DNA

DNA contains a lot of genetic

information which determines the

characteristics that we inherit. It takes

the form of a double helix which is

composed of two polynucleotides.

Structure

A nucleotide is made up of three core components:

A pentose sugar - Deoxyribose in the case of DNA
A phosphate group

An organic base - which is either a single ring base, C and T, or a double ring base, A
and G

These three components are combined through condensation reactions to produce a

mononucleotide. This can combine with another mononucleotide to form a
dinucleotide. Many of such combining will form a polynucleotide.

DNA is made up of two polynucleotides, which

are joined through hydrogen bonds between

certain bases, AT and CG respectively. A and T

are complementary in shape, as are C and G.
When hydrogen bonded, AT contain two

hydrogen bonds, while CG contain three.

The DNA molecule is not completely

unprotected, as the phosphate group and

pentose sugar join during the formation of the

nucleotide to form the phosphate-sugar

backbone of the DNA structure, which protects

the bases on the interior.

Features

DNA is very stable, so it can exist from generation to generation with little change to

its original structure. Moreover, as the molecule is held together by hydrogen bonds,
it can easily unzip during replication to form a clone. As DNA is such a large

molecule, it can carry a lot of genetic information which is passed onto clones and in

gametes. The phosphate-sugar backbone also protects the bases for corruption from
external forces.

Triplet Code

Genes are sections of DNA which code for

proteins. This code is in the form of a sequence

of DNA bases.

Three bases are required to code for 1 amino

acid, this conclusion came to be when scientists

determined that there were 20 naturally

occurring amino acids, each of which had its

own code on bases to form the substance.

However, if each base coded for 1 amino acid, there would only be 4 amino acids
present. Same principle applies for 2 bases coding for 1 amino acid, where there

would be 16 possible combinations, but not the necessary 20. Naturally, the next step
is 3 bases to code for 1 amino acid, which gave 64 possibilities. As there are only 20
occurring amino acids, more than one triplet can code for the same amino acid.

In eukaryotes, part of the DNA does not code for amino acids, these are introns and
are removed during protein synthesis.

The triplet code is non overlapping, and generally, the code is universal, where it is the
same in all organisms.

DNA and Chromosomes

DNA is stored

through different
methods in

prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells
contain DNA as

chromosomes, which
is tightly coiled and

wound up DNA. The

DNA is wound round

histone proteins which help support the DNA structure. The DNA-protein complex is
coiled, which then loops. These loops coil further which makes a compact

chromosome. This coiling is done so that the DNA can be stored easily within the

nucleus, otherwise itd be floating freely in the cell, occupying a much larger volume.
Prokaryotic cells also carry DNA as chromosomes, however their chromosomes are
shorter and circular. The DNA isnt wound round proteins either, where it fits into the
cell by supercoiling.

Chromosomes contain alleles, which code for the characteristics of an organism. The
base order for each allele is slightly different, so they code for slightly different
versions of the same characteristic. Mutations can cause new alleles to arise by
changing their shape slightly.

DNA Replication

DNA replicates through

meiosis and mitosis.
Most cells replicate
through mitosis,

whereas meiosis only

occurs through
gametes.

Cell division occurs in

two stages:

Nuclear division -

Where nuclear material

is copied and the
nucleus divides

Cell division - Where

separating the two nuclei and forming them into single cells.

the whole cell divides,

DNA replicates when DNA helicase unzips the DNA, causing the two strands to

separate. Free nucleotides or bases are attracted to complementary bases on either

unzipped strand.

Once they are lined up, they are joined by DNA polymerase.

Eventually, the unzipped strands have been completed. All the bases are joined to

form a complete polynucleotide, where the DNA has finished replicating. Each strand
now contains half of the original material.

This is the semi-conservative hypothesis that has been adopted as the most accurate
for DNA replication

Meselson-Stahl Experiment

The experiment was to prove that DNA replication is semi-conservative, where each
new DNA strand contains half of the originals DNA.
DNA bases
contain

nitrogen, and

nitrogen has two

isotopes. As this
is the case,

Meselson and

Stahl grew E.Coli

in 15-Nitrogen,
and found that
their DNA was
heavier as 15-

Nitrogen was the

heavier isotope.
They then

transferred the

15-bacteria into a

medium containing just 14-Nitrogen and let it replicate once.

To determine whether the DNA was heavy or light, 15 or 14 respectively, the

extracted DNA had to be centrifuged, where, if the DNA was heavy, itd end up nearer
to the bottom of the test tube and vice versa.

The DNA after it was replicated in 14-Nitrogen was shown to be in between the heavy
and light DNA values.