TABLE OF CONTENTS

What is Earthing?
Why Earthing Required?
Comparision Of Earth & Non Earthed System
Purpose of Earthing
Factors Influence The Conditiion Of Earth
i.

Factors.

Classification Of Earthing
i.
ii.

System Earthing.
System Earthing Methods.
Equipment Earthing.

Conditions To Be Satisfied
i.
ii.
iii.

Lightning and short circuit

Safety
Equipment protection and functionality.

Methods Of Earthing
i.
ii.
iii.

Plate Earthing
Pipe Earthing
Joints.
Line And Pole Earthing.

Resistance Of The Earth Path

Soil Resistivity Testing
i.

Introduction.

Principal Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Type of Soil.
Climate.
Seasonal conditions.
Other factors.

Measuring Soil Resistivity (Four Pole Method)

Measurement Of Earth Resistance (Three Pole Method)
Cost Estimation
Choosing Site For Earthing

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very much thankful to Sir Muhammad Mohsin Aman for

providing us the opportunity to analyze the EARTHING system.
It helps us to gain and improve the practical knowledge of the
subject. INSHALLAH this knowledge and experience will help
us in earthing an electrical equipment.
Thanks Sir.

WHAT IS EARTHING?
Earthing may be described as a system of electrical connections to the general mass of earth. The
characteristic primarily determining the effectiveness of an earth electrode is the resistance, which it
provides between the earthing system and the general mass of earth. We can also define it as the process of
connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying path) of electrical equipment or some electrical
part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of the
transformer) to earth is called Grounding or Earthing.
Broadly speaking earth resistance is the resistance of the soil to the passage of electrical current. Actually
earth is a poor conductor compared with normal conductor like copper. But if the area of path for the
current is large enough, the resistance can be quite low and earth can be a conductor.

WHY EARTHING IS REQUIRED?

Everybody knows earthing is required to be done for safety, to avoid shocks and to protect life. This
becomes possible due to the solidly earthed neutral system adopted by us for distribution. This also
provides reference zero potential for the system & preserves the safety and security of the system by
ensuring that potential of conductor is restricted to a rated value consistent with level of insulation. In
addition to prohibiting shocks does earthing have any other function in the electrical system? Yes, it
provides convenience of effective way of tripping circuits using relays under fault conditions thus
protecting precious equipment in the system and earthing fixes the system neutral voltage. Earthing also
provides effective way of dissipating lightening energy without damage to buildings / structures. Thus
earthing improves service continuity, avoids damage to equipment & danger to human life.

COMPARISON OF EARTHED & UNEARTHED

SYSTEM
Unearthed systems are utilized in some areas based on thought of gaining additional service continuity as
earthed systems are designed to remove faulty circuits from system. However it is a common experience
world over that better service continuity is possible with earthed system.

PURPOSE OF EARTHING
1a) Good earth should have low resistance.
b) It should stabilize circuit potential with respect to
ground and limit overall potential rise.
c) It should protect men material from injury or
damage due to over voltage.
1d) It should provide low impedance path to fault
currents to ensure prompt and consistent operation of
protective relays, Surge arrester etc.,
2e) It should keep maximum potential gradient along
the surface of the sub-station within safe limits during
ground fault.
THE CHIEF REQUIREMENT OF
EARTHING IS LOW SOIL RESISTIVITY.

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GOOD

FACTORS INFLUENCE THE CONDITIION OF

EARTH
The following factors in the earth should be maintained within the limit irrespective of seasons so that the
earth should fulfill the above requirements.
1a. Kind of Soil Soil Resistivity
2b. Moisture Content
3c. Salt Content
4d. Condition of Electrode
5e. Temperature Co-efficient

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING
Earthing can be classified into the following categories based on the purpose for which the part of the
equipment connected to the general mass of earth.
1a. System Earthing
2b. Equipment Earthing

A.

System Earthing

Earthing associated with current carrying parts of the equipment is called system Earthing. The system
security, reliability, performance, voltage stabilization, all relied only on the system Earthing.
e.g. Earthing Neutral of Transformer, Surge arrester Earthing.

System Earthing Methods

a. Solid Earthing
b. Resistance Earthing
c. Reactance Earthing.
d. Through Grounding Transformer.

B. Equipment Earthing
Earthing associated with non-current carrying parts of Electrical Equipment are called as Equipment
Earthing. Safety of operator, consumer, safety of their property are mainly based on Equipment Earthing.
Eg. Body of the Transformer, Body of Motor.

CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED
In general any earthing system needs to satisfy three demands:

Lightning and short circuit

The earthing system must protect the occupants, prevent direct damage such as fire, flashover or
explosions due to a direct lightning strike and overheating due to a short-circuit current.

Safety

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The earthing system must conduct lightning and short-circuit currents without introducing intolerable
step-voltage and touch-voltages.

Step Potential
Step Potential is the potential Difference between two points on the earth's surface, separated by distance
of one pace, that will be assumed to be one meter in the direction of maximum potential gradient.

Touch Potential
Touch Potential is the potential difference between a grounded metallic structure and a point on the earth's
surface separated by a distance equal to the normal maximum horizontal reach, approximately one meter.
Step and Touch potential situations arise when it is possible for a person to make simultaneous contact
with a part of an electrical system which is not live under normal conditions but has become live due to the
passage of a fault current, and another conductive part which is at a different potential.
A common step and touch voltage situation arises in and around substations under earth fault conditions
wherein the earth fault current flows through the earth electrode and grid system, and it is possible for a
person to make simultaneous contact with two parts which are at a different potential due the passage of
the earth fault current.

Equipment protection and functionality

The earthing system must protect electronics by providing a low impedance path to interconnect
equipment. Proper cable routing, zoning and shielding are important aspects and serve the purpose of
preventing sources of disturbance from interfering with the operation of electrical equipment. Although
requirements for these three aspects are often specified separately, the implementation of them requires an
integrated systems approach.

METHODS OF EARTHING
1) Plate Earthing
In major power stations and major sub-stations 12 mm thick, 1200 m long, 1200 mm wide Cast
Iron plates are used.
For minor sub-stations 18 mm broad, 50 x 50 cm. G.I. plates are used. These plates are dug
vertically in the pit. Coal, sand and salt are filled in the pit each of 150 mm layer. The plate should be dug
deep so that soil will be wet from all sides. The plate should be placed at a distance of 1200 cm. from each
other.
The approximate resistance to ground in a uniform soil can be expressed by:

R= /2A
Where;
p = resistivity of soil, considered uniform in Q m.
A = area of each side of the plate in m2.
The minimum thickness of plate is recommended as
For cast iron - 12 mm
For GI or steel - 6.3 mm
For copper - 3.15mrn
And size not less than 600 mm x 600 mm

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2) Pipe Earthing
For Power Stations, and major sub-stations 12 mm thick, 150 mm dia, 300 cms. Long G.I. pipes
are used. A minimum distance of 1200 cm. should be kept between earth electrodes in major sub-stations
and 180 cms in case of minor sub-stations. At least one electrodes to be used at every corner in substations. Each electrical equipment structure and the entire metal fitting should be earthed. Three earth
electrodes are used for pole-mounted transformer. The transformer neutral and body should be double
earthed. A minimum 8 S.W.G. G.I. wire should be used for earthing. Separate earthing should be done for
distribution box. 7/10 SWG G.I. wire should be used for tower earthing, and for S/s. gantries 3mm thick,
50 mm x 50 mm M.S. plate is used. G.I. pipe of 25 mm thick, 1910 mm long is used for H.T. line, and 20
mm thick, 1720 mm long for L.T. lines.
The purpose of coal and salt is to keep wet the soil permanently. The salt percolates and coal
absorbs water keeping the soil wet. Care should always be taken by watering the earth pits in summer so
that the pit soil will be wet. Coal is made of carbon which is good conductor minimizing the earth
resistant. For sub-station earthing the provisions in I.S.I. 3043 (1966) Section 1,2 & 3 should be utilized.
In this case, the approximate resistance to ground in a uniform soil can be expressed by;

R=100/2l(log 8l/d-1)
Where:
I = length of pipe in cm
d = internal diameter of pipe in cm

Jointing:
Rivets are used for joining the earth system, nut bolts or welding also used depending on the
temperature rise of the system.
The joint to earth conductor in switchgear unit or cable sheaths required to be separated frequently,
hence nut bolts are used at joint. In case of steel system they should inconsistently be by welding. Only
the places where earth testing is carried should be nut bolted.
All joints should be properly painted. Channel, supporting control boards and panels are used as earth
electrodes (This is possible only when they are connected to earth system at both ends.)

3) Line And Pole Earthing

1) Every fifth metallic pole of L.T. line should be earthed.
2) Cross arms, top clip, insulator pins of P.S.C. pole should be earthed along with the pole.
3) Guarding at Railway crossing, Telephone crossing, Road crossings should be earthed along with
pole on both side. If earth electrode is not available 8 S.W.G. G.I. wire coil of 25 mm dia and 120
to 150 mm long should be used and placed in a pit at a distance of 90 cms. from pole at a depth of
150 cms. It is very necessary to earth the guarding. All the metal fittings of L.T. pole and stay
should be earthed and connected firmly to neutral because neutral is multiple earthed neutral.

RESISTANCE OF THE EARTH PATH

The resistance of the earth path is determined,
(1) By the resistivity of the soil surrounding the earth rod
(2) By its contact resistance between the earth rod and the surrounding soil and,
(3) By the resistance of the earth rod and connecting conductors.
When an electrical current passes into the soil from a buried earth rod, it passes from a low resistance

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metal into an immediate area of high resistance soil.

The Earth Path

Reference to Figures 1 & 2 depict what happens when a current flows from an earth rod into the
surrounding earth. The areas of resistance can be described as being that of a number of sheaths of ever
increasing diameters. The current path passes into the first sheath immediately adjacent to the earth rod and
then into the second sheath which is of a larger cross-section with a greater area for current flow and,
therefore, of lower resistance than the first sheath, and so on into a succession of sheaths or shells of ever
increasing area and, because of this, of ever decreasing resistance. Eventually at a distance of three of four
metres, the area of current dissipation becomes so large, and the current density so small, the resistance at
this point is negligible. Measurements show that 90% of the total resistance around an earth rod is within a
radius of three metres. However, it is this resistance at the interface where the current leaves the earth rod
and flows into the main body of the earth that is important and explains why soil resistivity tests are very
necessary in order to secure lowest overall resistance.

SOIL RESISTIVITY TESTING

Introduction
It is well known that the resistance of an earth electrode is heavily influenced by the resistivity of the soil
in which it is driven and as such, soil resistivity measurements are an important parameter when designing
earthing installations. A knowledge of the soil resistivity at the intended site, and how this varies with
parameters such as moisture content, temperature and depth, provides a valuable insight into how the
desired earth resistance value can be achieved and maintained over the life of the installation with the
minimum cost and effort.
One of the main objectives of earthing electrical systems is to establish a common reference potential for
the power supply system, building structure, plant steelwork, electrical conduits, cable ladders & trays and
the instrumentation system. To achieve this objective, a suitable low resistance connection to earth is
desirable. However, this is often difficult to achieve and depends on a number of factors:
Soil resistivity
Stratification
Size and type of electrode used
Depth to which the electrode is buried
Moisture and chemical content of the soil

PRINCIPLE FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL

RESISTIVITY
The factors chiefly affecting soil resistivity are:

1. Type of Soil
The soil composition can be: clay, gravel, loam, rock, sand, shale, silt, stones, etc. In many locations, soil
can be quite homogenous, while other locations may be mixtures of these soil types in varying proportions.

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Very often, the soil composition is in layers or strata, and it is the resistance of the varying strata,
especially at sub-soil level and lower where the moisture content is not subject to drying out, that is
important in securing a good electrical earth.

2. Climate
Obviously, arid and good rainfall climates are at opposite extremes for conditions of soil
resistivity.

3. Seasonal Conditions
The effects of heat, moisture, drought and frost can introduce wide variations in normal soil resistivity.
Soil resistivity usually decreases with depth, and an increase of only a few
Percent of moisture content in a normally dry soil will markedly decrease soil resistivity
Conversely, soil temperatures below freezing greatly increase soil resistivity, requiring earth rods to be
driven to even greater depths.

4. Other Factors
Other soil properties conducive to low resistivity are chemical composition, soil ionisation, homogeneous
grain size and even grain distribution - all of which have much to do with retention of soil moisture, as
well as providing good conditions for a closely packed soil in good contact with the earth rod. In view of
all the above factors, there is a large variation of soil resistivity between different soil types and moisture
contents.
Every earth is an individual and the only way to know that an earthing installation meets code
requirements is to carry out proper resistance measurements on site.

MEASURING SOIL RESISTIVITY (FOUR POLE

METHOD)
Figure illustrates the simple test setup for measuring soil
resistivity. The test results give a resistivity profile of the earth
beneath the surface. A four terminal instrument is required for soil
resistivity. The probes are installed in a straight line with an equal
spacing of a meters and inserted to a depth of no more than a/20
metres, ie. for spacing of 2 meters, depth must be less than
100mm. Now keeping the centre position the same, resistance
measurements are taken at increasing spacing (eg. a=2mm, 3mm,
4mm etc.). Always ensure that the spacing between individual test
probes is identical.
The soil resistivity can be obtained from the following formula:

RHO= apparent soil resistivity

a = spacing of probes in metres
R = resistance value in Ohms

Earth Resistance
Earth resistance is depended on following factors.
1) Type of earth soil.
2) Temperature of earth.

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3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

8)

Humidity in earth.
Minerals in earth.
Length of electrode in the earth.
Electrode shape and size.
Distance between two electrodes.
Number of electrodes.

Earth tester measures Earth resistance and its unit is ohm.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

(THREE POLE METHOD)
The exact resistance of the grounding station must
be determined at the site of installation to support
theoretical assumptions and the grounding
conditions adjusted, if necessary, to obtain the
required ground resistance. The resistance of a
grounding station can be measured with the help of
a ground tester which generates a constant voltage
for accurate measurement. The tester has two
potential and one current probe. The procedure of
measurement is illustrated in Figure .
One of the potential probes A is drilled into the
ground at about 15 m from the grounding station G,
whose resistance is to be measured. The second
probe B is placed between the two. The current lead of the meter is connected to the grounding
station. The meter will indicate some resistance. which may be noted. Two more readings are also
taken by shifting the centre probe B by almost 3 m on either side of the original location. For an
accurate due of the ground resistance, the values obtained must be same. If they are not, the probe
B is still within the resistance area of the grounding station G. Shift away probe A by another 6 m
or so and place probe B between G and A, and repeat the test. If the three readings are now the
same. consider this as the actual ground resistance of station G, otherwise shift probe A farther
away until a constant reading is obtained.

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The same test can also he conducted with the help of a battery, voltmeter and an ammeter, as
illustrated in Figure .The voltmeter must now indicate the same reading at all three locations.
When V becomes constant, read the current I. Then the ground resistance

R= V/I
Note:
Spike length in the earth should not be more than 1/20th distance between two spikes.

Maximum earth resistance allowed is as below

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Major power station 0.5 .

Major Sub-stations 1.0
Minor Sub-station 2
Neutral Bushing. 2
Service connection 4
L.T.Lightening Arrestor 4 L.T.Pole 5
H.T.Pole 10
Tower 20-30

If earth resistance is more than above given values, following treatments can be made for minimizing
resistance.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Oxidation on joints should be removed and joints be tightened.

Sufficient water should be poured in earth electrode.
Earth Electrode of bigger size as far as possible be used.
Electrodes should be connected in parallel.
Earth pit of more depth & width- breadth be made.

COST ESTIMATION

Copper rod 25mm dia, 10ft =Rs.600/kg

14kg Cu rod 25 mm dia,10 ft= Rs.8400
Cable ECC 45 wiregauge =Rs.600/kg
1m Cable ECC 45 wiregauge =Rs.600
Clamp= Rs.150
1 packet of Chemical mixture=Rs.220/10kg.
Cost of labour/boring for 40ft=Rs.40,000

CHOOSING SITE FOR EARTHING

Low earth resistance depends mainly on the soil resistance at the station hence choosing proper site for
earthing site. Soil resistance depends on chemical composition and concentration of dissolved salts and
moisture content in soil.
Hence sites as far as possible chosen in:
i)
Wet marshy Grounds.

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ii)
iii)
iv)

Black cotton soil area.

Clay and loam mixed soil with some sand gravel.
Damp and wet sand peat.

Sites should not be as far as possible chosen in:

i)
Dry sand and gravel
ii)
Lime stone area.
iii)
Natural rocky area.
iv)
Well drained site or area where water flow is there.
v)
Newly filled area.
In case there is no alternative but to make earthing in rocky area it is advisable to determine the soil
resistance by taking test bores at multiple places. Based on the soil resistance, depth and no of earthing can
be decided to get desired results.

CALCULATION FOR SOIL RESISTIVITY:

Distanc
e
betwee
n the
rods in
ft=D

Dept
h of
rod
in
ft=a

Soil
Resistivity=r
ho

25

1.5

152.2714

4.34

20

1.5

166.2535

4.36

20

167.0197

4.3

20

0.5

164.7212

6.28

15

1.5

180.4272

Resistance
=R
3.18

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Mean
rho

166.3174

APPENDIX
Earthing or earthing system is the total of all means and measures by which part of an
electrical circuit, accessible conductive parts of electrical equipment (exposed conductive parts) or
conductive parts in the vicinity of an electrical installation (extraneous conductive parts) are connected to
earth.

Earth electrode

is a metal conductor, or a system of interconnected metal conductors, or other

metal parts acting in the same manner, embedded in the ground and electrically connected to it, or
embedded in the concrete, which is in contact with the earth over a large area (e.g. foundation of a
building).

Earthing conductor is a conductor which connects a part of an electrical installation, exposed

conductive parts or extraneous conductive parts to an earth electrode or which interconnects earth
electrodes. The earthing conductor is laid above the soil or, if it is buried in the soil, is insulated from it.

Reference earth is that part of the ground, particularly on the earth surface, located outside the
sphere of influence of the considered earth electrode, i.e. between two random points at which there is no
perceptible voltages resulting from the earthing current flow through this electrode. The potential of
reference earth is always assumed to be zero .

Earthing voltage (earthing potential) Ve

is the voltage occurring between the

earthing system and reference earth at a given value of the earth current flowing through this earthing
system.

Earth resistivity (specific earth resistance)

is the resistance, measured between

two opposite faces, of a one-meter cube of earth . The earth resistivity is expressed in m .

Earth surface potential

reference earth.

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Vx is the voltage between a point x on the earths surface and