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HISTORY OF ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE

Subject: Class: Semester: Prepared By: Submitted To: Dated:
History of English Literature MA English (Part - I) (Morning) First Syed Arif Al
i Ms Sajida 10 September, 2009
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S. No.
1. 2.
Contents
Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature • Anglo-Sa
xon Poetry At Early Age • Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry • Common Themes In Anglo-Sa
xon Poetry
Page No.
1-2 2-4
3.
Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry • Heroic Poetry • Elegiac Poetry
4 -5
4.
Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature • • • • • • • Beowulf Dream of the Rood Cædmon
Hymn Battle of Maldon Anglo Saxon Chronicle The Wanderer The Seafarer
5-7
5.
Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature • • • • • Aldhelm St. Bede Caedmon King Alfred C
ynewulf
8-10
6. 7. 8.
Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature Bibl
iography
10 10-12 13
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Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature
It has always been humans’ instinct to express their aesthetic sense and artistic
skills to rejoice and literature is one of most expressive and finest forms to p
resent different aspects and feelings of humans. The literature, especially poet
ry, has been existing since there was no means of writing it and it gradually de
veloped from oral to written. Among the old eras, one noteworthy era was of Angl
o-Saxon literature. Anglo-Saxon people were too much inclined towards fighting a
nd wars which also influenced their literature. They were used to getting entert
ained by the poets when they returned from a battle and the poets were of high s
ignificance as well. Therefore we can find much literary works based on the them
e of the great display of bravery, courage and heroics. The AngloSaxons were act
ually pagans but a religious effect is quite noticeable in written poems. Even t
hey also converted to Christianity later on. Anglo-Saxon literature went through
a great deal of changes since many of the poems were written after centuries of
their oral composition. They were mainly written by Christian monks; among them
the most noted is St. Bede. He wrote Caedmon’s oral poems. Therefore the Anglo-Sa
xon literary works also obtained the religious influence over them. This religio
us influence can be observed in poems such as “Beowulf”, “The Wanderer,” and “The Seafarer”.
Although Beowulf is a heroic poem, it does depict many religiously composed ver
ses and ideas since it was turned into a manuscript by a Christian poet. Anglo-S
axon literature was influenced by Latin literature same as Greek inspired Latin
literature. It was Latin who enabled and educated Anglo-Saxons to use literary i
nstruments properly. Anglo-Saxon poetry is divided into two types; the first is
heroic Germanic pre-Christian poetry and the other is the Christian poetry.
4 There are almost 400 extant manuscripts from the era of Anglo-Saxons. The most
noteworthy and significant existing manuscripts include “Beowulf”, “Anglo-Saxon Chron
icle”, “Cædmon's Hymn”, “The Exeter Book”, “The Vercelli Book”, and “The Nowell Codex”. The g
which Anglo-Saxon literature was written consists of epic poetry, hagiography,
sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, and riddles. The Anglo-Sax
on literature was created between 650 and 1100.
Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature
We have no clear clues of particular poetic rules Anglo-Saxons applied in their
poetry. Whatever we know about their poetic style and rules is all based on pres
ent examination. The earliest broadly acknowledged theory was presented by Eduar
d Sievers in 1885. He told apart five distinctive alliterative patterns. John C.
Pope’s theory of musical notation to track the verse patterns was also accepted.
The theory of Eduard Sievers of alliterative verse gives the clearest comprehens
ion of Old English poetry. The system is based on accent, alliteration, the numb
er of vowels, and patterns of syllabic stress. It is based on five versions on b
ase-verse scheme; any one of the five categories can be used in any verse. The s
ystem was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older G
ermanic languages. More or less, Old English verses are parted in half by a paus
e; the pause is called a "caesura." Each half-line consists of two stressed syll
ables. The first stressed syllable of the second half-line alliterates with one
or both of the stressed syllables of the first halfline. The second stressed syl
lable of the second half-line does not alliterate with either of the stressed sy
llables of the first half. For example:
5 fyrene fremman feond on helle.
("to perpetrate torment, fiend of hell.") -- Beowulf, line 101 As we know that A
nglo-Saxon poetry was mainly oral and it had the heroics themes, and it, later o
n, was properly written by Christian monks who left a religious impression on it
. The other noticeable styles found in Anglo-Saxon poetry are kenning, variation
, and litotes.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry At Early Age
The poetry was always there in rough form among the Anglo-Saxons. They used to s
ing ballads whenever they had good deal of hunting or they returned from a war h
aving defeated the enemy in the battlefield. It was not an organised effort but
random. Among the gleeful crowd, any of them could cry out loud a random verse a
nd the rest would say it after him rhythmically and some more lines could be add
ed by others as well. This pattern inclined them towards the composition of comp
lete ballads. it was the time when minstrels were developed. They even became pr
ofessionals who made their living by roaming around the villages singing the leg
endary ballads or their own composed ones. Later on, these minstrels also served
at courts of the kings and sang the heroic ballads for the warriors to entertai
n them. Since it was completely oral, the work is lost. But those popular ballad
s and minstrel poetry gradually developed into epic poetry because it passed on
to others through word-of-mouth and other poets added into the poetry.
Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry
The Anglo-Saxon poetry has three main factors which are kennings, variations, an
d litotes.
6 Kenning Kenning is a lyrical compound which attracts reader or listener making
a vivid picture. It has an intentional effort to be vague and mysterious. For e
xample, the kenning for the word “blood” would be written as “wounddew”. Variation Varia
tion is a repetition of a word used earlier in the verse with a different word.
For example, the word “glory” is the reputation for “valor” is a variation. Litotes Lito
tes is a type of oral irony. This is expressed in form of the overstatement such
as in Beowulf when the hero is in the clasp of Grendel’s mother, and the poet wri
tes repeatedly that what deep trouble Beowulf is in. It was used similarly used
in the case of the understatement. Litotes aims to intensify the feeling in the
poetry.
Common Themes In Anglo-Saxon Poetry
The themes in Anglo-Saxon poetry start with heroics such as “Beowulf” and gradually
move towards to the religious themes of Gospels. The following themes and subjec
ts are commonly found in Anglo-Saxon literary works: Battle, war, warriors; seas
; storms; ravens; eagles; wolves; death, dying; fate, destiny; nobles, rulers; w
eapons and armor.
Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry
7 The Anglo-Saxon poetry remained under growth for centuries. It started as paga
n and then evolved to Christian religious poetry and from oral to manuscript. Th
erefore it gathered numerous genres in it. Heroic Poetry The Anglo-Saxons were e
ver ready to fight and go top the war. It was their in their blood to look for b
attles. The warriors were entertained by the poets when they came back from a wa
r being triumph. The poets told them the stories of heroes, gallantry, valor, et
c. as we can find much discussed poem “Beowulf” has many fighting depictions against
the monster and the dragon. There is heroic poem which is actually a retelling
of Beowulf namely “The Fight at Finnsburh”. Waldere is another heroic poem dealing w
ith the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Widsith is also a heroic one pertaining to
Eormanric and the Goths from 4th century. Moreover Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has her
oic poems. They were so influenced by this heroic poetry that they thought of tu
rning Gospel into heroic poetic manner. Elegiac Poetry The elegiac poems describ
e wisdom and the ups and downs of life. The Exeter Book has a numerous poems whi
ch fall under the category of elegies. The noticeable elegiac poems are “The Ruin”, “T
he Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, “Wulf and Eadwacer”, “The Wife's Lament”, and The Husband's Mes
age.
Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature
We might not have the slightest notion of Anglo-Saxon poetry in today’s world if i
t remained unwritten. But luckily we do have such great literary works with us i
n written
8 form now to study and learn. Some of the great poems include “The Battle of Brun
anburh”, “The Battle of Maldon”, “Deor”, “Widsith”, “Beowulf”, “Cædmon's Hymn”, “The Wanderer
aldere”, “The Fight at Finnsburh”, “Dream of the Rood” and “Anglo Saxon Chronicle”. Beowulf B
owulf is the longest, oldest and a complete surviving epic poem consisting of 31
82 verses in Anglo-Saxon literature. It was made as an oral composition and it i
s rich in formulas. It was actually conceived in 700 AD and then turned into a m
anuscript by a Christian poet in c.1000. The real creator of this epic poem is u
nknown. The poem is heroic work, but also displays human wisdom, honour, loyalty
, and destiny. The poem describes the heroic acts of Beowulf who comes save the
King Hrothgar and his people from a fierce monster, Grendel. In a massive action
, Beowulf kills the monster and then his revenge-seeking monster mother as well.
When he returns, he, after some time becomes the king his own tribe. He finally
meets his death fighting against fire-breathing dragon which has become a plagu
e to his people, for somebody has stolen a piece of treasure he is guarding. Beo
wulf is given a royal burial. Dream of the Rood The dream of the rood is the cla
ssical poem written in the form of traditional riddle style. In the poem a perso
n dreams about a Cross which is extended to the sky adorned with jewels, and som
etimes covered with blood while every creature
9 is worshipping it. The Cross tells the event of Crucifixion. The poem plays a
significant because it guides people and lead to the righteous path. Cædmon's Hymn
As we know that Caedmon’s oral compositions later turned into manuscripts are the
oldest texts to survive. “Cædmon's Hymn” is one of the oldest extant works from 7th c
entury. Battle of Maldon Battle of Maldon is a heroic poem of 325 verses. It tel
ls about the celebration of Earl Byrhtnoth and his people who fell in a combat a
gainst the Vikings in 991. It is regarded as one of the most excellent works. Bu
t its beginning and end are lost. Anglo Saxon Chronicle Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ca
rries numerous heroic poems. The first poem from 937 is called “The Battle of Brun
anburh”. It is about celebration of the triumph of King Athelstan against the Scot
s and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); c
oronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Prince Alfred
(1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065). The Wanderer The Wandere
r is about the life of an old man who witnesses an assault which took place when
he was young. His close friends and relatives were murdered in the attack. The
memories imprint on his mind. Then the old wise man gets involved in warfare to
protect society. The Seafarer
10 The Seafarer is the story of a grave banishment from home to the sea. The onl
y hope of salvation is the ecstasy of heaven.
Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature
There are five eminent poets namely Aldhelm, St. Bede, Cademon, King Alfred and
Cynewulf. Aldhelm Aldhelm (640-709) is the first recognized English poet. He was
the bishop of Sherborne and founder of Malmesbury. He was a learned man and ski
lled at writing religious and social, and political issues. He used to say verse
s extemporarily on a harp standing on a bridge leading to Malmesbury so that his
flock did not stray. He was exalted by St. Bede for his multifarious works. It
is assumed that here the flock in fact refers to astray people not to the sheep.
He wrote sermons, treatise, and an epistle for his godson, King Aldfrith. Aldhe
lm’s most of the Latin work is extant, but his English works are completely lost.
St. Bede St. Bede is the one who wrote Caedmon’s oral verses. Bede’s Latin works sur
vive in thirty-six complete manuscripts, but like Bede’s surviving English work co
nsists of only five lines. Bede also used the modern style of dating years AD in
literature first, though, he did not invent it. Bede has been read through all
the generation ever since it was written. He also translated the Gospel into Eng
lish, but the text is lost as well. When he was on his deathbed, he sang verses
of St Paul and then composed his death song afterwards. Caedmon
11 Caedmon belonged to 7th century. He was from Whitby, Northumbria and worked a
s a farmhand. He is regarded as the father of Old English poetry, for he is the
one who first used Holy Scriptures in oral verse form and his work is the oldest
to survive as well. Since he was not an educated person, he could not write his
own verses. It was especially St. Bede who wrote his verses. Caedmon used to av
oid and escape when he was asked sing in the feast. He did the same one day in a
feast and went and slept in a stable. There he had a dream and saw a man asking
him to sing. He replied in negative, but the person suggested him to sing about
the Divine and Creation of all things. Thus he started singing admiring God. Si
nce then, his main theme based on Divine and religion. King Alfred King Alfred i
s the youngest son of King Aethelwulf. He excelled at reading when he was twelve
and also learnt Latin at the age of thirty-five. He reigned from 871 to 899. He
was also entitled of Roman consul by the Pope in 853 when he came to Rome. When
he became the king, there was not even a single priest who could read or write
in Latin and English. His chief achievement is the revival of English culture an
d literature. He translated most significant Latin text into English and encoura
ged vernacular writing. He also helped the laity to gain knowledge but his effor
ts were did not bear fruits in his era, but it worked out in the times of his gr
andson, Edgar. It was his era when “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” began. Cynewulf Cynewulf
is the most mysterious figure among the known poets. There is no account which c
an provide details about him. But research concludes that he was
12 from 9th century. We know about Cynewulf’s being a poet just because he signed
his poems. His known works are “The Fates of the Apostles” and “Elene” from “Vercelli Book”
and “Christ II” and “Juliana” form “Exeter Book”.
Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature
There is no doubt that Anglo-Saxons had the tradition of oral poetry and they br
ought it to Britain with them as well when they invaded. However, there is no ev
idence available that they had the tradition of prose. It can be safely said tha
t the Anglo-Saxons had no origins of prose. The art of prose, in fact, initiated
much later after their invasion. It is a common phenomenon in literature if the
poetry comes first, then prose. The prose which is extant from old English is m
ore in quantity than poetry. The most of the prose consists of sermons and Latin
translations of religious works. The origination of prose can, without any doub
t, be attributed to King Alfred. He translated Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”, Orosiu
s’ “Histories”, Gregory’s “Pastoral care” and “Dialogues”, Augustine’s “Soliloquies” and Boet
ation of Philosophy”. He also translated fifty Psalms into Old English. In all thi
s process, he was accompanied by many other well-known writers. The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle was most likely started in King Alfred’s reign and it was carried on for
more than 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.
The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature
It seems very evident in Anglo-Saxon literature that it highlights the role of m
en as warriors with a male-dominated society. There is barely a mention or refer
ence of the role of women. Even if they are mentioned, their character is not gi
ven consideration;
13 instead they are referred as whom they belong to. Their main role is merely d
escribed as a cupbearer or a peacemaker. It is well described in “Beowulf” when ther
e is a feast for the king and the warriors. The women just worked as cupbearer w
hich is found in the following verses in the poem “Beowulf”. "Sometimes, Hrothgar's
daughter distributed ale to older ranks, in order on the benches I heard the com
pany call her Freawaru as she made her rounds, presenting men with the gem-studd
ed bowl." (Beowulf ll. 2020-2025. 75) "So the Helming woman went on her rounds,
queenly and dignified, decked out in rings, offering the goblets to all ranks."
(Beowulf ll.620-622. 45). The women were also used to end fights between tribes.
They women belonging to some influential class were married off to bring peace.
The following verses from Beowulf also depict this situation. "A queen should w
eave peace" (Beowulf l.1942. 74) there are the 'hopes this woman will heal old w
ounds and grievous feuds." (Beowulf ll.2027-2028. 75). Women have only been show
n as important and influential figures as an abbess, Hilda, in "Caedmon's Hymn"
and as a female monster, Grendel's mother, in “Beowulf”. So the
14 women have significant role only if they possess extraordinary or strange pos
ition and ability in the society. Overall, it is clearly observed that in Anglo-
Saxon literature, women are presented as submissive creature.
15
Bibliography
• • • A History of English Literature A Critical History of English Literature Anglo-S
axon Literature Available at www.scribd.com By Michael Alexander By David Daiche
s By John Earle
Webliography
• • • • • www.4shared.com www.wikipedia.com http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Anglo-Saxon_
literature.aspx http://csis.pace.edu/grendel/projf20001a/onouraniwomen.html http
://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/rfletcher/bl-rfletcher-historypreface.
htm