Beruflich Dokumente
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Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
Kuwait Institute for Scientic Research (KISR), PO Box 24885, Safat 13109, Kuwait
c
Department of Animal Resource, University of Salah al-Din, Erbil, Iraq
d
Department of Food Science, Division of Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
e
Department of Animal Production, University of Ilorin, PMB 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
f
Halal Products Research Institute, Putra Infoport, Universti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
g
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 April 2014
Received in revised form 27 May 2014
Accepted 29 May 2014
Available online 5 June 2014
Keywords:
Ritual slaughter
Nutrition
Stunning
Safety
Meat spiritual quality
a b s t r a c t
There are many slaughter procedures that religions and cultures use around the world. The two that are commercially relevant are the halal and kosher methods practiced by Muslims and Jews respectively. The global trade in
red meat and poultry produced using these two methods is substantial, thus the importance of the quality of the
meat produced using the methods. Halal and kosher slaughter per se should not affect meat quality more than
their industrial equivalents, however, some of their associated pre- and post-slaughter processes do. For instance,
the slow decline in blood pressure following a halal pre-slaughter head-only stun and neck cut causes blood
splash (ecchymosis) in a range of muscles and organs of slaughtered livestock. Other quality concerns include
bruising, hemorrhages, skin discoloration and broken bones particularly in poultry. In addition to these conventional quality issues, the spiritual quality of the meat can also be affected when the halal and kosher religious
requirements are not fully met during the slaughter process. The nature, causes, importance and mitigations of
these and other quality issues related to halal and kosher slaughtering and meat production using these methods
are the subjects of this review.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.05.021
0309-1740/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
506
Table 1
Value (USD x 1000) of imported halal and kosher red meat, poultry and co-products of some selected countries/regions in 2012.
Importing country/region and products
Poultry meat/offal
Chilled beef
Frozen beef
Edible offal
11,499
57,276
16,972
598,504
75,043
160,105
127,715
305,497
410,097
2,942,249
362,267
195,407
8,083
36,842
95,742
897,159
225,707
223,470
16,792
3,940
48,336
278,916
36,540
12,516
1,209
175,520
108,341
4,078,447
1,513,312
644,587
264
19,803,464
418,421
17,797,649
9,033
5,642,451
10,854
6,786,811
10,605
25,041,855
Source: Market Analysis Research, International Trade Centre (ITC) Geneva Switzerland (http://www.trademap.org/tradestat/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx). Accessed 23 March
2014.
Maghreb = Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.
Middle East = Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, UAE and Yemen.
ability of the solubilized proteins to bind water and fat, which are key parameters during manufacturing. Some characteristics, such as high water
holding capacity (WHC), inuence perceived quality for both the diner
and the manufacturer, particularly for meat intended for frying, grilling
or roasting. However, the same WHC quality is not desirable for a jerky
manufacturer wanting to dry the meat quickly and cheaply.
These conventional denitions of quality are based on inherent or
perceived physical characteristics of meat. For most consumers they
determine the meat's appeal, acceptability, utility and, ultimately, its
value.
2.2. Spiritual perspective
Spirituality and ideology inuence people's attitude toward the
killing of animals and the consumption of meat. Consideration of the
source, life and death of the animal adds another dimension to meat
qualityone that cannot be evaluated by science or measured by instruments. Nevertheless, down-grades on those attributes can have a
marked effect on meat value.
Religions are rich with traditions around eating. For example Islam
teaches that all animals are created by God (Quran 24:45), with some
created specically for man's benet (Quran 36:71) to domesticate
and use for transportation and food (Quran 23:21; 40:79). God provided
these animals for their edible parts as well as their useful by-products
(Quran 16:5, 80). They are to be sacriced for His own sake and the
meat distributed to the poor (Quran 22:34, 36) who cannot on their
own afford to buy and slaughter an animal for meat.
A key condition of the permission given to man to slaughter and eat
the esh of animals is to mention the name of God during the
slaughtering (Quran 6:121; 22:36). According to Al-Qaradawi (1960),
acknowledging God during the slaughter is tantamount to the slaughterer rst obtaining consent from his and the animal's Creator to take
the life of another creature; and it is a declaration on the part of the
slaughterer that his act is not an act of aggression against the universe
nor of oppression of the creature about to be slaughtered, but simply
an act necessitated by a need fullled in the name of God. Conversely,
under some condition consumption is prohibited, such as animals that
were dead prior to exsanguination, or that were slaughtered without
mentioning God, or in which other deities or names other than that of
God were professed during the slaughter, will corrupt the heart and result in loss of piety and acceptance of prayer (Sahih Al-Bukhari 1/49;
Sahih Muslim 2/703).
Thus, in addition to all the conventional terms used to convey the
qualities of meat, spiritual quality is of foundational importance for
Muslims as well as some other faith groups (Fig. 1). Indeed it is the
chief consideration for a large population of consumers and supersedes
physical properties of meat such as color, tenderness, juiciness, protein
solubility, and WHC. For halal and kosher adherents, meat that has graded well, yet failed to meet the minimum requirements of religious commandments during its production, would be considered spiritually
worthless.
2.2.1. Harmonizing spiritual and temporal views
Industrial production of high-quality meat must juggle the disparate
demands of consumer groups and food safety regulators. There is urgent
need to harmonize devout spiritual views with those that are temporal
or corporeal and which are based on scientic evaluation. A major area
of contention is the slaughter of animals without stunning prior to
throat slit and exsanguination. This practice is allowed in many countries, but it is extremely controversial with regard to animal welfare.
Areas of concern include the stress of restraining the animal, whether
the cut is painful, and whether the animal experiences undue distress
while bleeding out, such as the aspiration of blood into the lungs
(Grandin, 2010; Gregory, 2005).
Islam teaches that animals are to be slaughtered according to the
mindful and attentive way taught by the prophet (prophetic method).
This includes giving the animal full access to feed and water before
Halal consumer
Desired meat attributes
Marbling
Juiciness
Appearance
Texture/Firmness
Safe
Country of origin
Gelling capacity
Price
Flavour
Packaging
Aroma
Emulsion activity
index
Colour
Tenderness
Protein solubility
BSE free
Organic
Healthy/
nutritious
Spiritual quality
This is the foundation of quality on which all other quality considerations rest
Halal livestock
Legally owned &
ethically farmed
Fig. 1. Spiritual perspective of meat quality showing the importance of spiritual considerations over temporal in determining the quality of meat.
slaughter, using a sharp knife to quickly severe the four vessels in the
neck, mentioning the name of God during the slaughtering with sincerity and conviction, such that the animal will be dispatched as painlessly
as possible.
For Muslims, meat produced this way would be considered of the
highest spiritual quality. On the other hand, this method of slaughter is
considered cruel and contrary to scientic wisdom by those who think
that the animal must rst be stunned in order to avoid compromising
its welfare. These groups advocate for food labeling that identies meat
from animals slaughtered without stunning and they consider such
meat to be ideologically of the lowest quality. The importance of harmonizing these opposing views and the issues involved for commercial
production of meat could be understood in light of reviews by Ahmed
(2008), Regenstein (2012), Silver (2011) and Zoethout (2013).
The combative posturing of the rival sides is partly a result of outdated thinking that pitches science against religion and encourages
dogmatic arguments that create stumbling blocks toward progress
(Nelson, 2006). In fact, there is an essential starting point for nding
consonance in the pre-slaughter stunning debate; both sides agree
that animal welfare is important in the production of meat. Thus resolution seems possible. In similar spiritually charged arguments, a critical
and rational examination of the issues often reveals little basis for conict between practitioners and their world views (Bainbridge, 2004;
Bakar, 2005; Smedes, 2005). As Harper (2001) puts it, both science
and religion have practical reasons for exploring constructive dialogue
to avoid the conict-perpetuating tendencies of both religious fundamentalism and its scientic counterpart, reductionist scientism. Such
tendencies are unhealthy for both science and religion.
For this debate to become a dialogue, some signicant differences in
cognitive orientation and epistemology must be overcome. Proponents
of conventional pre-slaughter stunning need to consider whether:
true knowledge includes not only scientic or empirical knowledge,
but also metaphysical and theological knowledge, which are useful
and should not be discounted (Nelson, 2006);
people's deepest cultural values, often nourished and embodied in
religious contexts, should be appreciated as more than outmoded
nonsense, with a certain humility and respectfulness by science
toward this accumulated reservoir of moral wisdom (Harper, 2001);
science should not try to use its methods to explain what is spiritual
or use inciting vocabulary or attempt to superimpose empiricist
meanings on religious terms in its discourse with religious groups
(Henriksen, 2008; Regenstein, 2012);
it is possible that when religious slaughter is done faithfully and
507
Table 2
Comparison of halal and kosher meat production and consumption practices (Farouk, 2013; Regenstein et al., 2003).
Practice/attribute
Kosher
Halal
Pre-slaughter handling
Pre-slaughter state of consciousness
Pre-slaughter stunning
Post-slaughter stunning
Slaughterer
Slaughter knife
Blessing on animals at time of slaughter
Slaughtering
508
Fig. 2. Steps in the industrial production of halal red meat including stunning, slaughter and further processing using modern slaughter methods.
(Lambooij, van der Werf, Reimert, & Hindle, 2012; Velarde et al.,
2014). Common methods of restraining red meat animals prior to
stunning and/or slaughter include hoisting by hind-leg, casting
with a rope and/or chain, restraint in a V-shaped or straddled
conveyor, full or half inversion in a rotary pen and upright restraint
system (Gregory, 2005) while the use of cones and shackling
are common methods of restraining birds (Lambooij, Pieterse,
Hillebrand, & Dijksterhuis, 1999).
Fig. 3. Halal slaughtering of lambs showing animals at lairage, being stunned, slaughtered and bled using modern slaughter methods.
509
Fig. 4. Steps in the modern processing of ducks showing transport, shackling, stunning, slaughtering and bleeding. These steps are similar for most poultry, including chickens.
510
Table 3
Effect of pre-slaughter stunning used in halal meat production on the defects and quality of meat from halal livestock.
Type of stunning
Species
No pre-slaughter stunning
(NS) compared to electrical
stunning (ES)
Head-only ES
Livestock
Cattle, sheep
References
Kirton, Frazerhurst, Bishop et al. (1980-81); Velarde
et al. (2003); Linares et al. (2007);
511
Fig. 5. Examples of blood splashes in different bovine muscles of varying levels of severity. Blood splash represents poor aesthetic quality.
512
killing the animal through the loss of blood, the removal of owing
blood is necessary because it is considered an impurity that should not
be consumed.
The halal and kosher requirements for slaughtering in red meat production have been discussed earlier (Farouk, 2013). In poultry, the act of
slaughtering begins with the incision on the neck at a point just below
the glottis (Che Man & Sazili, 2010). Throat cutting in halal and kosher
is done to severe the trachea, esophagus and the two carotid arteries
and jugular veins without head decapitation during the process (Che
Man & Sazili, 2010; Farouk, 2013; Lpez et al., 2008).
Ritual slaughtering has been reported to produce meat with high pH
after extended storage time (D'Agata, Russo, & Preziuso, 2009;
Zuckerman & Mannheim, 2001). In contrast, Holzer, Berry, Campbell,
Spanier, and Solomon (2004) reported lower pH in kosher meat compared to non-kosher.
Although the halal and kosher status of meat is usually sufcient to
determine the purchasing decision of observant Muslims and Jews
(Ahmed, 2008; Chowdhury, Helman & Greenhalgh, 2000), halal and kosher meats are increasingly perceived as wholesome and healthy
(Cohen, Schwartz, Antonovski, & Saguy, 2002; Hanzaee & Ramezani,
2011; Nakyinsige, Che Man, & Sazili, 2012). The main reason for this
perception appears to be linked to the perceived greater blood loss
during halal slaughtering and the koshering process post-slaughter
(described in Section 3.3.2). This general perception of higher blood
loss during halal and kosher slaughtering have been challenged by the
studies that found no difference in total blood loss in sheep and cattle
slaughtered with or without (halal/kosher) stunning (Agbeniga &
Webb, 2012; Anil et al., 2004, 2006; Chrystall, Devine, & Newton,
1981). Some studies even found higher blood loss due to stunning in
lambs (Hopkins, Shaw, Baud, & Walker, 2006; Velarde et al., 2003). On
the other hand, Nakyinsige et al. (2014) found higher blood loss in
New Zealand white rabbits halal-slaughtered without stunning
compared to gas stun-killed animals. This higher blood loss in nonstunned animals was conrmed by lower hemoglobin content in m.
longissimus lumborum from this treatment group. These conicting
results may suggest species-effect for the slaughtering methods.
Heme iron, rather than inorganic iron, was shown to be the responsible compound causing the formation of the carcinogenic N-nitroso
compounds (Cross, Pollock, & Bingham, 2003). A study by Pierre,
Freeman, Tach, Van der Meer, and Corpet (2004) used several diets
containing inorganic iron (control), chicken (low heme content), beef
(medium concentration heme content), blood sausage (high heme
content) and hemoglobin (equivalent to beef diet) to examine the
formation of aberrant crypt foci and mucin-depleted foci, markers for
colon carcinogenesis, in rats with low calcium diet. All diets containing
heme promoted mucin-depleted foci and the highest putative precancerous lesions per rat colon was the highest in blood sausage.
Alvarado, Richards, O'Keefe, and Wang (2007) examined the following
ve slaughter techniques to determine their effects on pH, color, lipid
oxidation and residual hemoglobin concentration in broiler breast llets: 1) CO2 slaughter and not bled, 2) no stunning and bled, 3) electrical
stunning (ES) and bled, 4) CO2 stunning and bled, and 5) ES and decapitation. The authors (Alvarado et al., 2007) found that the llets from the
CO2 slaughter and not bled birds were redder and had higher residual
amount of hemoglobin compared to the other treatments; and that
lipid oxidation was signicantly lower in ES and bled birds compared
to others.
3.2.1. Red meat animals
Although it is recommended that the two jugular veins, carotid arteries, trachea and esophagus be severed during halal slaughtering,
opinions among Islamic scholars differ as to the minimum parts to be
cut for the animal to be Halal (Al-Qaradawi, 1960). However all agree
that the neck is where the cutting should take place, and that the
blood has to gush forth. Properly severing all the arteries and veins hastens the death of the animal. Prolonged death does not necessarily
513
The reduction in heme proteins affects the color of the nal product.
Kosher meats have been reported to have low color intensity (Holzer
et al., 2004; Torres, Pearson, Gray, Booren, & Shimokomaki, 1988;
Zuckerman & Mannheim, 2001). The use of large amounts of salt causes
low color stability and accelerates the discoloration of meat (Torres
et al., 1988; Zuckerman & Mannheim, 2001) which can be alleviated
by the use of antioxidants such as erythorbate or sodium ascorbate
(Zuckerman & Mannheim, 2001) or the use of hydrodynamic pressure
(Holzer et al., 2004).
An important nutritional quality factor in kosher meat compared to
conventionally slaughtered meat is the high salt content. Mast and
Macneil (1983) found the sodium content in meat and skin of kosher
chicken to be 4- to 6-fold greater than non-kosher chicken (Mast &
Macneil, 1983; Powers & Mast, 1980) and beef (Zuckerman &
Mannheim, 2001). This high salt content was found to persist in the
meat and was not affected by rinsing and cooking (Angel, Weinberg, &
Jaffe, 1989). Salt is a catalyst for lipid oxidation (Kanner, Harel, & Jaffe,
1991), and kosher meat may develop objectionable odor during postmortem refrigeration (Holzer et al., 2004).
The koshering process was reported to reduce the levels of
Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. due to its preservative actions such
as altering the water activity and ionic strength of meat (Hajmmer
et al., 1999) and reducing attachment of Salmonella to chicken surface
(Oscar, 2008).
3.4. Accelerated post-mortem pH fall due to combined electrical inputs from
stunning and immobilization
Daly (2005) observed that among some of the carcass quality problems associated with electrical stunning and immobilization is that of
accelerated pH decline due to the violent forces produced by muscle
contraction caused by the stun. The meat quality effects of high temperature and low pH have been thoroughly reviewed (Jacob & Hopkins,
2014; Kim, Warner, & Rosenvold, 2014).
According to Simmons et al. (2008), the combined electrical input
from stunning and immobilization can drive muscle glycolysis faster
resulting in the muscles attaining rigor at higher temperature leading
to a denaturing condition and a number of meat quality problems
summarised in Table 5. Simmons et al. (2008) electrically stunned and
immobilized 40 steers using low or high frequency and found that the
use of low-frequency immobilization drove the pH down faster resulting
in higher drip loss and shear force compared to high-frequency immobilization. Warner, Dunshea, Gutzke, Lau, and Kearney (2014) determined
the incidence of high rigor temperature in 1512 beef carcasses across
Australia and found very high occurrence of the phenomenon (up to
94%) from meat plants that apply various electrical inputs during processing including post-slaughter electrical immobilization of carcasses.
The electrical stunning of poultry reduced initial pH values (Papinaho
Table 4
Some positive (+) and negative () aspects of halal and kosher post-slaughter processes on meat quality.
Process
Koshering
Removal of haem/blood (+); higher discoloration (); lower color parameters (L*, a* and b*
values) ()
Removal of proteins ()
High salt content ()
Halal slaughtering
Reference
514
Table 5
Effect of combined electrical inputs during stunning and immobilization on meat pH and the associated consequences on meat quality.
Livestock
Stunning method
Poultry
Reference
Accelerated post-mortem glycolysis and pH decline while muscle temperature reOffer (1991); Farouk and Swan (1998); Farouk and Lovatt (2000); Daly
mains high. Effects include color shelf-life; water holding and fat binding capacities, (2005); Bekhit, Farouk, Cassidy, and Gilbert (2007); Lombart et al.
protein solubility/extractability, meat toughness, ageing potential.
(2008); Simmons et al. (2008); Kim, Kerr et al. (2014); Kim, Warner
et al. (2014); Warner et al. (2014).
Whole-body electrical
Air pressure stunning resulted in rate of pH decline and hemorrhage scores in Lambooij et al. (1999).
stunning (10 s, 110 mA, 300 Hz) in a water bath
breast (48.5%) and thigh meat (43.8%).
compared to air pressure stunning (0.5 s, 2 atm)
Redder meat was found with air pressure stunning.
Electrical whole-body and head-only stunning with
No differences in ultimate pH were found.
Hillebrand et al. (1996).
different voltages (25 vs. 100 V) and frequencies (50 Head-only stunning resulted in darker and redder breast muscles compared with
vs. 200 Hz), and mechanical captive bolt stunning
whole-body stunning.
Head-only and captive bolt stunning resulted in less hemorrhages in breast
compared with whole-body stunning.
Whole body, head only, captive bolt, and gas stunning 14%, 44.9%, 56.1% and 53.4% reduction in hemorrhage score due to the use of head Savenije et al. 2002).
only (100 V, 50 Hz, 4 s), captive bolt, CO2 and argon, respectively compared to bath
(CO2 and argon)
electrical stunning (100 V, 50Hz, 4 s).
Higher water holding capacity in head only stunning compared to other treatments.
Gas stunning decreased the redness and increased the lightness of the meat.
Stunning method did not have an effect on tenderness.
Head only electrical stunning (125 V for 10 s).
Stunning did not affect pH, color L*, a*, b* values, water holding capacity (WHC) and Vergara and Gallego (2000).
shear force (SF).
Industrial stunning
Authors' concluded Even low electrical input during immobilization can adeGeesink et al. (2001).
quately stimulate carcasses and avoid cold shortening.
Head stunning (250 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal A.C., for 3 s) Color (L, a, b), muscle ultimate pH (pHu), chilling losses and carcass weight at
Velarde et al. (2003).
45 min and 24 h were not signicantly different between treatments.
The amount of blood lost relative to live body weight and the killing-out were
signicantly higher in electrically stunned lambs compared with non-stunned
lambs.
Vergara et al. (2005).
Head electrical stunning (ESL; 110 V, 50 Hz for 5 s), The highest pH was found in the USL group whereas the lowest pH decline was
found in GSL group.
CO2 gas stunning (GSL), no stunning (USL)
No effect on water holding capacity; cooking loss and color parameters.
After 7 days meat from stunned animals had lower drip loss.
GSL had more tender meat (lower SF value) than ESL and USL
(P b 0.05).
No blood splash in any of the carcasses of the GSL group.
Lamb
Outcome
515
516
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