Postmortem medicolegal genetic diagnostics also require

reporting guidance
Antti Sajantila1,2 and Bruce Budowle2,3
1.
2.

3.

Department of Forensic Medicine, Hjelt Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Department of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Institute of Applied Genetics, University of North Texas Health
Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
1
2

Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research (CEGMR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Correspondence: Antti Sajantila, E-mail: antti.sajantila@helsinki.fi

The recommendations by the working group (WG) of the Genetic Services Quality Committee of
the European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG) for reporting results of diagnostic genetic
testing (biochemical, cytogenetic and molecular genetic) published by Claustres et al1 in
the European Journal of Human Geneticsare welcomed and definitely needed. The WG focused on
clinical patients, but did not address reporting of genetic testing in deceased individuals,
especially for those who have been subjected to a medicolegal autopsy. In the realm of
medicolegal autopsy practice, samples are collected routinely for human identification purposes.
However, beyond identity testing, there are cases where genetic diagnostics are being performed
to establish the underlying or contributing causes (and manners) of death. Although conceptually
still somewhat in its infancy, molecular autopsy employs genetic markers and predictive power
of risk to assist in cause and manner of death investigations.2The situations often considered
include genetic testing in negative autopsies, that is, sudden unexpected deaths, that have no
findings in standard autopsies and cases with unusual toxicology results (pharmacogenetic
analyses).3, 4 At the same time, national legislations for reporting of genetic tests postmortem are
diverse or nonexistent and, although some local practice guidelines have been
established,5 international recommendations concerning medicolegal and forensic postmortem
genetic diagnostics are lacking.
The principles and recommendations advocated by the ESHG WG also provide a good framework
by which to guide the reporting of postmortem genetic tests. However, the medicolegal setting
encounters some aspects that differ from the standard clinical arena. First, a medicolegal
autopsy, in most countries, is ordered by representatives of the judicial system (eg, police or
court). Therefore, an autopsy report, including diagnostic results and accompanying information,
is submitted to the judicial instead of the health care system. As a consequence, at least the
following potential issues arise: (1) genetic information of deceased individuals resides in files of
judicial institutions; (2) there is no institutional body within the judicial infrastructure who would
naturally meet the medical/genetic consultation needs of the relatives, even if the relatives were
to seek advice;6, 7 and (3) the genetic information in the reports can be elicited to public during
court proceedings. Some type of coding of the variants/mutations in the report possibly could
address privacy protection in the report (although the type of test itself may reduce the ability to
protect privacy), but the proper practices of information flow from the judicial system to relatives
is more cumbersome.
Second, postmortem sampling typically is a onetime opportunity. The possibility of use of
histology or toxicology samples exists for some cases, but such suboptimal samples tend to be
limited for large scale genomic analyses for some future question(s) that may arise. 8 Possible
exhumations for resampling have occurred for human identification or in the investigation of
serial poisonings,9 but generally have not been entertained for other scenarios. Another situation
to consider is that genetic testing may be requested only after the autopsy has been
performed.10 Some standardization of collection and storage of biological specimens (eg, blood)
for such purposes may facilitate effective postmortem genetic diagnostics and reports. Indeed,

such protocols and suitable materials already are available and have been tested for long-term
storage.10, 11
Finally, medicolegal experts (forensic pathologists or medical examiners) often do not have the
means, especially a timely action, to inform relatives. Many of these professionals are not trained
on how to interpret the results and details in genetic reports, and genetic consultations based on
these reports are not a standard part of their job description. The use of a multidisciplinary team
including at least, but not limited to, a clinical geneticist and a forensic pathologist/medical
examiner is necessary to deliver proper information of a postmortem genetic test report to the
relatives.12
Overall, there is a great potential value in postmortem genetic testing, which could be used
effectively for the benefit of individuals, families and society. To enjoy the benefits of such testing
an internationally agreed set of recommendations are needed on how to make proper use of the
samples and report the results in a standardized way, a consultation team to communicate with
the relative(s) of the deceased, and all practices be performed in a sensitive and private manner.
Such recommendations could be added to the recommendations of the (WG) of the Genetic
Services Quality Committee of the ESHG that would go far in establishing a sound and healthy
foundation for postmortem medicolegal tests and the manner to report the results to all
appropriate parties.
Topof page

Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Topof page

References
1. Claustres M, Kozich V, Dequeker E et al: Recommendations for reporting results of
diagnostic genetic testing (biochemical, cytogenetic and molecular genetic). Eur J Hum
Genet 2014; 22: 160170. | Article | PubMed | ISI |
2. Tester DJ, Medeiros-Domingo A, Will ML, Haglund CM, Ackerman MJ: Cardiac channel
molecular autopsy: Insights from 173 consecutive cases of autopsy-negative sudden
unexplained death referred for postmortem genetic testing. Mayo Clinic Proc 2012; 87:
524539. | Article | ISI |
3. Koren G, Cairns J, Chitayat D, Gaedigk A, Leeder SJ: Pharmacogenetics of morphine
poisoning in a breastfed neonate of a codeine-prescribed mother.Lancet 2006; 368:
704. | Article | PubMed | ISI |
4. Koski A, Ojanpera I, Sistonen J, Vuori E, Sajantila A: A fatal doxepin poisoning associated
with a defective cyp2d6 genotype. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2007; 28: 259
261. | Article | PubMed | ISI |
5. Michaud K, Fellmann F, Abriel H, Beckmann JS, Mangin P, Elger BS: Molecular autopsy in
sudden cardiac death and its implication for families: Discussion of the practical, legal and
ethical aspects of the multidisciplinary collaboration. Swiss Med Wkly 2009; 139: 712
718. | PubMed | ISI |
6. Elger BS, Michaud K, Fellmann F, Mangin P: Sudden death: ethical and legal problems of
post-mortem forensic genetic testing for hereditary cardiac diseases. Clin
Genet 2010; 77: 287292. | Article | PubMed | ISI |

7. van der Werf C, Onderwater AT, van Langen IM, Smets EM: Experiences, considerations
and emotions relating to cardiogenetic evaluation in relatives of young sudden cardiac
death victims. Eur J Hum Genet 2014;22: 192196. | Article | PubMed | ISI |
8. Loporcaro CG, Tester DJ, Maleszewski JJ, Kruisselbrink T, Ackerman MJ: Confirmation of
cause and manner of death via a comprehensive cardiac autopsy including whole exome
next-generation sequencing. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2013; 138: 1083
1089. | Article | PubMed | ISI |
9. Vuori E, Pelander A, Rasanen I, Juote M, Ojanpera I: A rare case of serial killing by
poisoning. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5: 725729. | Article | PubMed |
10. Lee SB, Clabaugh KC, Silva B et al: Assessing a novel room temperature DNA storage
medium for forensic biological samples. Forensic Sci Int Genet2012; 6: 31
40. | Article | PubMed |
11. Fowler KE, Reitter CP, Walling GA, Griffin DK: Novel approach for deriving genome wide
snp analysis data from archived blood spots. BMC Res Notes2012; 5:
503. | Article | PubMed |
12. Kauferstein S, Kiehne N, Jenewein T et al: Genetic analysis of sudden unexplained death:
a multidisciplinary approach. Forensic Sci Int 2013;229: 122
127. | Article | PubMed | ISI |

Forensic considerations when dealing with incinerated

human dental remains
Gowri Vijay Reesu
,

Jeyaseelan Augustine
,

Aadithya B. Urs

Highlights

Blackened charred teeth are more stable than porcelain white teeth that result from exposure to prolonged
high temperatures.

Runny mix of acrylic spray using a horsehair brush is the material of choice for dental stabilization of
incinerated remains.

Wrapping the heads of victims after stabilization prevented further displacement of the dental structures
during transportation.

Abstract
Establishing the human dental identification process relies upon sufficient post-mortem data being recovered to allow
for a meaningful comparison with ante-mortem records of the deceased person. Teeth are the most indestructible
components of the human body and are structurally unique in their composition. They possess the highest resistance
to most environmental effects like fire, desiccation, decomposition and prolonged immersion. In most natural as well
as man-made disasters, teeth may provide the only means of positive identification of an otherwise unrecognizable
body. It is imperative that dental evidence should not be destroyed through erroneous handling until appropriate
radiographs, photographs, or impressions can be fabricated. Proper methods of physical stabilization of incinerated
human dental remains should be followed. The maintenance of integrity of extremely fragile structures is crucial to the
successful confirmation of identity. In such situations, the forensic dentist must stabilise these teeth before the fragile
remains are transported to the mortuary to ensure preservation of possibly vital identification evidence. Thus, while

dealing with any incinerated dental remains, a systematic approach must be followed through each stage of
evaluation of incinerated dental remains to prevent the loss of potential dental evidence. This paper presents a
composite review of various studies on incinerated human dental remains and discusses their impact on the process
of human identification and suggests a step by step approach.

1. Introduction
Teeth are the most indestructible components of the human body and may remain more or less intact for many years
beyond death. They are biologically stable and contain information about the physiological and pathological events in
the life of the individual which remain as markers within the hard tissues of the teeth.1 Any therapeutic activity by a
dentist in the form of restorations and prostheses may modify an individual's dentition in a more or less unique
manner. It is the role of the forensic dentist to assess this biological and chemical information, and use it in the
identification of an unknown body.
Dental identifications of human remains have always played a key role in mainly natural and man-made disaster
situations and, in particular, in the mass casualties associated with aviation disasters. The identification is essential
from both the humanitarian and the religious points of view as well as for judicial reasons. Some reports say that the
identification, which is based on the dental documentation, leads up to 4389% of a successful process and it is still a
method of choice.2
Human identification through dental remains is a well-established and reliable method.3 Dental identification requires
a comparison of post-mortem and ante-mortem dental records.4 A comparative method of dental identification
involves establishment to the highest degree of certainty that the remains of the decedent at the site of death and
details in the ante-mortem dental records are of the same individual to confirm identity.2 In some instances, though
high quality dental records are available, the dental remains and recognizable features of prior dental work recovered
from the scene are unrecognizable.5 In the absence of ante-mortem data, the forensic dentist creates a composite
post-mortem dental profile based on the observable dental features which helps to narrow the search for the antemortem details.6 A post-mortem dental profile will typically provide information on the deceased's age, ancestry
background, sex and socio-economic status.7 The lack of a tentative identification or failure to locate dental or similar
ante-mortem records is a more common reason for an odontological investigation to fail.8
Identification of the deceased from facial appearance is possible in a high proportion of cases, but there may be
circumstances where putrefaction, physical damage or loss of tissues may prevent or render facial recognition
unacceptable.1 In these circumstances, fingerprinting is the next line of investigation as it is the most accurate method
of identification of people. But it is of limited value in cases of disfigured, decomposed, burnt or fragmented bodies.
On the other hand, teeth and dental restorations are extremely resistant to destruction by fire. They retain a number of
their original characteristics, which are often unique and hence offer a possibility of rather accurate and legally

acceptable identification of such remains.9 Therefore, it is the duty of the forensic dentist to examine the oral
structures or skeletonised remains with the purpose of describing the life events of the individual which may be
permanently recorded in the teeth. Such information, at best may result in a positive identification, either using dental
records or other information available at the time.1
The importance of teeth for identification is because of their highly mineralised composition, which makes them
resistant to the influences of the external environment. They are not changed by postmortem decomposition and
usually withstand to flames, alkalis or even to weak acids.10
Incineration events could result from airline and automobile accidents, bombings, or wrongful cremation11 while other
incidents such as house fires, suicides, unlawful killing and cremation of the victim's body, have also been observed.
A complex task for the forensic odontologist results when a victim has been incinerated to the point where only a few
fragments of teeth and bone remain.12
During fire incidents, the anterior teeth receive the greatest impact in-vivo, with the maximum protection to posterior
teeth. The lips and cheeks initially provide some insulation until the muscles contract with increasing heat and
drawback to expose the anterior dentition.13 The tongue also gives some protection to the lingual aspect of the lower
dentition.14 The alveolar bone and the gingivae also provide additional heat protection for the roots. Therefore, these
findings should be taken into consideration as a majority of experimentation has been done on extracted teeth.
The factors influencing the effects of fire on teeth are4: a. duration of exposure, b. presence of materials (in addition to
the tissues) interposed between the teeth and fire, and c. temperature alteration by substances used to quench the
fire. Although teeth and restorative materials are generally impervious to destruction, high temperatures of fire can
destroy or alter them greatly. The dental remains retain some degree of their anatomical configuration following
burning but are reduced in size and extremely fragile.4

2. Other specific dental characteristics of forensic

importance
The teeth are hard and brittle objects and can be modified by chewing patterns or by certain occupational habits. For
example, characteristic notches in the incisal edges are observed on the teeth of seamstresses who run cotton
through their teeth prior to threading needles. Cobblers are said to hold small nails or tingles in their mouths prior to
tapping them into the welt of a shoe, and the passage of the nail through the incisal gap may also produce
characteristic wear patterns. Operators in battery factories are said to acquire acidic demineralisation of the anterior
teeth due to the vapours arising from the materials used and all of these features may give some guide to the identity

of the unknown person. Various restorations in the mouth should be carefully charted and described, not only in terms
of their position, but also their size, design, materials used, linings inserted below them and any other specific
features. All of these may be useful in a final identification.1
A thorough review of past literature demonstrated that the charred dental remains could be analysed using
stereomicroscopy, histology, radiography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDS). These methods could be used to study colour changes, surface alterations and microscopic
changes in enamel, dentin and cementum. Taking photographs, contemporaneous notes of the extra-oral and intraoral findings would be wise in case of accidental damage or fragmentation.13

3. Methods of physical stabilization of ashed teeth in

incinerated remains
A situation frequently confronting forensic scientists is the extreme fragility of the teeth in incinerated human remains.
This has become a significant problem in preserving the dentition for evidentiary purposes. At any crime or accident
scene involving bodies that have been incinerated, being aware of the fragile nature of the remains is of paramount
importance. Attendance of the forensic odontologist is often requested to preserve the dental structures before any
disturbances initiate disintegration.
The colour changes that occur during incineration may be useful in order to predict the degree of fragility of the dental
tissues. In general, the teeth that have a dark or charred appearance are not as delicate as those that are porcelain
white in appearance.13, 14 In deciduous teeth, however, the fragmentation process begins at low temperatures even
before charring of the organic components occurs.15 It would be prudent to employ a stabilization technique as a
matter of course in this scenario.
The results of a questionnaire sent to forensic anthropologists and forensic odontologists by Mincer et al.
(1990)16disclosed that the most popular methods used were impregnation with a solution of polyvinyl acetate or
application of cyanoacrylate glue. Various materials have been employed for stabilization in the laboratory such as
clear acrylic spray paint, hair spray, spray furniture varnish, clear fingernail polish, and quick-setting epoxy cement,
polyvinyl acetate polymer in acetone, or self-curing clear dental acrylic resin. Though all substances tested
successfully stabilized the incinerated teeth, Mincer et al. (1990)16 stated that cold cure acrylic spray or a runny mix
(using a horsehair brush) is the material of choice for dental stabilization as it is inexpensive, convenient and simple to
use.

Hill et al. (2011)17 found that during the recent Australian bush fires, wrapping the heads of the victims after
stabilization at the site enabled the containment of evidence even if transportation causes further displacement of the
dental structures.
When dealing with any Incinerated dental remains, a systematic approach has to be followed by the investigator in the
interest of maintaining the integrity of the dentition through each stage of the evaluation of incinerated remains while
preventing the loss of potential dental evidence. Hence, we suggest the following step by step approach in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Step by step procedure for analysing incinerated dental remains.

4. Macroscopic changes to the dental tissues with

increasing temperature
Many studies indicate that colour is the most obvious change with increased temperature.14, 15, 18 The first change to
enamel, dentine and cementum was darkening to a greyish-brown, when they were exposed to 300 C.18 A similar
pattern of discolouration at this temperature has also been seen in deciduous teeth.15 The colour change is thought to
be due to heat energy denaturing the bonds within the helical collagen molecules. The collagen then takes on a more
haphazard arrangement that affects the absorption of the visible light spectra.19 As the temperature increased to
500 C, dentine appeared dark greyish-black. This is the maximum temperature up to which the root canal system
and pulp chamber has been recorded as having a normal appearance without narrowing.18 The enamel appeared grey
in both the permanent and deciduous dentition but the surface of deciduous enamel was observed to have lost its
sheen.15, 18
There is a general tendency for the tissues to become lighter with further increase in temperature. At 900 C, they
were all described as being almost white, progressing to porcelain white at 1000 C and above.18 This lightening of
the tissues corresponds to the progressive loss of water and dehydration of the tissues,19 along with the exclusion of
the organic compounds.14 The loss of water from the calcified tissues and the consequential lightening seems to
correlate with the observation that tissues begin to fragment at around 700 C in enamel and 900 C in dentine and
cementum. There is differential shrinkage of the tissues at these high temperatures that contributes to separation. It is
fairly common place to recover largely intact, detached enamel crowns at the forensic scene,14 which will not provide a
tight fit if offered up to the dentine.

5. Radiographical examination
It is a vital forensic investigative procedure and is advantageous over photographic evaluation because external and
internal anatomical features can be analysed. Unique root curvatures, restorations and endodontic treatments can be
effectively compared in ante-mortem and post-mortem radiographs of incinerated dental remains.20
Different methods are employed to facilitate complete intra-oral examination and the taking of radiographs whilst
attempting to keep the teeth intact. These are to remove the soft tissues of the lips and cheeks if they are too rigid to
retract; removal of the tongue through the floor of the mouth allowing an x-ray film to be placed lingual to the teeth13, 16;
resection and removal of the mandible and maxilla if the jaws are unable to be levered apart.13 If the facilities are
available, then taking an orthopantomagram radiograph would be considered a better method. It negates further
destruction or removal of the facial tissues. Comparing post-mortem radiographs with ante-mortem radiographs are
an excellent tool as they can identify an enormous amount of information in the roots of the teeth, existing dental
treatment including the presence of surgical plates or dental implants21, 22 and bony anatomical landmarks.
Savio et al. (2006)23 have done in-vitro study examining the radiographic features of a sample of 90 human teeth
exposed to different experimental temperatures ranging from 200o1100 C. The radiographic appearance and
progression of fissures in the dental hard tissues, tooth-restoration interface and dimensional alterations in the
restorations were analysed. Fissures between the dental tissue and the restorations at 800 C were observed, while
the shape of the fillings was maintained partially at 1100 C. The effect of a thermal stress of 1000 C on
endodontically treated teeth with an amalgam restoration, has maintained its shape and dimensions. The crown
appears to be detached and the deep fissures within the hard tissues are apparent. In some scenarios, positive
identification of unidentifiable incinerated passengers was made after a plane crash in the Taieri Gorge of New
Zealand. The two corpses were positively identified using a full mouth series of radiographs to identify previous
composite and amalgam restorations as guidelines.24

6. Root morphology an aid in incinerated remains

Intense flash fires cause the pulp to boil and eventually explode the crowns of teeth leaving the tooth broken off at the
gingival margin without any coronal restoration to help identify the victim. This would leave root anatomy unaltered.
The roots are protected by the insulating properties of the maxilla or mandible.11 Roots are unique in their anatomy
(including dilacerations or additional roots) and obturating material. In severe cases, where teeth have avulsed from
the maxilla or mandible, replica of the shape of the root can be made by filling the empty socket with dental alginate

mixed with barium sulphate prior to taking the radiograph. This will allow for better visualization of unique or
identifying root anatomy.25
The identification of different restorative materials subjected to variable temperatures provides important post-mortem
clues with the availability of ante-mortem records. Amalgam resists up to 800 C, base metal alloys reach their
melting points from 1275 C to 1500 C and porcelains resist temperatures higher than 1000 C.26

7. Scanning electron microscopic analysis of incinerated

teeth
SEM has been used in forensic dentistry to analyse severely burnt and fragmented teeth as it allows sufficient
magnification, distinct surface changes in the hard tissues. It also provides valuable information such as markings
from a dental drill with very high resolution.26 Carr et al. (1986)4 presented a case where they used SEM as an
established tool for the characterization and study of sub-totally destroyed dental remains in a truck fire. Fairgrieve
(1994)5 presented a case report in which SEM was used to identify the type and position of dental restorations on
teeth subjected to high temperatures, purposeful crushing and scattering. The crescent shaped indentations retained
on the cement-enamel junction and the occlusal surfaces were identifiable under SEM. Muller et al. (1998)27 studied
the macroscopic and microscopic features of teeth burned at a variety of temperatures using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). They examined 58 premolars that were extracted during orthodontic treatment in adolescents and
incinerated at temperatures ranging from 150 C to 1150 C for one hour and the samples were then observed under
20 and 2000 magnification. They observed colour changes in the crown and roots, along with their patterns at
different experimental temperatures.

8. Microscopic changes to the dental tissues with

increasing temperature
There are no microscopic changes in permanent teeth when subjected to temperatures up to 200 C,18 but in
deciduous teeth there was early evidence of fragmentation in enamel at 100 C, long before the teeth were seen to
darken.15 It is observed that from 300 500 C, enamel and cementum start to fissure and fragments.18 Dentine,
however, manages to maintain its integrity, and only shows evidence of tubular narrowing at 700 C.18 Whereas, in
deciduous dentine, this change is seen much earlier, at 300 C. The dentinal tubules in permanent and deciduous
dentition retain their principle structure until 1100 C. In enamel and cementum, the formation of granules appear
much earlier at 700 C and persist until around 1000 C when both tissues lose their characteristic structure. The
enamel is invariably lost from the dentine and the cementum becomes a homologous mass covering the
root.5, 18 When a temperature of 1300 C is reached, all of the tissues in the permanent dentition have lost their
structure.18

In case of deciduous teeth, the reaction to incineration is in the same pattern as permanent teeth but at lower
temperatures. This may be because the deciduous teeth are more porous with a higher organic content and are
hypomineralised.18

9. Detection of composite resins

There has been a dramatic increase in the demand for aesthetic restorations by the public. Tooth-coloured
composites placed in large numbers, has presented a challenge to forensic odontologists, as well-placed resins can
be difficult to recognize both clinically and radio-graphically.28 During post-mortem examinations, various methods
have been utilized for enhanced gross identification of the presence of these restorative materials. These include
plaque disclosing solution, dyes (alizarin red), trans-illumination, and quantitative light induced fluorescence. When a
tooth is incinerated, dehydration causes shrinkage and fragmentation of the tooth causing displacement of the
restorative material.12
Colour changes are not only unique to the dental tissues, but are also seen in bone29 along with composite materials
used to restore the teeth.12 This may cause confusion as it may be difficult to distinguish between them at first glance.
It has been suggested that a portable X-ray fluorescence device may be useful to differentiate between bone and
tooth, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) may be used to tell
the difference between different composite filling materials.30, 31 This would only be useful if the dental records provide
the brand and generation of composite used on a particular tooth for a particular filling.
Different studies were performed on resins exposing to high temperatures, where whitening of resins was observed
when exposed at 900 C for 90 min26; from grey to black shades when exposing resins to temperatures from 260 C to
500 C for between 5 and 30 min32 and white to brown at 400 C, with no trace of the material detectable at 600 C.33

10. Dental implants in incinerated remains

In this contemporary world, placement of dental endosseous implants in patients to replace one or more missing teeth
is rapidly growing, increasing the possibility that implants will be present in deceased victims and detected in postmortem radiographic examination. Their physical properties of corrosion resistance and extremely high melting point
could assist in the identification of victims where there is lack of other scientific evidence such as DNA or fingerprints.
Commercially pure titanium and titanium alloy dental implants have a melting point greater than 1650 C so surviving
thermal insult is high, providing some weight of evidence to the identification of victims.22 The dental implant has been
a new element for identification as its presence was used in the mass disaster victim Tsunami (2004) identification.2

11. DNA and incinerated teeth

The resistant nature of dental tissues to environmental assaults, such as incineration, immersion, trauma, mutilation
and decomposition, teeth represent an excellent source of DNA material.34 The enamel and dentine provide good
protection of the pulp which is a good source of DNA. This could be utilized to determine sex from the amel gene
which has been shown to be successful in deciduous35 and permanent teeth,36 but becomes less accurate with
increasing temperatures. Results of a study demonstrated that sufficient quantity of DNA could be extracted from the
crown body, root body, and root tip. However, the root body is the region which yields highest quantities of DNA.37 Any
teeth displaying cracks should not be used for DNA analysis.14 Age determination has also been attempted using
amino acid racemisation on incinerated teeth. Ohtani et al. (1989)38 claimed that they were able to estimate age within
3 years if the teeth did not appear charred but they only used 2 cases to base this conclusion.
If the degree of incineration is so severe, or that there is no evidence of dental treatment, then the production of a
meaningful post-mortem composite may prove to be fruitless. The methods employed in any case would be to
contribute towards a reconstructive identification.

12. Some novel developments in forensic odontology

Dostalova et al. (2012)2 applied the use of CamScan 2 scanning electron microscope linked with a microanalysator of
characteristic X-radiatione EDAX 9900 in forensic dentistry. In a case study, when comparing the antemortem record
of the missing person with the orthopantomogram, dental chart and the post-mortem findings, they said that most of
the findings corresponded with each other. Several amalgam filling and full-veneer bridge from a gold alloy were found
on teeth. The analysis of the fillings and yellow pontic alloy was implemented to know its composition and therefore
the probable producer. The amalgam SAFARGAM and noble alloy Aurix (Safina, Prague) were analysed in an
analogous way as the comparative material. Performed analyses confirmed that the filling material and yellow alloy of
the bridge have an analogous composition like the Safargam and Aurix material, the Czech production.2
A study was undertaken by Singh et al. (2013)9 to evaluate the utility of orthopantomography for human identification
and propose a coding system for orthopantomogram (OPG), which can be utilized as an identification tool in forensic
sciences. Dental patterns were identified and converted into a consistent set of codes by following the criteria
described by Lee et al. (2004).39 Each tooth in all the four quadrants was denoted/coded with four characters. For
easy transmission, comparison and storage of the orthopantomogram code generated were digitalized to a quick
response (QR) code. Four QR codes were generated for a single orthopantomogram each corresponding to an
individual quadrant. QR codes are two dimensional matrix barcode that can store data within the code and may find
its application in forensic data transmission in both electronic and print media. They concluded that the diversity of
dental patterns in orthopantomography can serve as an important tool for dental identification and records of the
dental hard tissues from a coded panoramic radiograph could serve as an ante-mortem and post-mortem
comparative tool for forensic identification of an individual.

13. Conclusion
Forensic dental identification of the victims of fires is often a complex and challenging endeavour. Knowledge on
incinerated human dentition and residues of restorative material can help in the recognition of bodies burned beyond
recognition. The importance of having some knowledge of the effects that extreme heat has upon the dental tissues
cannot be overstated. The blackened charred teeth that result from the initial stages of heating are more stable than
the porcelain white teeth that result from exposure to prolonged high temperatures. A systematic approach in a
forensic dental investigation, during the recovery and their subsequent analysis prevents the loss of potential
information. Therefore, the identification of human remains can be based on some dental features that are unique to
individuals and also be identified using the anatomical differences of their dentition along with the modifications made
during dental treatment.

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