
saving could be a significant predictor of
Korean consumers' attitudes and behavioral
intentions to buy domestic products but not
imported products. The rationale for this
statement is as follows.
Since Korea opened its market to foreign
marketers, ``The Buy Domestic Products''

[ 283 ]

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

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Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

movement among Korean consumers has

been pervasive to protect domestic industry
(The Economist, 1995; Hoon, 1994; Kang, 1993).
Thus, Korean consumers' motivation not to
lose face (reputation) or not to feel ashamed
by purchasing an imported product (when
people who are important to them in their
group expect them to purchase it) is in
conflict with the social pressure to support
domestic industries. On the other hand,
Korean consumers' motivation to save face
by purchasing domestic products is
consistent with the social pressure to
demonstrate loyalty to Korean products.
Therefore, face saving will be a significant
predictor of attitudes and behavioral
intention to choose domestic products, but it
will not be a significant predictor to choose
imported products. Based on these
arguments, the following hypotheses are
proposed.
Among Korean consumers:
H3a:Face saving will have a positive
relationship with attitudes and with the
intention to buy domestic products.
H3b:Face saving will not be related to
attitudes and the intention to buy
imported products.

The effect of group conformity (GC) on

attitudes and behavioral intention

Lee (1990) also proposed that group

conformity is a predictor of attitudes and
behavioral intention. However, it is doubtful
whether group conformity is significantly
related to Korean consumers' attitudes and
behavioral intention in the case of imported
products because there is a prevalent social
pressure to ``buy Korean'' (The Economist,
1995; Hoon, 1994; Kang, 1993). That is, Korean
consumers' motivation to comply with people
around them or to fit in with other people by
purchasing imported products is not
congruent with the social pressure to ``buy
Korean.'' Thus, group conformity would not
influence their attitudes and intentions to
buy imported products.
On the other hand, Korean consumers'
motivation to conform to their group by
purchasing domestic products is consistent
with this social pressure. Thus, group
conformity would be a predictor of Korean
consumers' attitudes and intentions to buy
domestic products. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are suggested.
Among Korean consumers:
H4a:Group conformity will be positively
related to attitudes and to the intention
to buy domestic products.
H4b:Group conformity will not be related to
attitudes and to the intention to buy
imported products.

[ 284 ]

Research methods
Research design and data collection

There were two phases to the study, the

qualitative phase and the quantitative phase.
In the qualitative phase, focus group
interviews were conducted with Korean
students and their spouses to explore the
conceptual meaning and cultural context of
the target concepts of the study (Confucian
values; ethnocentrism; and product beliefs,
evaluations, attitudes, and behavioral
intention). These concepts were examined in
a product-specific context. Additionally,
salient product attributes and brand names
were discussed, along with quality/image
views about country of origin (COO) and
country of manufacture (COM).
Information gathered from the qualitative
phase was incorporated into the development
of the quantitative survey instrument. The
resulting quantitative study was a crosssectional, exploratory study using an
experimental design. The design used a selfreport mail survey instrument to collect
consumer behavior data from Korean
students studying temporarily in the USA in
1994. A cover letter explaining the purpose of
the study; directions for completion of the
survey; and a self-addressed, stamped return
envelope were mailed with the
questionnaire. Although the letter and
questionnaire were addressed to the Korean
student, the letter explained that any Korean
living in the household over the age of 18
could respond to the questionnaire.
Therefore, some respondents could have been
students' spouses.

Sample

Korean undergraduate and graduate students

(and their spouses) studying at a large
midwestern university in the USA were
sampled to test the proposed relationships.
Several factors support the use of a student
sample to conduct a study in which the
primary interest is to investigate the effects
of culture on selected consumer behavior
concepts. Korea, a Confucian culture, has
been found to hold very strong Confucian
values when compared to other Asian
(Confucian) cultures (Chang, 1998). Given the
strength of these values, it would seem
unlikely that living in the US temporarily
could broadly change these views.
Several studies have found that
psychological acculturation is a long process,
even for immigrants who have moved and
plan to live in another country/region for the
remainder of their lives. Studies from
various disciplines (including economics,
psychology and education) found that

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

Downloaded by Universitas Gadjah Mada At 02:21 01 April 2015 (PT)

Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

immigrants who lived in the USA for several

generations retained the values from their
original culture (Carroll et al., 1994; Wang
and Phinney, 1998; Youn et al., 1999).
Similarly, other acculturation studies that
investigated the adjustment of immigrants to
new environments found that it took a
significant amount of time even
generations for immigrants fully to
acculturate to the new environment (Yang,
1991; Chen, 1996; Park-Adams, 1997).
In the present study, to determine if the
Korean students' values had been changed
due to the number of years they had lived in
the US, statistical tests were run. Regression
analysis results indicated that there were no
significant relationships between the
cultural variables (two face saving items and
two group conformity items) and the number
of years living in the USA for any of the three
products. Therefore, it appears that living in
the USA temporarily has not significantly
changed the deeply held cultural views of
this sample.
Other researchers found similar results.
Berry (1990) found that refugees and
sojourners (such as Korean students who are
studying in the US but plan to return to their
home country) are more likely to retain their
original cultural values because they are not
in an assimilation mode. In fact, in their
study of various dimensions of Confucian
values, Ko and Gentry (1991) found that there
was no relationship between the years that
Korean students spent in the US and
maintenance of their Confucian values.
Additionally, Korean students at the
midwestern university where the study was
undertaken have strong ties among
themselves by actively engaging in their
student organization, the Korean students
Organization; attending campus-based
Korean community churches; and
celebrating Korean cultural and religious
holidays (e.g. Chu-Suk on August 15 and
Ku-Jeong on January 1 on the moon
calendar) and activities with fellow Koreans
students.
The Korean students were randomly
selected from the membership lists of a
number of Korean student organizations at
the midwestern university, and randomly
assigned using a random numbers table to
one of the two survey instruments (see
discussion below). To increase the response
rate, follow-up telephone calls were made to
those students who had not returned the
survey within two weeks of receiving it. Of
the 388 questionnaires sent to Korean
students, 93 were returned and usable,
yielding a 24.2 percent response rate.

Instrument

To test the proposed relationships, the

instrument was developed in a hypothetical
shopping scenario format. The Korean
students were asked to imagine that he/she
was visiting different stores in Korea (not in
the US) to compare various brands, features
and prices for each of three products (TV,
VCR, sweater). Subjects were presented with
various information about each of the
products and then asked to respond to
questions about each of the products using a
self-report written survey instrument. The
three target products and brand names were
selected based upon the outcome of focus
group interviews, as previously discussed.
The products were selected due to their
familiarity to a broad cross section of
students, varying levels of student
involvement/interest and technological
development. In the focus group interviews,
discussion ensued about brand names,
country of origin (COO) and country of
manufacture (COM). Researchers were
cautioned that the brand names, COOs and
COMs used in the study must be recognizable
and realistic to Korean consumers. Thus, the
following three products and corresponding
brand names were selected: a Samsung VCR
(domestic brand), Sony TV (foreign brand),
Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (foreign brand).
Two parallel survey instruments were
developed which contained identical
hypothetical Korean market scenarios about
the three products; the only difference was a
manipulation of the country of manufacture
(COM) cue. Subjects were randomly assigned
to one of the two treatments. The two
instruments were developed as follows:
(1) Instrument 1:
.
Sony TV (Japanese) manufactured in
Malaysia;
.
Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured
in Korea;
.
Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (American)
manufactured in the US.
(2) Instrument 2:
.
Sony TV (Japanese) manufactured in
Japan;
.
Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured
in China;
.
Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (American)
manufactured in Mexico.
Owing to the focus of this article, however,
the COM manipulation was not a variable of
interest. Therefore, only the data for each of
the three products with matching brand COO
and COM were analyzed. That is, the Sony
TV (Japanese) manufactured in Japan, the
Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured in
Korea, and the Ralph Lauren Polo sweater

[ 285 ]

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

Downloaded by Universitas Gadjah Mada At 02:21 01 April 2015 (PT)

Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

(American) manufactured in the USA. No

special attention was given to the COM; it
was simply listed as one of several product
attributes (in random presentation). Once
developed, the instrument was pretested with
Korean students. Revisions were made to
improve question clarity, comprehension
and readability.
All of the measures used in this study,
including the measures of group conformity
pressure and face-saving pressure (Lee, 1990);
and the measures of beliefs, evaluations,
attitudes, and behavioral intention (Fishbein
and Ajzen, 1975) were previously established.
Beliefs (B). The respondents were asked to
evaluate salient attributes (listed below) for
each product (TV, VCR, and sweater).
Subjects answered the following question:
``How likely is it that this (brand X product X)
(Sony TV/Samsung VCR/Polo sweater)
described above has the following
characteristics . . .'', measured on a five-point
Likert-type scale (``1 = very unlikely to 5 =
very likely'').
(1) Sony TV:
.
a sharp (clear) picture;
.
hi-fi stereo sound system;
.
prestigious brand name;
.
expensive;
.
easily accessible authorized service
centers;
.
manufactured with the latest
technology.
(2) Samsung VCR:
.
digital auto tracking;
.
simple programming;
.
prestigious brand name;
.
expensive;
.
easily accessible authorized service
center;
.
manufactured with the latest
technology.
(3) Ralph Lauren Polo Sweater:
.
fashionable;
.
easy care;
.
comfort;
.
prestigious brand name;
.
expensive;
.
manufactured with the latest
technology.
Evaluations (E). Prior to exposure to the
hypothetical buying scenarios, subjects'
product evaluations were measured by
asking respondents about the general
importance of selected attributes when they
shopped for each of the target products.
Subjects were asked: ``When purchasing any
(product X) (TV, VCR, sweater), how
important are each of the following
features. . .'' (subjects were provided with the
same product-specific lists as in the belief

[ 286 ]

section). The question was also measured on

a five-point Likert-type scale (``1 = not at all
important to 5 = very important'').
Attitudes toward the act (Aact).
Respondents were asked to rate two items on
a five-point Likert-type scale (``1 = highly
disagree to 5 = highly agree''). The statement
used for the first measure was ``After seeing
the product described above, my general
impression of (brand X product X) would be
good.'' The statement used for the second
measure was ``I believe that it would be wise
for me to buy the (brand X product X).''
Behavioral intention (BI). Behavioral
intention was measured by asking
respondents to answer the following
question, ``It is likely that I would buy the
(product X) described above,'' on a five-point
Likert-type scale (``1 = highly disagree to 5 =
highly agree'').
Face-saving pressure (FS). Respondents
were asked two questions to rate the pressure
they felt about losing face by buying brand X
product, using a 5-point (``1 = highly disagree
to 5 = highly agree'') semantic-differential
scale. The first measure used the following
statement: ``My decision to buy the (brand X
product X) described above would be
influenced by whether owning it would hurt
my reputation with the people who are
important to me.'' The statement for the
second measure was ``My decision to buy the
(brand X product X) would be influenced by
whether I feel ashamed when people who are
important to me see me owning this
product.''
Group conformity pressure (GC).
Respondents' perceived pressure to conform
to a group norm was measured via two items
on the same five-point scale used for
measuring face-saving pressure. The first
measure had the following statement: ``I feel
that most people around me expect me to
comply with their decision to buy the (brand
X product X).'' The statement used for the
second measure was ``The decision to buy the
(brand X product X) described above would
be influenced by whether owning it would
make me fit in with other people.''
Cognitive belief structure. This measure
P
was obtained by the formula ni1 Bi Ei , where
Bi is the belief that the target product will
have a specific attribute, i, Ei is the
evaluation of the importance for each
attribute, and n is the number of salient
attributes.

Data analysis

Data analysis of the self-report instrument

was conducted using the Statistical Package
of the Social Science (SPSS). To test the
proposed relationships, LISREL VII was

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

employed. The averages of attitudes, group

conformity and face saving variables (two
items for each construct) were used in
LISREL.

Results
Sample characteristics

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As shown in Table I, the profile of the sample

reveals that the age of the respondents
ranged from 19 to 40 (mean age was 29).
Females constituted about 39 per cent of the
sample, about 54 per cent were married, and
the average number of years the respondents
had studied (lived) in the US was 4.84. Income
levels were reasonably balanced but
positively skewed.

Scale reliabilities

The reliabilities of the scales used to measure

the constructs in the model were examined.
The coefficient alpha for each scale was
calculated for each of the three products,
Samsung VCR, Sony TV, and Polo sweater.
Since beliefs, evaluations, and behavioral
intentions were measured with a single
measure, coefficient alpha was not calculated
for those variables. The reliabilities of face
saving and group conformity for all three
products were 0.73 and above, indicating an
acceptable internal consistency (Table II).
The reliabilities of the attitude measures for

Table I
Sample profile
Age

$ equivalenta

20 and below
20-29
30-39
40 and over

5.1
35.9
53.0
5.1

Marital status
Single
Married
Gender
Male
Female
Years studying (living) in the US
3 and below
4-7
8+
Monthly income
Won
700,000 Won and below
700,001-1,200,000
1,200,001-2,000,000
2,000,001-3,000,000
3,000,001 and above
Note: a$1= 803.44 Won (1994 exchange rate)

46.2
53.8
61.5
38.5
57.9
23.7
18.4
871 and below
872-1494
1495-2489
2490-3734
3735+

2.5
20.2
23.1
28.2
25.0

Table II
Reliabilities for face saving, group conformity
and attitudes for the three products: Samsung
VCR, Sony TV, and Polo sweater

Face saving
Group conformity
Attitudes

Samsung
VCR

Sony
TV

Polo
sweater

0.94
0.80
0.67

0.95
0.73
0.67

0.90
0.82
0.65

all of the three products were between 0.65

and 0.67.

Predictors of Korean consumers'

behavioral intention toward domestic
versus imported products

The results of LISREL VII analysis are

represented in Table III. Chi-square
statistics, goodness of fit indices (GFI), and
root mean square residuals (RMSR) indicate
the model's goodness of fit for the data.
Chi-square statistics for each of the three
products (Samsung VCR, Sony TV, and Polo
sweater) show that Lee's (1990) model for the
Polo sweater is the only one significant at p <
0.05. The goodness of fit indices indicate that
Lee's (1990) model has an acceptable fit for all
three products. The root mean square
residuals also confirm that Lee's (1990) model
has an adequate fit for all three products.
Therefore, the overall goodness of fit results
indicate that Lee's (1990) model does an
adequate job of capturing the underlying
structure of Korean consumers' behavioral
intention to buy domestic and imported
products.
The squared multiple correlations for the
structural equations of attitudes are: 0.59 for
Samsung VCR, 0.27 for Sony TV, and 0.17 for
Polo sweater. Thus, the endogenous
constructs for attitudes (cognitive belief
structure, face saving and group conformity)
indicate that Lee's (1990) model does a better
job of explaining the exogenous variables for
Samsung VCR than those for Sony TV and
Polo sweater. In addition, the squared
multiple correlations for the structural
equations of behavioral intention are: 0.57 for
Samsung VCR, 0.51 for Sony TV, and 0.46 for
Polo sweater. Thus, the endogenous
constructs for behavioral intention
(cognitive belief structure, attitudes, face
saving and group conformity) also indicate
that Lee's (1990) model has a slightly better fit
for Samsung VCR than those for Sony TV and
Polo sweater.
The relationships between each variable in
Lee's (1990) model were tested
simultaneously for each product, but they
will be discussed separately according to
each of hypotheses. H1 states that among

[ 287 ]

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

Downloaded by Universitas Gadjah Mada At 02:21 01 April 2015 (PT)

Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

Korean consumers, there will be a positive

relationship between attitudes and
behavioral intention in the choice of both
domestic products and imported products.
The coefficients of the path between attitudes
and behavioral intention for each of the three
products are significant at p < 0.05 and in the
expected direction (Table III). Thus,
hypothesis H1 is supported.
H2 proposes the positive effect of cognitive
belief structure on attitudes in the choice of
domestic and imported products among
Korean consumers. The coefficients of the
relationship between cognitive belief
structure and attitudes for each of the three
products are positive and significant at p <
0.05. Thus, hypothesis H2 is supported.
H3a states that face saving will have
positive effects on attitudes and on the
intention to buy for domestic products, but it
will not be significantly related to attitudes
and the intention to buy imported products
(H3b) among Korean consumers. In the case
of the Samsung VCR (domestic product), the
path coefficients between face saving and
attitudes, and between face saving and
behavioral intention are significant at p <
0.05 and in the expected direction. In the case
of the Sony TV and Polo sweater (imported
products), the path coefficients between face
saving and attitudes, and between face
saving and behavioral intention are not
significant. Therefore, H3a and H3b are
supported.
H4a proposes that group conformity will
have a positive relationship with both
attitudes and the intention to buy domestic
products, and H4b suggests that group
conformity will not be related to attitudes
and the intention to buy imported products.
In the case of the Samsung VCR (domestic
product), the path coefficient between group
conformity and attitudes is significant (p <

Table III
Parameter estimates for model tests
Samsung VCR
Attitudes > behavioral intention
0.674*
Belief*evaluation > attitudes
0.898*
Face saving > attitudes
0.266*
Face saving > behavioral intention
0.257*
Group conformity > attitudes
0.358*
Group conformity > behavioral intention 0.161
Chi square
1.90(1df)
P-value
0.168
GFI
0.981
AGFI
0.720
RMSR
0.012

Sony TV

Polo sweater

0.954*
0.532*
0.165
0.016
0.047
0.204
1.36(1df)
0.244
0.989
0.841
0.016

0.741*
0.445*
0.149
0.157
0.056
0.309
4.16(1df)*
0.041
0.960
0.403
0.026

Notes: GFI = Goodness of Fit Index; AGFI = Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index; RMSR =
Root Mean Square Residual; *Significant at p < 0.05, one-tailed test
[ 288 ]

0.05), but not in the expected direction. Group

conformity has a negative relationship with
attitudes. Further, the path coefficient
between group conformity and behavioral
intention is not significant. Thus, H4a is not
supported. In the case of the Sony TV and
Polo sweater (imported products), the path
coefficients between group conformity and
attitudes, and between group conformity and
behavioral intention are not significant.
Thus, H4b is supported.

Discussion
This study found that Lee's (1990) model has
high explanatory power for predicting
Korean consumers' behavioral intention to
buy domestic and imported products based
on the goodness of fit indices for each of three
products. The adjusted goodness of fit
indices, however, indicate somewhat large
differences from goodness of fit indices due to
small degrees of freedom (Table III).
(Especially, the AGFI of Polo sweater is
decreased to 0.403 from 0.960.)
This study found that attitudes were a
better predictor of behavioral intention than
face saving and group conformity, and
cognitive belief structure was a better
predictor of attitudes than face saving and
group conformity for both domestic and
imported products. This finding is not
consistent with Lee and Green (1991). As
previously discussed, Lee and Green (1991)
reported that Koreans, who generally are
collectivists, are more influenced in their
consumer behavior by subjective norms than
by attitudes, while US consumers, who
generally are individualists, are more
affected by attitudes than subjective norms.
That is, the results of the Lee and Green
study imply that face saving and group
conformity[1] are more important
determinants of Korean consumers'
behavioral intention than attitudes.
However, the current study revealed that of
the three antecedents, attitude was the most
influential predictor of behavioral intention
for all three products. In addition, cognitive
belief structure was the most influential
predictor of attitudes for all three products.
Therefore, for Korean consumers, evaluative
criteria (such as price, or quality, etc.) are
the most important factors in determining
their attitudes and intention to buy either
domestic or imported products, which would
be similar to Western consumers.
Such a tendency is highlighted in the
finding that group conformity was negatively
related to attitudes when purchasing a
domestic product, Samsung VCR. In other

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

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Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

words, Korean consumers who felt less group

conformity had more positive attitudes
toward buying a Samsung VCR.
While these findings were unexpected,
studies in other disciplines have found
similar results. In studies of group decisionmaking behavior in management (Chung and
Adams, 1997), self-perception in advertising
(Wilcox et al., 1996), and gender perception in
social psychology (Kashima et al., 1995),
researchers found that Hofstede's cultural
distinction of individualism/collectivism has
become blurred[2]. Especially in the study of
Wilcox et al. (1996), there was no significant
difference between US and Korean students
in the degree of individualism/collectivism.
Therefore, these studies may have detected
the changing nature of Korean consumers'
cultural values in their buying behavior.
That is, due to Korea's rapid economic
development, urbanization, and the infusion
of Western culture in today's globalized
world (Golden, 1988; Wilcox et al., 1996),
perhaps Korean consumers have become
more individualistic in their life styles.
It may be, however, that younger
populations worldwide have been more
impacted by Western cultural views through
increased exposure to advanced
communication technologies (e.g. Internet)
and various media (movies, songs, etc.).
Since the current study analyzed only the
views of college-age Koreans, it may be that
these results reflect a pervasive
Westernization trend among younger
populations globally (Czinkota et al., 1995).
Although the influence of the group
conformity (Confucian) value was
diminished in the current study, face saving,
another Confucian value was still powerful.
Specifically, this study found that face saving
was a significant predictor of Korean
students' attitudes and behavioral intentions
for the domestic product, Samsung VCR, but
not for the imported products (Sony TV and
Polo sweater). Thus, as proposed in the study,
face saving influences Korean consumers to
purchase domestic products due to the social
pressure to ``buy Korean''. Similarly, when
Koreans purchase imported products, face
saving has little effect. The amount of
influence of face saving on attitudes for
Samsung VCR, however, was quite small in
comparison with that of cognitive belief
structure (0.898 for cognitive belief structure
and 0.266 for face saving). Therefore, this
finding may reflect the stronger influence of
certain Confucian values within the dynamic
global changes occurring in Korean market
environments.

Conclusions and limitations

This study has examined the underlying
structure of Korean consumers' behavioral
intention to buy imported and domestic
products, based on Lee's (1990) revised
Fishbein model. In general, Lee's (1990)
model has an acceptable goodness of fit for
Korean consumers' behavioral intention to
buy domestic and imported products.
Specifically, Korean consumers who hold
positive attitudes toward either a domestic or
imported product have a greater intention to
buy the products. Similarly, Korean
consumers who evaluate a product more
positively also have more positive attitudes
toward the product. The components of social
(cultural) pressure, face saving and group
conformity, have a weaker influence on
attitudes than cognitive belief structure and
the significance of the effects varies
depending upon the country of origin
(domestic versus imported products).
Overall, face saving and group conformity
were found to be significant predictors for
domestic products, but not of imported
products.
There are several limitations in this study.
First, Korean students studying in the United
States were used as the sample, and only two
imported products (the Sony TV and the Polo
sweater) and one domestic product (the
Samsung VCR) were used as target products.
Different results may have been found if a
broader population base in Korea and other
products had been studied. A larger sample,
no doubt, also would have improved the
explanatory power of Lee's (1990) model.
Thus, caution should be exercised about the
generalization of the findings.

Implications and recommendations

Although this study is exploratory, the
findings may reveal new trends in Korea that
have implications for the domestic and
multinational electronics and apparel
industries, which are targeting young adult
consumers (20s and 30s). Korean consumers'
cognitive belief structures were strongly
related to their attitude formation, which
includes such cues as product quality,
service, or price. Thus, domestic marketing
managers in these industries should stress
the utilitarian aspects of products in
advertisements in order to appeal to these
market segments. Furthermore, since
consumers with positive attitudes toward
domestic products were also more influenced
by face saving, marketing managers in
Korean consumer products companies

[ 289 ]

Jae-Eun Chung and

Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

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Marketing Intelligence &

Planning
18/5 [2000] 281291

should focus their message on the

importance of ``buying Korean''.
For the imported products, neither face
saving nor group conformity was a
significant predictor of Korean consumers'
attitude formation. Thus, multinational
marketers may not wish to center their
promotional messages on such ethnocentric
characteristics but rather emphasize the
utilitarian aspects of products, such as
product quality.
The present study revealed that the
Confucian value of face saving still
influences Korean consumer behavior, but
group conformity might no longer be a strong
influencer. Such an interesting finding
requires more extensive research by
employing a larger and broader Korean
sample and different product categories,
since the effects could be product specific
(Assael, 1992; Mowen, 1990). Further study
should verify broader changes in Confucian
values and whether face saving and group
conformity still influence Korean consumers'
buying behaviors.
Each of the products studied was presented
in the context of a single well-known (global)
brand name. Future studies should
manipulate the brand names associated with
the products to determine the extent to which
brand influences consumers' beliefs about
products. Similarly, it also may be
instructive to study the moderating effect of
the perceived brand familiarity and image in
the relationship between attitudes and
behavioral intention.
Lastly, in this study, social pressure to
``buy Korean'' was employed as an
explanatory variable in determining the role
of face saving and group conformity on
attitudes and behavioral intentions to buy
domestic and imported products. However,
this social pressure can be measured by the
concept of ethnocentrism of consumers.
Therefore, further study should examine the
moderating role of ethnocentrism on
consumers' purchasing behavior of domestic
and imported products.

Notes

1 Lee (1990) substituted face saving and group

conformity for subjective norms as equivalent
cultural values between Western and
Confucian cultures.
2 Because no relationship was found between
the numbers of years the Korean students
lived (studied) in the US and the magnitudes of
face saving and group conformity, it would
appear this finding is not due to US
acculturation of the Korean students, as
previously noted.

[ 290 ]

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Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
A model of behavioral
intention to buy domestic
versus imported products in a
Confucian culture

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