May 2012

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A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group

COMPRESSOR

Tech

Two Dedicated to Gas

Compression Products
and Applications

PUBLICATION STAFF

CTTwo Founder......................... Joseph M. Kane

Publisher................................. Brent D. Haight
Associate Publisher............... Roberto Chellini
Editor............................................Patrick Crow
Executive Editor................................ DJ Slater
Senior Editor................... Michael J. Brezonick
Senior Editor...........................Dawn M. Geske
Senior Editor............................... Mike Rhodes
Regional Manager/Editor............ Ian Cameron
Field Editor/Business Manager..... Bo Svensson
Associate Editor.................................Jack Burke
Associate Editor..............................Chad Elmore
Advertising Manager........... Christa L. Johnson
Circulation Manager....................Sheila Lizdas
Production Manager.............. Marisa J. Roberts
Graphic Artist.........................Brenda L. Burbach
Graphic Artist..............................Carla D. Lemke
Graphic Artist............................ Amanda J. Ryan
Graphic Artist................................. Alyssa Loope

Volume XVII: Issue IV

Things We Cant Afford To Forget

PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220
Waukesha, WI 53186-1873, U.S.A.

Telephone: 262-754-4100 Telefax: 262-754-4175

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS

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Neil Purslow - Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Norm Shade - Cambridge, Ohio, U.S.A.

HOUSTON OFFICE

Brent D. Haight, Publisher

Patrick Crow, Editor
Mike Rhodes, Senior Editor
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225
Houston, TX 77070, U.S.A.

Joe Kane
The some 2500 participants in the
91st Gas Processors Association (GPA)
Convention, April 15-18 in New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A. were left with
a positive outlook for future midstream
activity. While the decade-low price of
natural gas is an impediment to widespread exploration and production
(E&P) of natural gas, this is mostly
affecting dry-gas sources. Flow from
wet-gas wells is where the midstream
operators do their business. However,
the focus is on the marketability and
revenue from the various liquids taken
from the stream by gas processors.
The question is what to do with the
superabundance of our natural gas resource. Storage cavern levels are unusally high for this time of year and
production at this juncture can easily outstrip consumption. As a consequence, exploration in dry-gas basins
has virtually disappeared.
The future of natural gas, in spite of
many constraints, looks bright, indeed.
But, the most nagging constraint of all
is the complete lack of a viable energy
policy or if one exists, it seems to
be an effort to eliminate completely
our hydrocarbon fuel dependency.
This, in my opinion, will not happen
in my lifetime or in the lifetime of the
next generation in the absence of a viable alternative.
Dr. James Canton, an economist
with a global futurist perspective, in
his keynote address to the convention
said, By 2020, the world will be energy
challenged and by 2035 one single energy sources capacity will be enough
to keep pace with global population

Telephone: 281-890-5310 Telefax: 281-890-4805

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Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager

Gabriele Dinsel, Advertising Manager
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UNITED KINGDOM OFFICE

Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor

Linda Cameron, Advertising Manager
40 Premier Avenue
Ashbourne, Derbyshire,
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ITALIAN OFFICES

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Roberta Prandi
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S.H. Mok, Branch Manager

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President & CEO......................Michael J. Osenga

Executive Vice President.....Michael J. Brezonick

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
Reprints of all articles published in CompressorTech
are available. Please address inquiries to:
mgraesing@dieselpub.com
Tel: 262-754-4147
Fax: 262-754-4177

Two

growth. Natural gas is a natural solution to our energy needs, but risks and
trends will be a part of the new normal
that will be led by disruptive risks. He
said just the fact that we have a secure
energy source like natural gas is of utmost importance to the future of the nation, however the lack of infrastructure
to fully use these resources is troubling.
Canton said that innovations are
emerging every day that include a
smart grid or energy source mix that
we could use to face up to the risks because energy is the one commodity we
can control. Canton stressed, however,
that not enough thought is being given
to viable long-term policy formulation
by our countrys leaders.
April may prove to be a cooler
month than March. William Harper,
professor of physics at Princeton University asks the question in his recent editorial in the Wall Street Journal: What is happening to global
temperatures in reality? The answer
is, almost nothing for more than 10
years. Monthly values of the global
temperature anomaly of the lower
atmosphere, compiled at the University of Alabama from NASA satellite
data, can be found at the website
www.droyspencer.com/latest-globaltemperatures. The latest (February
2012) monthly global temperature
anomaly for the lower atmosphere
was -0.12C, slightly less than the
average since the satellite record of
temperatures began in 1979.
We commented on the function of
this satellite earlier, which includes
monitoring the energy escaping from
the earth and the temperature variations of the earths lower atmosphere.
Carried to its zenith, CO2 sequestration could starve our atmosphere of
this life sustaining compound. That
would bring on the next ice age more
quickly which would confine arable
land to the tropics where in the absence of significant CO2, very little
would grow well.
While you are pondering these
thoughts, may the Lord hold you in the
hollow of His hand. a

CompressorTechTwo

Powering
Were developing oil and gas
technologies to power the world.
At GE, the future is at work.

May 2012

FEATURE editorial
Enlarging Heat Transfer Solutions............................................................... 12
Siemens Grows Gas Turbine Packaging Centers.......................................... 16
Turbines Have Bright Future In Shale Gas.................................................... 38
Automated Control Upgrade Improves LNG Plants Operation....................... 42
Demand Growing For Carbon-Reinforced PEEK Valve Plates........................ 44
Short-Term Outlook Sees Strong Natural Gas Demand................................. 50

p. 12

Paradox Expands Access To Telemetry Products......................................... 65

Cracking The Code..................................................................................... 66
Software Uses Fault Patterns To Prevent Compressor Failures..................... 75
The Promise Of Colombia........................................................................... 76

TECH CORNER
p. 16

Prediction Of Centrifugal Compressor Performance And Application

For Test, Surge Protection And Machinery Diagnostic............................. 22
A Computationally Simple Compressibility Model For Gas Service
With High Concentrations Of CO2............................................................ 52

DEPARTMENTS
Volume XVII: Issue IV.................................................................................... 4

p. 38

Global Perspective Gas Discoveries Multiplying In

Rovuma Basin Off East Africa.................................................................... 8
Market Talk Atypical Natural Gas Storage Crunch
Reflects Saturated Market...................................................................... 10
Dateline..................................................................................................... 11
Recent Orders............................................................................................ 18
Industry News............................................................................................. 19
Featured Products...................................................................................... 64

p. 44

Product Information Center........................................................................ 70

Scheduled Downtime.................................................................................. 78
Marketplace............................................................................................... 79

Member of...

Advertisers Index....................................................................................... 80
Follow compressortech2 on

at www.compressortech2.com

Two

CompressorTech

(ISSN 1085-2468) Volume 17, No. 4 Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May, June, July,
August-September, October, November, December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 531861873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at
additional mailing offices. Copyright 2012 DIESEL & GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS.
Canadian Publication Mail Agreement # 40035419.
Return Undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Box 456, Niagra Falls, ON L2E 6V2, Canada. E-mail: slizdas@dieselpub.com.
POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: Circulation Manager, COMPRESSORTECHTWO, 20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI
53186-1873 U.S.A.

May 2012

CompressorTechTwo

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Gas Discoveries Multiplying

In Rovuma Basin Off East Africa
New fields off Mozambique and Tanzania carry high development costs
By Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher

A series of recent discoveries in the

Rovuma Basin offshore Mozambique
and Tanzania are revolutionizing the
East African oil and gas industry.
With the inclusion of discoveries
made by Anadarko in Area 1, Mozambiques gas in place is estimated to be
57 Tcf to 70 Tcf (1.61 x 1012 to 1.98 x
1012 m3), which, according to Business
Monitor International, is comparable to
the proven reserves of Libya and Egypt
(leaving only Nigeria and Algeria with
much higher resources in Africa).
On one hand, these discoveries
encourage the oil companies to drill
more wells and create the necessary
infrastructure to commercialize the
foundlings. But on the other hand,
large investments are required to develop these resources in a region far
from support infrastructure. The problem is who can balance these activities.
As an example, Italys Eni has announced the discovery of 9.9 Tcf (283 x
109 m3) of gas at the North East Mamba
1 prospect in Area 4, offshore Mozambique. The hole is 9.3 mi. (15 km) northeast of the initial 22.4 Tcf (637 x 109 m3)
South Mamba discovery and 7.5 mi. (12
km) southwest of the subsequent 7.5 Tcf
(213 x109 m3) North Mamba find.
These discoveries bode particularly
well for Eni, which has been seeking
to farm out a 20% interest in Area 4,
where it has 70%, while Galp, Kogas
and ENH all hold 10% shares. The
Italian investment firm Mediobanca
estimates the sale could total US$2.6
billion. Eni received bids from eight
players, including the French company Total.
However, the North East Mamba 1
find could attract many more bidders
may 2012

and it looks like Mediobancas estimate

is too conservative. Indeed, on Feb. 28,
Indias ONGC and Gail India offered to
pay US$2 billion for U.K. independent
Cove Energy, which holds an 8.5%
stake in U.S. independent Anadarkos
Area-1 license.
If the 10.5 Tcf to 12.4 Tcf (298 x 109
to 352 x 109 m3) found in Tanzania is
added to the gas in place estimates in
Mozambique, East Africas potential is
estimated at 67.4 Tcf to 82.5 Tcf (1.91
x 1012 to 2.34 x 1012 m3).
Eni and Anadarko are looking at ways
to commercialize these prospects with a
liquefied natural gas (LNG) export terminal intended to supply Asian markets.
This could prove very expensive
given the dearth of existing infrastructure. Estimates from both Anadarko

Roberto Chellini
8

and Eni point to development costs of

US$2800 to US$3000 per tonne of new
LNG capacity. This is in line with similar projects in Australia and elsewhere.
At that level, the price tag for Anadarkos planned 10 million tonne/year facility could be US$28 billion to US$30
billion, and would be even higher if
the companies decide to add capacity.
Eni CEO Paolo Scaroni said last December that the company could invest
as much as US$50 billion to produce
the first LNG by 2018.
Statoil said on Feb. 24 that its Zafarani-1 well was a high impact discovery in the Rovuma Basin off Tanzania.
The wildcat encountered 400 ft. (120
m) of excellent quality reservoir with
high porosity and high permeability.
Initial estimates put the gas in place at
9 Tcf (142 x 109 m3).
The deepwater discovery was made
on Tanzanias Block 2, where Statoil is
operator for Tanzania Petroleum Development Corp., which has a 65% share,
and ExxonMobil, which has 35%.
The latest find, which is the fourth
offshore Tanzanian gas discovery, potentially is the largest. Last year, Africafocused independent Ophir Energy and
partner BG Group had said their initial
exploration program off Tanzania (deepwater blocks 1 and 4) had discovered
more than 500 MMbbls of oil, equivalent
to 3 Tcf (85 x109 m3) of gas.
Zafarani-1 will be extended and completed and the drilling rig will move to
the Lavani prospect, which could provide further upside reserves potential.
East Africa is rapidly becoming a fertile hunting ground for gas exploration
and Statoils latest discovery is indicative
of the regions windfall potential. A

CompressorTechTwo

Its all in
the name...

A proud past leads to a new future

They may display a proud old name on the outside,
but the driving force within the worlds best-engineered,
most efficient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce.
The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older
machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has

earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation for quality.

Today, in a business where productivity and dependability
mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience
of the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name
of the future.
Trusted to deliver excellence

Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc

www.rolls-royce.com

Atypical Natural Gas Storage Crunch

Reflects Saturated Market
Coal industry suffers as electric power generators switch to cheap gas
By Harold Lampe

Since peaking in June 2008, U.S. wellhead natural gas prices have declined by
more 71% through the end of 2011.
It also has been reported that wellhead prices in some basins have fallen
to less than US$2/Mcf since January.
Obviously this will drive many gas
producers to curtail future drilling
plans until prices rebound. This will
likely impact smaller producers more
than the larger producers, who have
hedging strategies to help them minimize the impacts of regional pricing.
Unfortunately gas output continues
to climb. The U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA) has reported that
gross withdrawals increased to 83.2 Bcfd
(2.3 x 109 m3/d) in January, an increase
of 12% from the level a year ago.
Accordingly, the slide in futures prices has been unabated. In March, the
12-month strip on the New York Mercantile Exchange was averaging US$2.97/
MMbtu and since has fallen to US$2.85.
It is clear that prices will remain under pressure until demand increases
or there are signs that some producers efforts to curtail their gas flows are
having an impact.
Also overhanging the market is the
uncertainty about the availability of
gas storage and the impact that it may
have on prices this summer.
EIA estimates that peak working gas
capacity for U.S. underground storage is 4.1 Tcf (1.16 x 1011 m3). In early
April, following early season injections, storage levels were 2.4 Tcf (6.8 x
1010 m3) far exceeding the previous
high set in March 2009.
Over the past 10 years, injections
into storage have averaged around 2.1
Tcf (5.9 x 1010 m3). At current levels,
potential production will more than
likely exceed the available storage,
forcing producers to shut in gas.
This will likely occur in producing
may 2012

regions, where storage levels are 98%

higher than the 10-year average. There
have been reports that owners of some
U.S. natural gas storage sites have begun
turning some customers away for fear
that the system will overflow in autumn,
a clear sign of turmoil in the market.
ANR Storage Co., one of the nations
largest storage owners, announced on
March 26 that it was indefinitely restricting injection services for interruptible clients this week due to storage
field constraints.
Obviously it is a challenging time
for natural gas producers and one
that will not, in the short term, find a
quick resolution.
The future could be brighter for U.S.
producers if the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) succeeds in implementing new requirements for electric
generation facilities. On March 27 it issued a guidance concerning proposed
carbon pollution standards for new

power plants under the provisions of

the Clean Air Act. (see http://epa.gov/
carbonpollutionstandard/actions.html)
The proposed rules would limit carbon dioxide emissions to 1000 lb./MW/
hr. While current natural gas combinedcycle power plants already would meet
these standards, new coal or petroleum
coke plants would have to incorporate
technology to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, such as carbon capture and
storage, in order to comply.
If implemented, these rules in
combination with the current low natural gas prices would continue to shift
electric generation to natural gas. EIA
recently reported that the coal industrys share of electric power generation
fell to 39% for the last two months of
2011, a level not seen since 1978.
The coal and utility industries will
not accept the proposed EPA rules
without a fight. Historically, the utility sector has been reluctant to put
all its eggs in one basket. It prefers to
maintain a diverse mix of generation
resources to minimize price escalation.
This time may be somewhat different, since independent power producers are playing a more substantial
role in supplying electricity to utilities and they have been receptive to
natural gas technology.
While the proposed rules only
would impact new construction, owners of coal-burning generation plants
fear that in the future EPA might opt to
roll these rules back, impacting current
generation and the projects scheduled
for construction within 12 months of
the new rules promulgation. A
Harold Lampe is principal of Energy Research Services of Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
which provides a range of marketing services
for the energy industry. He can be reached
at hlampe@hotmail.com.

Harold Lampe
10

CompressorTechTwo

Dateline
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com
May 6-9, ASME 2012: Spring Technical Conference - Torino, Piemonte, Italy; Tel: (925)
244-1360 Web: www.asme.org
*May 8-10, Eastern Gas Compression Roundtable - Robert Morris University, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (412) 3724301; Web: www.egcr.org
*May 9-10, Four Corners Oil & Gas Conference - McGee Park, Farmington, New Mexico,
U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (505) 325-0279; Web: www.
fourcornersoilandgas.com

U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891; Web: www.

engr.outreach.ou.edu/gascompressor

George R. Brown Convention Center, Houston,

Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417; Web:
http://turbolab.tamu.edu/

*Sept 18-21, InnoTrans 2012 - Messe Berlin,

Berlin, Germany; Tel: +49 30 30 38 2376; Web:
www.innotrans.de

Sept 26-28, SIPPE 2012 - Shanghai World

Expo Exhibition & Convention Center, Shanghai, China; Tel: + 86 21 36411666; Web: www.
sippe.org.cn/en

*Sept 25-27, International Pump Users Symposium - George R. Brown Convention Center Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (979) 8452924; Fax: +1 (979) 845-1835

Sept 26-28, EP China 2012 - China International Exhibition Center, Beijing, China; Tel: +
852 2811 8897; Web: www.epchinashow.com

*Sept 25-27, Turbomachinery Symposium -

*Indicates shows and c onferences in which CompressorTechTwo is participating.

May 15-17, Uzbekistan International Oil & Gas

Expo - Uzexpocenter, Tashkent, Uzbekistan;
Tel: +44 207 596 5233; Web: www.ogu.com
May 20-23, Petrotech 2012 - Middle East
Refining and Petrochemicals Conference
and Exhibition, Bahrain International Exhibition & Convention Center, Kingdom of
Bahrain; Tel: +44 20 7840 2139; Web: www.
allworldexhibitions.com/oil

Easy as...

*May 22-24, Sensor+Test 2012 - Nuremberg

Exhibition Centre, Nuremberg, Germany; Tel:
+49 5033 9639-0; Web: www.sensor-test.de
May 28-31, Heavy Oil World Conference
and Workshop - Dubai, United Arab Emirates;
Tel: +971 4440 2500; Web: www.terrapinn.
com/2012/howc
*June 4-8, Posidonia 2012 - Metropolitan
Expo, Athens, Greece; Tel: +30 210 4283608;
Web: www.posidonia-events.com
June 4-8, 25th World Gas Conference - Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia; Tel: +61 3 9321 6759; Web:
www.wgc2012.com
June 5-8, Caspian Oil & Gas 2012 - Hyatt Regency Hotel, Baku, Azerbaijan; Tel: +44 207
596 5000; Web: www.oilgas-events.com
June 6-7, Sensors Expo & Conference - Donald E. Stephens Convention Center, Rosemont,
Illinois, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (617) 219-8375; Web:
www.sensorsmag.com/sensors-expo
*June 11-15, ASME Turbo Expo 2012 - Bella
Center, Center Boulevard 5, Copenhagen,
Denmark; Tel: +1 (404) 847-0072; Web: www.
asmeconferences.org
*June 12-14, Power-Gen Europe 2012 - Koelnmesse, Cologne, Germany; Tel: +44 1992 656
610; Web: www.powergeneurope.com

Spec

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Maintain

MIRATECHS innovative emissions solutions provide easy compliance to

EPA requirements. From 100 hp skid mounted catalyst units to 100,000 hp
major source sites, MIRATECH engineers and manufacturers robust catalyst,
silencer and controls packages to meet the needs of your specific application.

*June 12-14, Global Petroleum - Stampede Park,

Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Tel: +1 (203) 973 2940;
Web: http://globalpetroleumshow.com
*June 18-22, ACHEMA 2012 - Frankfurt am
Main, Germany; Tel: +49 069 75 64-0; Web:
www.achema.de

*Aug. 15-16, Energy Exposition - Cam-Plex Convention, Gillette, Wyoming, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (307)
234-1868; Web: www.energyexposition.com

Contact our experienced sales team to help develop your next project.

*Sept. 12-14, Wyoming Natural Gas Fair 2012

- Snow King Center, Jackson Hole, Wyoming,
U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (307) 234-7147; Web: www.
wyogasfair.org
*Sept. 17-20, Rio Oil & Gas - RioCentro Exhibition & Convention Center, Rio de Janerio, Brazil;
Tel: +1 (201) 251-2600; Web: www.kallman.com
*Sept 18-20, Gas Compressor Conference University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma,

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CompressorTechTwo

2/16/12 8:56 AM

JB Radiator Specialties designed

specialized cooling systems like
this one for OEMs.

Enlarging Heat Transfer Solutions

JB Radiator Specialties offers customized cooling
packages for oil and gas industry
By Dawn M. Geske
Although standardization is a goal
for most manufacturers, the one-sizefits all approach often doesnt work for
heat-transfer applications in the oil and
gas industry.
With the wide variation in engines,
duty cycles, operating environments
and emissions requirements, heat
exchange components and systems
have become anything but standardized. Instead, the trend has been toward highly engineered, customized
systems designed specifically for
each application.
JB Radiator Specialties (JBRS) was
founded 35 years ago with customization of cooling packages as a mainstay
of its business.
The Sacramento, California, U.S.A.
firms product line includes copper/
brass radiators, aluminum radiators,
high-pressure oil coolers, air-to-air
after coolers, standard jacket water radiators, hydraulic coolers and
mounting brackets.
President Rick Ellstrom said JBRS
grew 44% last year and predicted similar growth for 2012.
He said the companys goal is to be
May 2012

a one-stop shop for machine manufacturers, offering them a complete cooling package for integration with their
equipment. The customer only needs
to bring his requirements to us and we
put the whole package together.
Because JBRS produces a custom
design for each application, Ellstrom
said there are no limits to the sizes of
its cooling systems. There really isnt

a boundary we stop at as long as it involves engine cooling, he said.

Ellstrom said customizing a heat
exchange system requires close collaboration with the customer to ensure that all the parameters including horsepower, thermal loads
and even the location of the machine
are taken into account.
The cooling requirements are paramount, so we have to make sure the
performance meets the cooling need,
Ellstrom said.
Corrosion can be a major issue in oil
and gas applications. There are some
really big challenges with corrosion
resistance. We work with several performance coatings and galvanized and
corrosion-resistant products, he said.
The company has expanded its Sacramento manufacturing operations
to reduce delivery times. We realize
that the customer wants quick time-tomarket. So we get them a prototype
quickly to get qualified and then serve
their production needs, he said.
We are seeing that people want
faster delivery and better response
times. Weve mastered the short lead
times and grown our capacity to manage those growths and spikes. Customers are getting away from traditional
large inventories.
JBRS has installed a laser system
for sheet metal work, added more advanced robotic systems, and has retooled fin machines to accommodate
larger-volume cooling systems.
The company tests its cooling systems at its Sacramento plant, at customers facilities and in the field.
Most customers want vibration testing or corrosion testing and we do it
based on their specific requirements,
Ellstrom said.
He said JBRS has expanded its service capabilities as well. We support
our product 100% so our service has
to be growing commensurate with the
rest of the business, he said. A

The company offers an array of products for cooling applications.

12

CompressorTechTwo

field services

> Rotating equipment repair

> Full compressor overhauls
> Lubrication system installation
> On-site technical support
> Parts and equipment upgrades
> Installation of quality CPI
manufactured parts

expert knowledge and field support...

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to support the following industries:
> Chemical and refining
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Phone: 1-281-256-9100
jon@cypressengine.com
www.cypressengine.com

wPi - Powered by solutions

Toll free: 1-888-458-0448
www.wpi.com

Reagan Equipment Company

Toll free: 1-800-254-7767
www.reaganpower.com

All trademarks, logos, and symbols are exclusive objects to the right of their owners and are used for reference purpose only.

Collicutt Compression
8133 Edgar Industrial Close
Red Deer, Alberta, CA
Phone: 1-403-309-9250
info@collicutt.com
www.collicutt.com

Stewart & Stevenson

5840 Dahlia Street
Commerce City, CO 80022
Phone: 1-303-287-7441
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Two SGTE 600 mechanical drives

that have been packaged and tested at Hengelo.

Siemens Grows Gas Turbine Packaging Centers

Company capitalizes on experience, synergies to expand services
By Roberto Chellini
Siemens Oil & Gas has capitalized
on experience that it gained at its first
gas turbine packaging center in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., to develop a similar
facility in the Netherlands.
The German company opened the
Houston center eight years ago to
serve the North American oil and gas
market. Siemens Hengelo plant in the
Netherlands specialized in packaging
when it was acquired from Demag
Delaval. Two years ago, Siemens decided to capitalize on its capabilities
and package small, mechanical-drive
gas turbines.
Ancillary equipment for gas turbines
and centrifugal compressors is very
similar and in some cases the same
component serves both the driving
and the driven machine. Centrifugal
compressor packages are often driven
by electric motors, another machine
within the Siemens portfolio. Using
these synergies to become more competitive in the marketplace was a logical step for Siemens.
Compressor packages are assembled
in Hengelo. Centrifugal compressors
are produced in Duisburg, Germany,
only 75 mi. (120 km) away. A direct
highway enables a one hour commute
between the facilities.
The Hengelo engineering office
develops package designs. The plant
May 2012

stores basic components from qualified suppliers in-house to speed assembly operations.
The Hengelo shop has tools needed
for packaging such as cranes, welding facilities, etc. Testing facilities are
available to check the performance of
the entire package prior to shipment
to the customer. The test stands are
equipped to evaluate packages driven
by gas turbines, electric motors and
variable speed drives.
Siemens has implemented the same
structure used in Hengelo to assemble
mechanical-drive, gas-turbine-driven
packages to make small, gas-turbinedrive power generation packages at
Finspng, Sweden.

Hengelo and Finspng are centers for packages sold in Europe and
other countries. Hengelo focuses on
mechanical drive applications and Finspng on industrial power generation.
Siemens uses its Lincoln, United
Kingdom, and Finspng facilities as
production sites for core engines.
In countries such as Russia, India
and China that mandate local content,
Siemens will deliver the core machines
to domestic packagers and/or partners.
Maintenance of the packages will be
performed by Siemens service organizations in Houston, Hengelo, Lincoln
and Finspng, as well as by local maintenance shops and qualified providers
in the Siemens worldwide network. a
Control panels at the Hengelo are used to test the
quality and functional integrity of mechanical drives.

16

CompressorTechTwo

THE NEXT GENERATION OF

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applications.
Our systems are flexible, transparent and
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processes, rather than simply protecting
machines, providing a true and proven
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CCSs STSC is a cost-effective way to regulate your process drives speed
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and critical operating conditions, and features critical speed avoidance to
protect your equipment from damage.
Our custom-engineered control system retrofit package will deliver you
a full complement of digital controls needed to modernize your turbine
governor. STSC is fully configurable to any industrial steam turbine and is
typically integrated into the train control system.
It is applicable to both variable speed loads and synchronous generators.
Its redundant inputs, fault detection and fallback strategies features define
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Hoerbiger.indd 1

4/26/12 9:09 AM

Recent Orders
Statoil
Statoil plans to provide Framo
Engineering with a US$155 million
contract for the design and construction of the Gullfaks subsea gas compression system in the Norwegian
North Sea.
In 2011, Statoil and partner Petoro
(30% share) decided to use subsea
compression as the preferred method
for developing reserves 9 mi. (15 km)
from the Gullfaks C platform. Statoil
said the current recovery rate at the
field is 62%, but a combination of
subsea compression and conventional low-pressure production in a later
phase may increase this to 74%.
In 2009, Framo Engineering, a
Schlumberger subsidiary, received
a technology development contract.
Contracts for platform modifications
and marine operations in connection
with the Gullfaks development will be
awarded this summer and fall.
Last year Statoil and partners decided to pursue subsea gas compression
May 2012

on the sgard field (see March 2012

CompressorTechTwo, p. 52).

Prelude field off Australias northwest

coast.

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

Compressor Corp.

Braskem Idesa

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Compressor Corp. (MCO) has received an

order for nine compressors and seven
motors to drive them at the Ichthys
liquefied natural gas (LNG) project in
Australia. They will be delivered sequentially beginning in August 2013.
Inpex and Total are developing Ichthys field in the Browse Basin 125 mi.
(200 km) off Western Australia. A pipeline will move the gas to a liquefaction
plant onshore.
The MCO compressors will support
processes to produce LNG from the
natural gas. The engines driving the
compressors will use the vaporized gas
in the LNG/LPG tanks as fuel.
MCO also received an order for compressors to be used at the first floating
LNG production, storage and offloading facility, which Shell will operate at
18

Braskem Idesa has ordered five

compressors and three steam turbines
from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Compressor Corp. (MCO) for a new,
large-scale ethylene plant at the Coatzacoalcos petrochemical complex in
Veracruz state, Mexico.
The equipment involves three compressor trains: a charge gas compressor
train to compress thermally cracked
natural gas feedstock and two trains of
ethylene and propylene refrigeration
compressors.
Together the three trains will have
five compressors, three steam turbines
to drive the compressors, and auxiliary
devices including control systems and
condensers.
MCO will deliver the machinery in
the spring of 2013. The 1.1 million
tons/yr (1 million tonnes/yr) ethylene
plant is due on stream in 2015. A

CompressorTechTwo

Hoerbiger.indd 2

4/26/12 9:09 AM

Industry News CompressorTechTwo

Tenneco

Capstone

Timothy Jackson has been appointed executive vice president, technology, strategy and business development
at Tenneco Inc.
Jackson
had
previously served
as the companys
chief
technical
officer, a post
he held since
2007, where he
served a key role
in the companys
development of
commercial dieT. Jackson
sel after-treatment
technologies.
Jackson joined Tenneco in 1999 and
has served in a number of roles including senior vice president, global
technology and managing director,
Asia Pacific; senior vice president,
global technology and manufacturing; and senior vice president, North
America original equipment business.

Capstone Turbine Corp. has received

orders totaling 13,400 hp (10 MW) from
two oil and gas producers in the Eagle
Ford shale play of southern Texas, U.S.A.
The orders came from a new customer who requested five C1000 power
packages for five separate remote central
gathering sites and from a producer with
multiple Capstone microturbines already
in the field. This latest follow-on order
includes seven C600 packages and one
C800 power package.
Capstone distributor Horizon Power
Systems secured the two large orders,
which are for 13 power packages set
to supply prime power at each central gathering site. All 13 of the power packages are scheduled to be installed and commissioned in the next
three months.
All 13 C1000 series microturbine
packages will provide prime power
to central processing facilities and
metering stations. The microturbines,
fueled by pipeline gas, will produce

May 2012

19

electricity to power the onsite equipment, including heaters, pump

motors, compressors and distribution panels.

Johnson Matthey
Johnson Matthey has appointed
Rita Aiello and Kevin F. Doura as staff
scientists for the companys Stationary Emissions Control (SEC) group.
They will be responsible for the design, development and technical support of catalyst and catalytic systems
for controlling emissions from IC engines, gas turbines and manufacturing processes.
Aiello previously was a development and applications scientist in
Johnson Mattheys Environmental
Products group. Doura was a graduate research assistant at Lehigh
University. He previously was with
ExxonMobil Research & Engineering
Co., as both a lubricant and a fuel
research engineer.

continued on page 68

CompressorTechTwo

PREDICTION OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATION FOR TEST,
SURGE PROTECTION AND MACHINERY DIAGNOSTIC
A new software, Cmap, developed by IPC, is a tool for PC windows based design to
perform centrifugal compressor performance evaluations easily and quickly
By Antonio Di Febo, Massimiliano Di Febo, Paganini Pasquale, Antonio Pedone and Gaetano Esposito
INTRODUCTION
One of the main difficulties with centrifugal compressor
operative performance analysis comes from the usually expected performances are described in graphic terms. These
include discharge pressure, discharge temperature, polytrophic head, efficiencies and absorbed power, related to the

design inlet gas conditions, i.e. gas mix composition, inlet

pressure and temperature. However, actual compressor performance is strictly related to actual field inlet gas conditions
that often are different from design conditions. The comparison of field measurements to expected values become
complicated because the expected performances needs to be
adjusted to the actual suction field conditions.
The main purpose of this article is to present a method
and tools for centrifugal compressor field performance evaluation and comparison to expected design performance.
Furthermore, three case studies will be presented, where the
method has been applied, for diagnostic purposes, as well
as for machine protection. The execution of this evaluation
is quite complex and requires calculation algorithms able
to predict both machine behavior and thermodynamic gas
properties under different operative conditions.
The current practice is based on simplified theories. Often
also these theories are completely neglected at plant/machine
level, causing a lack of analytical support capability for evaluation of machine health and performance and a consequent
lack of support for maintenance decision making. Moreover
these simplified theories become progressively more approximate, especially when approaching the high pressure range
where errors introduced do not provide enough accurate
predictions for more severe applications. In these cases more
rigorous calculations and adequate computational tools are
necessary to implement the most modern thermodynamic theories and machine models without limiting approximations.
In order to execute this type of analysis, IPC research lab
has developed a dedicated software tool based on most recent gas theories and centrifugal machine models.
Cmap is a software tool for PC windows based design to
perform centrifugal compressors performance evaluations
easily and quickly. Cmap has been built in order to provide
centrifugal compressor analysts or industry users, a powerful
and easy tool to predict machine performance under different
operating conditions.
Cmap also enables some additional tasks useful to compare
centrifugal compressor expected/design performance with measured field data. Analysts and engineers that use Cmap will have
all quantitative information about machine status necessary to
develop diagnostic strategies and maintenance activities.

Antonio Di Febo is senior consultant for IPC S.r.l. He holds an

Instruments engineering diploma and several USA masters on electronic instrumentation and control systems. He has more than 40
years experience on product development (electronics, instruments,
mechanical devices, valves) engineering, manufacturing, installation and service developed with leader companies (GE, Nuovo
Pignone, ENI). He directed many important installations in power
and compressor stations for Nuovo Pignone and GE.
He held many training programs for industry instrumentation distributed control systems, process machinery for EMIT LAS Feltrinelli
Institute. He has published papers in Nuovo Pignones house organ,
Quaderni Pignone. Gaetano Esposito is Engineer Consultant for
IPC S.r.l. He received his B.Sc. in Aerospace Engineering at Politecnico di Milano and finished his Ph.D. in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the University of Virginia, (UVa) U.S.A. During his Ph.D. he worked on reduction, sensitivity and uncertainty
analysis of detailed chemical kinetic models for hydrocarbons. He
currently works as a Research Associate at UVa where, in addition
to his continuing effort in addressing the uncertainties of chemical
and molecular transport models, he is developing new strategies for
distributed energy production systems. Additional research interests
include CFD modeling, soot formation analysis, and model optimization. Gaetano has published several research papers in peerreviewed and conference proceedings journals. Pasquale Paganini
is Technical Manager for IPC S.r.l. He holds a master degree in
Mechanical Engineering and specializes in Thermodynamic and
Energetic Systems. He is a registered Professional Engineer in the
province of Bari. He has more than 10 years experience in Automotive Industries (testing, instrumentation, manufacturing and Quality control, specifications and application IPC. Antonio Pedone is
Engineer Consultant for IPC S.r.l. In 2009 he obtained a masters
degree in Informatics Engineering. He is a registered Professional
Engineer in province of Bari. He participated in research activities with Politecnico di Bari also publishing Technical Academic
papers. He specializes in software design and development using
.NET framework and J2EE. Massimiliano Di Febo is Operations
Manager for IPC S.r.l. he holds a masters degree in mechanical engineering and is a registered Professional Engineer in the province
of Bari. He has more than 10 years of professional background
with significant experience in centrifugal pump testing, GE Nuovo
Pignone specifications, applications, installations, diagnostic and
maintenance for IPC. In addition, he has many years of experience
in machinery vibration diagnostics and rotating machinery field
performance. He has held many training programs in industry
instrumentation and distributed control systems.
May 2012

METHOD
The purpose of this section is to provide a simple explanation of the calculation process used to evaluate compressor
performance. As a starting point we can consider that, for a
continued on page 24
22

CompressorTechTwo

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centrifugal compressor, performance is strictly linked to the

inlet gas conditions. This consideration is valid both to the
design performances as for the actual field performance.
Figure 1. Compressor performance map
is valid for specified conditions.

An important observation is that,

in general, performance referenced to different inlet conditions
cannot be compared. In order to
compare performance obtained
under different inlet conditions,
a necessary step is to adjust and
align performance to the same
reference inlet conditions.

Figure 4. Design performance, adjusted to actual (field/test) performance, can be used as reference for measured performance evaluation.

SOFTWARE
This section describes how to apply the software tool. In order
to use Cmap, the starting point is the availability of a centrifugal
compressor performance curve, the relevant gas mix composition and thermodynamic conditions (pressure and temperature).
Having these input data available, the software will perform all
complex calculation in fully automated way and will produce
the expected compressor performances for inlet pressures, inlet
temperatures and gas mix compositions different from design
reference parameters. The software is easy and intuitive, and
also will provide automatic storage of data in a project archive
for quick consultation and historic trends. Cmap is structured
to enable analysts and engineers to build their own machinery
database and to maintain records of all executed calculations.
Consider the case of availability of centrifugal compressor performance parameters (pressures and temperatures).

Figure 2. Compressor performances can be compared when/if done

with the same inlet conditions.

When attempting to evaluate performance by comparing

field measured parameters with expected parameters, the
special trick is to remember that one of the two performances needs to be manipulated and adjusted to the inlet conditions of the second one. In brief, inlet conditions need to be
homogeneous. (see below sketch for concept flow)
In order to proceed to performance evaluation comparison weve applied this method in the following steps: Step
1, expected performance related to design inlet conditions
have been adjusted to field suction conditions. Step 2, field
performance is compared to adjusted expected performance.

Figure 5. Typical centrifugal compressor performance curve (discharge

pressure vs inlet flow) for a fixed speed.

Figure 3. Schematic flow diagram for compressor performance calculations.

Figure 6. Typical centrifugal compressor performance curve (discharge
temperature vs inlet flow) for a fixed speed.

At this point we can proceed to the comparison of expected performance to field performance being both referenced
to the same inlet conditions.
May 2012

continued on page 26
24

CompressorTechTwo

After this first calculation step a performance analysis can

be run that allows comparing field measured data with expected data. This task is useful to the analyst in order to
obtain a quantitative evaluation of the compressor running
status. Performance analysis provides precious information
useful for predictive diagnostic evaluation.

Figure 7. Inlet conditions for centrifugal compressor performance.

The input process offers many alternative ways to set up

compressor reference data. The most common way is to enter performance curves expressed in terms of delivery pressure vs inlet flow rate, and delivery temperature vs inlet flow
rate. As alternative, when available, it is possible to input
directly non dimensional data.
Data input process can be digitally executed also, picking data graphically directly on pdf or jpeg files. In order to
complete the data input process input of the selected gas
mix composition, pressure and temperature.
Figure 11. Software analysis tool calculation (screenshot).

CASE STUDIES
In the following paragraphs, three real cases will be presented. In each one, the compressor under study was running under off design inlet conditions, and an analysis with
the presented method enables obtaining a performance evaluation and comparison to design values.
Case Study 1: Performance prediction check by comparison to
manufacturers maps.
Figure 8. Compressor performance map digitization process (screenshot).

In this case study, centrifugal compressor performance

map for two different inlet conditions of pressure and temperature were available, as shown in the following table.

Once finished the project set up, the software has all necessary data to perform calculations. The following step is
then to launch the calculation task. To execute this task,
only a few seconds are needed to input the new gas mix,
and launch the calculation for new inlet pressures an temperatures. When requested the run task also will execute
calculations for polytrophic head and efficiency.

D1: Design 1 Condition

D2: Design 2 Condition

Discharge pressures and temperatures

map for different running speeds
Efficiency and polytropic head map for
different running speeds.

Discharge pressures and temperatures

map for different running speeds
Efficiency and polytropic head map for
different running speeds.

Gas Mixture 1

Gas Mixture 1

Pressure 1: 40.2 bara

Pressure 2: 53.2 bara

Temperature 1: 50C

Temperature 2: 37.8C

Table 1

Starting from the curves of the D1 condition, the expected

performance curves in the D2 condition have been calculated using the software Cmap. The resulting curves, D2calc, have been
compared to the D2 curves available as input. The following figures compare the D2calc (x points), obtained with the software
Cmap, versus D2 (continuous line) performance curves.

Figure 9. Software calculation output (performance map screenshot).

Once calculations are completed, the software will respond, displaying the new compressor performances map.

Figure 12. Centrifugal compressor design performance compared to

calculated performance (discharge pressure).

Figure 10. Software calculation output (performance map screenshot).

May 2012

continued on page 28
26

CompressorTechTwo

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With the installed field instrumentation the following parameters can be measured: ambient pressure, flow orifice
differential pressure, suction pressure, suction temperature,
discharge pressure, discharge temperature, speed, absorbed
current. Furthermore, in order to provide a complete reference for measured performance, also, necessary is to specify
the operating gas mix composition.
Design performances
Figure 13. Centrifugal compressor design performance compared to
calculated performances (discharge temperature).

In order to provide an evaluation of field performance, an

important necessity is to have reference performance obtained
with design inlet conditions. In these case studies, the following
design performance graphs were available as reference data.
Discharge pressure vs suction flow

Figure 14. Centrifugal compressor design performance compared to

calculated performances (polytropic efficiency).

Figure 17. Case Study 2: Compressor design performance curve.

Polytropic head and efficiency curves

Figure 15. Centrifugal compressor design performance compared to

calculated performance (polytropic work).

In the previous figures. note how the curves almost overlap; the maximum error calculated is less than 0.2 % (polytropic work at maximum speed). Measured errors have been
considered tolerable for the purpose of the evaluation of
compressor field performance. This case study confirms the
capability of the proposed method to predict compressor
performances aligned with design performance.

Figure 18. Case Study 2: Compressor design performance curve.

Case Study 2: Field Test

Design reference
inlet conditions:
Design gas mix
Inlet pressure: 3.3 bara
Inlet temperature: 21 C
Speed: 22401 rpm.

This second case study is aimed at evaluating compressor

field performance when operating with inlet conditions different
from design conditions.
Test layout

Design Gas analysis

In the following figure there is a sketch of the test loop that

indicates the position and types of installed instrumentation.

Gas mix composition has been provided

through a gas analysis:
Test performances
From installed measuring devices, the following test data have
been obtained:
Table 2

Figure 16. Test loop sketch.

May 2012

Symbol
H2O
CO2
N2
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
i-C4H10
n-C4H10
i-C5H12
n-C5H12
C9H20
C7H16
C8H18
C10H22
Total

Design gas mix

% mol
0.83
1.33
0.93
51.58
15.33
15.62
3.56
6.82
1.88
1.30
0.57
0.18
0.06
0.01
100

M (g/mole)

30.09

continued on page 30
28

CompressorTechTwo

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Test Point

Mix
p amb
n
p1
T1
p2

mbar a
RPM
bar a
C
bar a

Test Gas Mix

1003,6
22401
3,76
25,22
10,52

T2
I

C
A

112
52.0

Differential Pressure

bar

0.168

Table 3

Test gas analysis

During the test, a sample of the operative gas mix has
been analyzed with the following results:
Symbol
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Ethane
Propane
i-butane
n-butane
i-pentane
n-pentane
Hexanes (C6)
Heptane (C7)
Benzene
Octanes (C8)
Toluene
Nonanes (C9)
Decanes (C10)
Undecanes (C11)
Dodecanes (C12)
Total

Test gas mix

% mol
0.710
0.499
63.696
17.277
11.367
1.185
3.225
0.577
0.692
0.390
0.212
0.017
0.090
0.010
0.031
0.011
0.006
0.005
100

M (g/mole)

25.07

Figure 19. Field measured performance superimposed on expected

compressor performance curves.

Note on suction flow

The flow calculation has been developed by IPC software
for orifice calculation according to ISO 5167-2.
For the test point A, the flow rate corresponding to the ?p
reading (0.168 bar) is:

Notes on Temperature readings

Table 4

Temperature readings seem to be a little bit lower than the

effective discharge temperature. This fact could be caused
by the discharge temperature sensor design. It introduces an
error that could cause temperature underestimation of about
3-4 degrees. This is a very important observation that needs
to be investigated correctly in order to develop more reliable
industrial temperature sensors for performance test purposes.
In this case study a corrected discharge temperature of about
112C has been considered and consequent compressor calculations give a polytropic efficiency of 63% and a polytropic
head of 11,627 m aligned with expected performances.

Test point A analysis

Notes on Absorbed power

Using the data measured during the test point A, the following performances have been calculated:

With reference to the table 3, calculating the electrical absorbed power using the line current measured value:

Calculated Values

Table 5.

Test point A

Inlet density

kg/m

3,86

Q (*)

m3/h

2141

Hp

11536

etap

63.0

Pw (gasdyn)

kW

409

Considering the measured thermodynamic parameters,

calculating the gas dynamic absorbed power:

(*) see note (1) on calculated suction flow.

Considering the electrical motor efficiency at 98%, and assuming

the mechanical and volumetric compressor efficiency at 99%:

Performances test evaluation and comparison to expected

At this point superimposing the measured and calculated values to the design performances adjusted to inlet
test conditions is possible. The estimated operative point
is then reported in the following plots.
May 2012

continued on page 32
30

CompressorTechTwo

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KIENE INDICATOR VALVES

FOR COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS

The electrical power value calculated through the line

current is then very near to the electrical absorbed power
calculated through compressor performance.
Final comments
The analysis preformed indicates that the compressor is
working with performance aligned with the expected performance. The compressor efficiency, in the test point, A
is about 63% and is congruent with the design efficiency
adjusted to test conditions. The compressor delivery pressure and polytropic head also are aligned with expected
design values.

FOR MAXIMUM ACCURACY, KIENES NEW FULL-OPENING

CV-70 SERIES INDICATOR VALVES PROVIDE THESE FEATURES:

This case study shows that the centrifugal compressor performance analysis tool can support the evaluation
of field compressor operating conditions also providing
a quantitative indication of the machines health status,
through the evaluation of field performanc and comparison to expected performance.

Large, Straight-Through flow path minimizes channel resonance

and maximizes accuracy.

Compact design is safe no need for separate nipples or

adapters.

Vent Valve safely relieves pressure prior to removing transducer.

2000 PSI, 250 (F) capacity.
Quarter-turn for fast operation

Case Study 3: Anti-surge protection and diagnostics

An important application of these proposed methods is
with surge protection systems and for diagnostic purposes.
Surge consists of a rapid oscillation of the mass flow,
intensified by the compressor, accompanied by a characteristic noise and high vibrations. A surge is an abnormal
operative condition, that can have a destructive nature, and
could cause, when the machine remains in this condition
without adequate protection, damage or failure of the compressor. Consequently, the operator, of necessity, must be
able to diagnose quickly eventual incoming surge conditions in order to take the appropriate actions and without
incurring conservative reductions of the operating range.
Actually, the state-of-the-art for anti-surge systems provides protection action consisting of opening, either partially or totally, a special control valve located on a line
that recycles the cooled gas from the discharge to the
compressor suction. In this way, the control system reduces the overall resistance and increases the flow, moving the compressor operating point to the right of the
characteristic curve corresponding to the operating speed.
Figure 20 shows an example of characteristic curves of a
compressor, drawn on a plan having as axes the volume
flow rate and the discharge pressure. Also shown in Figure 20 is the surge area. (SSL). Figure 21 shows a typical
plant layout with a suction recirculation line that includes
a recycle control valve (anti-surge valve).

Safety Locking Handle option is also available

THE CV-SERIES INDICATOR VALVES ARE DESIGNED SPECIFICALLY FOR COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS.
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May 2012

Figure 20. Example of characteristic curves of a compressor, drawn on

a plan having as axes the volume flow rate and the discharge pressure
also showing the surge area (SSL).

continued on page 34
32

CompressorTechTwo

lube field services

The CPI lubrication group field service teams have the advantage of
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on site system analysis and troubleshooting

Our field service teams can solve any hard to isolate or recurring problems with
your compressor. Down time is lost money and to minimize it, engineers will do a
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The technical team also provides support by phone or email 24 hours a day.

protecting compressors worldwide

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30 years experience in the Oil & Gas

and always at the forefront of innovation
S2M, an SKF Group Company, is the world leader in the
design, manufature and supply of Active Magnetic Bearings
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Magnetic bearing technology, originally derivative from space
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These machines are used in much diversified environments
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Figure 21. Typical plant layout with a suction recirculation line that includes a re-cycle control valve (anti-surge valve).

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S2M.indd 1

IDEAL ANALYZER TO MEASURE 4/16/12

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May 2012

Actual centrifugal compressor protection systems are based

on simplified algorithms that use basically the inlet flow, suction
and discharge pressures and temperatures. These actual algorithms, are based on a basic surge locus equation obtained under simplified hypothesis such as the ideal gas law, validity of
9:59hydraulic
AM
affinity laws, reference gas mix and inlet conditions.
These algorithms are, consequently, completly dependent on the suction thermodynamic parameters (pressure,
temperature and gas mix composition). The protection
action is then rigidly linked to design suction parameters
and remains valid only for the design specified gas mix.
Consequently, these systems provide a limited surge protection valid within a small operative range around the
design conditions. Compressor protection is not correctly
active when inlet conditions move to off design values,
especially with sensible changes of gas mix composition.
Consequently, the protection of these algorithms is partial
and limited. When the compressor is operated outside
the design conditions, the protection action may become
inefficient and potentially can damage the compressor.
Many cases of catastophic compressor failures can be
pointed out that are cause by antisurge systems lack of protection. This is because they are technically dependent on
the gas mixture and on the thermodynamic suction conditions (temperature and pressure). The characteristic curves
in Figure 20 are, infact, valid only for certain inlet gas conditions, and vary in complex ways as functions of pressure,
temperature and gas mixture composition. The proposed
method for prediction of centrifugal performaces can be
profitably used to predict centrifugal compressor overall performances in all inlet conditions and then to detect surge
points in all operating conditions. IPC has embedded thermodynamic and compressor symulation algorithms in a new
advanced anti-surge sytem, aimed to obtain an integrated
control system able to provide overall protection.
These innovative antisurge systems will enable overcoming
continued on page 36
34

CompressorTechTwo

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Figure 22. Innovative anti-surge protection system architecture.

the actual protection system limitations and achieve optimal surge protection in every operating condition. Protection also will be effective in cases of gas molecular weight
changes. In fact, in these cases, surge points will be detected
without approximations or simplifying assumptions, but taking advantage of most recent theories for real gases and thermodynamic modeling of compressors presently available.
Application of these proposed methods provides a new
kind of diagnostic capabilities as well. The software is able to
automatically store data and to provide a real time indication
of the compressor efficiency and comparison with expected
data. This is a powerfull feature that provides continuous
indication about how much the machine behaviour is alligned with design expectations. These evaluations then can
be used for historic trends and to build records of the machine status during its operating period. Collected data will
be useful to support predictive maintenance decisions and
operating plans.

ACI.indd 1

CONCLUSIONS
Methods proposed and described in this article can be used
to: 1. Predict the performances of a centrifugal compressor under
varying thermodynamic conditions of the inlet gas. The prediction
of compressor performances is accurate even at high pressures,
where the ideal gas theory commonly used introduces considerable errors. 2. Analyze the performance of the compressors during
operation and compare them with expected data provided by
the manufacturer. 3. Implement advanced protection from surge,
overcoming limits of the current technology. 4. Provide useful
indications of the health of the compressor (diagnostics) based
on the capability to analyze the performance and efficiency of the
machine in a simple and immediate way. 5. Support decisions and
planning of predictive maintenance and activities. 6. The methods
and software tools presented have been validated by comparison
with much compressor technical data, and are in agreement with
all the available scientific papers on thermodynamic gas theories
developed in the hydrocarbon research field. A

6/21/11 11:01 AM

This diagram shows the turbine engine cycle of a small gas turbine.

Turbines Have Bright Future

In Shale Gas
Small gas turbines are beginning
to be used in shale gas operations
By Doug Balzter and Jim Watts

Americas energy future is a complex

recipe of technology, resources, innovation and solutions, and it is clear that
natural gas is one of the vital ingredients.
Over the next 20 years, energy consumption in the U.S. is expected to increase by 20%, with demand for natural
gas alone expected to rise 16%. Given
the need for low-carbon and lower emission energy sources, the role of natural
gas becomes absolutely critical.
An ideal future is one that is based
on a framework of energy independence. At the same time, it is also essential to continue to build in flexibility and maximize efficiency. In order to
capitalize on the opportunities recent
shale gas discoveries present, we need
technology solutions that are able to
function under a variety of conditions.
The vast majority of shale gas operations use practices and technologies that
Doug Baltzer is the Regional Sales Manager of the Rockies and Mid-West territories
and Jim Watts is the Director of Product
Management at FlexEnergy Inc.
may 2012

are becoming outdated and inefficient,

even though tested and well thought out
solutions exist. These solutions can help
facilities lower their operating costs and
tap into a wider range of fuels.
For example, these operations often
use reciprocating engine technology
to power their remote facilities. Such
technologies require special configuration to run on gas mixtures with less
than 65% methane and typically are
limited to a range of 800-1200 Btu/scf.
Ironically, many businesses involved
in hydraulic fracturing will haul in diesel engines and generators to run their
operations, rather than using the raw
gases theyre already extracting from
the wellhead.
These extracted raw gases are generally composed of more than just methane gas. They can include higher order
hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane,
butane, etc. plus other contaminants
such as hydrogen sulfide or water.
This mix of hydrocarbons and contaminants can all reduce the efficiencies of generation technology that
38

might otherwise use the gases as a

fuel source. In some cases, even trace
amounts of byproducts will shut down
machinery. Fuel cells, for instance
one of the more recent developments
in electricity generation cant tolerate any amount of hydrogen sulfide
and typically require a very pure mixture of natural gas to operate.
There is, however, a class of turbines
that can take on the heavier hydrocarbon component fuels. Small gas turbines, typically configured in a range
from 30 kW to over 1 MW, can accept
fuel gases with energy content in the
range of 300 to 2300 Btu/scf and do so
at industry-low emission levels. They
can also more readily tolerate contaminants like hydrogen sulfide. Thus they
are creating a new breed of combustion
one of efficiency, flexibility and environmental awareness all wrapped up
in a 95 sq. ft. (8.8 m2) package.
Small gas turbines are relatively new
in being used to run shale gas operations. Previously, they had been used
for running secondary systems, such
as small electronics. Now, gas turbines
are starting to be looked at as a source
that can drive full operations. Because
of this, its market potential is still relatively unknown. It does have the prospective to be very large.
The change in the technologys outlook has evolved in part because of
its modular design and ease of connectivity. No matter what a locations
power needs, small gas turbines can
be stacked together to produce energy
anywhere up into the high megawatts.
The device can also be plugged into
almost any situation; all it needs is a
flat surface and a connection into the
facilitys gas pipeline.
Gas does need to be maintained in
a dry state (70 psi [4.8 bar] or greater),
but for the rare operations that cant
meet this, there are scrubbing and water knockout options. In effect, its a
technology flexible enough to work in
almost any environment; which, when
you look at the variety of environments shale gas facilities run in, is an
absolute necessity.
At its Bakersfield, California, U.S.A.,
facility, E&B Natural Resources is currently running on a 1 MW gas turbine
system. The system uses four integrated
Flex Turbine MT250s, provided by FlexEnergy. This independent domestic oil
producer faced a number of issues with
its high amount of associated gas, a byproduct of drilling deep into the ground.
The methane-rich associated gas
required additional handling due
to its greenhouse gas potential. Additionally, because the facility was
located in a nonattainment zone,
where air pollutants are more preva-

CompressorTechTwo

A FlexEnergy MT250, like this

one, was used by E&B Natural Resources at Bakersfield,
California, U.S.A.

shale wells have been drilled around

the country, each with their own
unique environments, challenges and
returns. These are all operations that
can use their own product and byproducts to power their entire facility.
Flexibility is the key to the future
of power generation. With greater
ranges, more varied environments
and more independent systems, we
can unlock a larger national energy
potential. For shale gas operators,
this is tremendous news considering
the right technology can take the entire operation off the grid. A

lent, the environmental regulations

it faced were even stricter. Another
consideration was the high amount
of energy E&B Natural Resources
used at its facility, regularly exposing
it to utility rate increases.
The gas turbines installed at the Bakersfield facility reduced its utility spending while burning the gas through low
NOx turbines. The gas turbines low
emission levels allowed the facility to
meet some of the strictest air emissions
regulations in the United States. The turbines also kept the company from having to manage its methane through flaring or reinjection, which are both costs
with no operational gain.
Instead, the turbine used methane
to produce onsite power to offset
US$600,000 per year in electricity costs.
The onsite load consists of pumps and
motors that are critical to safely and effectively drilling within the companys
operations. Since its installation in May
2009, the turbines have operated for
over 15,000 hr. with a continuous and
reliable electricity feed to the facility.
An advantage of the gas turbine is
its lower maintenance intensity. While
a standard combustion engine typically
needs maintenance every few hundred
hours, turbines have maintenance
schedules of once or twice per year.
Gas turbines can also be used to
provide combined heat and power
(CHP). While some shale gas or oil
operations do not need any additional
process heat, colder environments,
oils and gases with other byproducts
and wastewater evaporation require it.
Even with engine exhaust heat available, other generating technologies necessitate additional heat to be captured
from water jackets or oil subsystems.
Gas turbine exhaust is also a clean
and high quality source of direct heat
and is available to be used in that form
directly by an operations processes.
This can mean significantly less investment in additional equipment or secondary processes to gain a constant
stream of useful heat.
In the past 10 years, over 20,000
may 2012

39
BS_Services.indd 1

CompressorTechTwo
2/16/12 3:57 PM

RecipRocating coMpReSSion

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Ingersoll Rand Industrial Technologies

Throttle Limit or MinLoad Control

This chart shows the incremental energy savings

achieved with Ambient Head Control.

Head Control Basics

Discharge Pressure

CMC Ambient (Head) Control

CMC Limit Amp or MP3 Control

E/P Control

Capacity (cfm)

Power $

Blowoff Valve Opens

Theoretical Surge Line
Compressor Curve
Savings

Constant Pressure
Capacity (cfm)

Automated control upgrade improves

LNG plants operation
Ingersoll Rands Ambient Head Control prevents compressor surge
By Nathan Ellis, Ingersoll Rand Co.
Clean Energy Fuels Corp. is a leading provider of compressed natural
gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas
(LNG) for the North American transportation industry.
It fuels more than 25,000 vehicles per
day at 273 locations across the United
States and Canada, including 27 of the
nations largest airports. Clean Energy,
owned by oil and natural gas entrepreneur T. Boone Pickens, operates LNG
production plants located in Willis,
Texas, and Boron, California, U.S.A.
In locations where pipeline gas is
unavailable for compression, it is cost
effective for LNG plants like Clean
Energy to liquefy natural gas, store
it in a cryogenic vessel and transport it
to a distribution center. The LNG can
then be regasified and used in vehicles.
In 2009, Clean Energy selected Ingersoll Rand to design and manufacture two 5000 hp (3.7 MW) centrifugal
air compressors for its Boron plant,
which supplies LNG for the clean
truck programs at the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach and the Greater
Southwest LNG Trucking Corridor.
Nathan Ellis is Ingersoll Rands western region sales manager for engineered products.
He is based in Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.
May 2012

Ingersoll Rand is known for its industrial tools, complete compressed

air systems and material and fluid
handling products. It has built thousands of centrifugal air compressors
for the industrial, nitrogen and process industries.
This natural gas application presented some unique challenges. The compressors were designed for an inlet
pressure of about 88 psia (6 bar) and a
discharge pressure of 425 psia (29 bar).
As the turbo expanders were engaged
during the initial start-up process, the
inlet pressure to the first stage of the
compressors dramatically dropped.
The inlet guide vanes opened rapidly,
causing an oscillating event that sent
the machine into surge.
Closer monitoring revealed that the
centrifugal machine also throttled back
when it reached full load, and unloaded
as it approached minimum load. This
is a closed-loop process, where the
bypassed gas is discharged back to
the inlet of the compressor so it is not
released into the atmosphere, and the
compressors rapid loading and unloading surged the machine.
The Ingersoll Rand engineers and
Clean Energy plant managers agreed
that the large variance of the inlet
42

pressure was the biggest obstacle they

had to overcome.
Ingersoll Rand evaluated several
scenarios to determine the best course
of action. One possible solution was
to install very expensive valves for
the inlet and bypass applications, in
hopes that a faster reaction time would
be able to compensate for the large
changes in inlet pressure. However,
Ingersoll Rand was able to identify a
more cost-effective approach.
The compressors original standard
control scheme used Limit Amp Control
to keep the machine operating within
its motors nominal rating and prevent it
from approaching its throttle surge. This
type of control is commonly used in air
compressors and is effective for most
applications, but it was a hindrance in
this closed loop, booster system. Ingersoll Rand Engineered Products Control
Manager Curt Perry suggested Ambient
Head Control as a possible solution.
Ambient Head Control is better suited
to control a machine with varying suction pressure than Limit Amp Control
because the surge line is determined by
the head value instead of motor amps.
Perry explained, Head is proportional
to temperature compensated compression ratio. Head is approximately T1(P2/

CompressorTechTwo

P1), or temperature into a stage times

pressure ratio across the stage. Surge is
essentially a constant for a centrifugal
hardware configuration, so once we determine the value of head at the surge
point, we can set the surge control loop
to operate the compressor a safe distance
away from surge using just the operating
head value as the control variable.
Simply stated, the Ambient Head
Control uses inlet temperature and
compression ratios throughout the three
stages to determine changing operating
conditions. Then, it adjusts the inlet
valve and bypass valve accordingly to
keep the machine out of surge. Ambient Head Control can react and adjust
for changing inlet temperature and
pressure conditions, while Limit Amp
Control does not have this flexibility.
Ingersoll Rand said Ambient Head
Control is also affordable and easy to
install. It is basically a software algorithm that runs within the compressor
control panels microprocessor. It monitors temperature and pressure readings
from sensors that are standard on the
machines, so no additional external instrumentation or hardware was required.
Technicians were able to install the
software on the existing compressor
and customize the machinery for the
natural gas application.
Ambient Head Control gives us more
software tools to use in setting up a ma-

chine versus our standard Limit Amp

Control, said Ingersoll Rand Engineered
Products Master Controls Technician
Robert Sanders. For example, Ambient
Head software contains a bypass valve
characterization function which allows
us to eliminate the bypass valve windup,
providing much tighter pressure control in the minimum load state. Ambient
Head Control also has an enhanced error
calculation which allows us to set the machine up to run closer to the surge line.
The chart shows the incremental energy savings achieved with Ambient
Head Control. The red points along the
constant pressure line indicate the point
of valve blow off for electropnuematic
control, Limit Amp Control and Ambient Head Control. The Ambient Head
Control is able to operate much closer to the theoretical surge line which
avoids significant blow-off. Ambient
Head Control also recalculates theoretical surge limit and adjusts the point of
blow-off accordingly.
The Ambient Head Control upgrade
was able to turn these compressor units
into completely different machines, said
Ingersoll Rand Master Field Technician
John Elmore. Now, we have stability
throughout the startup process and at
full load conditions, giving Clean Energy
a more efficient, more reliable system.
On-time plant operation was critical to
Clean Energys introduction to the Cali-

SEE DIRECTLINK AT WWW.COMPRESSORTECH2.COM

fornia market, and the client was pleased

with the custom control solution defined
by the engineers at Ingersoll Rand.
They were able to quickly provide
a resolution that not only worked, but
eliminated the time and cost associated
with upgrading the mechanical components in the system, said Koby Knight,
assistant vice president for LNG production and rail at Clean Energy. They
did not propose a short-term fix, but a
viable long-term solution that we were
able to quickly implement.
The Ambient Head Control decreased
the compressors minimum load motor
current by about 35%, extending the
life of the system. The control also decreased Clean Energys electrical usage
by 3 to 5%, depending on the amount
of time that the compressor runs in a
throttled condition. If the plant operates
in a condition where Ambient Head
Control prevents blowoff, then the savings will be substantially more.
Limit Amp Control should not be
used where inlet pressures vary considerably in centrifugal applications.
A control system that monitors the internal conditions, calculates changing
surge limits and adjusts accordingly
should be applied. This will help the
unit operate in a wider range without
loading and unloading, which will prevent wear and tear and help the system run more reliably. A

These valve sealing elements were made

from carbon PEEK.

Demand Growing for Carbon-Reinforced

PEEK Valve Plates

KB Delta notes impressive results in high temperature environments

By Alex DeCarlo, KB Delta Inc.
A new valve sealing material, 30%
carbon fiber reinforced poly ether ether
keytone (PEEK), has begun to appear in
valve repair shops across North America.

In field tests, the properties have shown

improved results compared to glass fiber
reinforced thermoplastic plate materials.
Carbon reinforced fibers have been

Alex DeCarlo is vice president of manufacturing and operations at KB Delta Inc. A mechanical engineer, she joined KB Delta in 2005 to lead the launch of the companys injection
molding and thermoplastic valve sealing element manufacturing operations. KB Delta stocks
over a dozen thermoplastic valve plate materials and is an industry leader in aftermarket
manufacturing of precision profiled plates and rings.

used for plastic reinforcement since

1963, but only recently have shown up
in valve plate materials.
KB Delta, based in Torrance, California, U.S.A., is a major supplier of
compressor valve replacement parts.
It has been distributing the carbonreinforced plates in international markets for the past three years.
continued on page 46

30% Carbon Fiber PEEK

30% Glass Fiber PEEK

Property (Test method)

U.S. Units (SI Units)

U.S. Units (SI Units)

Tensile Strength (ISO 527)

Break @ 74F (23C)
Break @ 266F (130C)
Break @ 482F (250C)

35,000 psi (240 MPa)

19,000 psi (130 MPa)
9,400 psi (65 MPa)

26,000 psi (180 MPa)

14,000 psi (98 MPa)
5,000 psi (35 MPa)

Tensile Modulus (ISO 527)

3,600,000 psi (25,000 MPa)

1,700,000 psi (11,800 Mpa)

Measures a materials ability to

resist deformation under tensile
load. The higher the value, the stiffer
the material.

Tensile elongation at break

(ISO 527) @74F (23C)

1.7%

2.7%

Percent of part deformation under

tensile (pulling) load at break.

Flexural strength
(ISO 178) @74F (23C)

50,000 psi (350 MPa)

40,000 psi (270 MPa)

Bending force per unit area needed

to break the part.

may 2012

44

Meaning/Significance
The tensile (pulling) force per unit
area needed to break the part at
various temperatures.

CompressorTechTwo

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30% Carbon Fiber PEEK

Flexural modulus
(ISO 178) @74F (23C)

30% Glass Fiber PEEK

Measures a materials ability to
resist deformation under flexural
load. The higher the value, the stiffer
the material.

3,300,000 psi (23,000 MPa)

1,630,000 psi (11,300 MPa)

Charpy impact (ISO 179) @74F

(23C) Notched (0.25 mm notch)
Unnotched

3.0 ft-lb/in2 (6.4 kJ/m2)

21 ft-lb/in2 (45 kJ/m2)

3.8 ft-lb/in2 (8.0 kJ/m2)

25 ft-lb/in2 (53 kJ/m2)

Izod impact (ISO 180) @74F

(23C) Notched (0.25 mm notch)
Unnotched

3.8 ft-lb/in2 (8.0 kJ/m2)

19 ft-lb/in2 (40 kJ/m2)

4.8 ft-lb/in2 (10 kJ/m2)

28 ft-lb/in2 (60 kJ/m2)

Heat deflection temperature

(ISO 75-A) @ 261 psi. (1.8 MPa)

637F (336C)

622F (328C)

The temperature at which a test bar,

loaded at 264 psi deflects by 0.010
inch.

Thermal conductivity (ASTM C177)

0.92 Btu-in/hr ft2 F

(0.11 Kcal/hr meter C)

0.43 Btu-in/hr ft2 F

(.053 Kcal/hr meter C)

Higher thermal conductivity means

faster heat dissipation

Specific gravity (ASTM D 792)

1.40

1.51

Density relative to water at 1.0

Impact tests measure toughness,

or how much energy a sample can
absorb before it breaks. Lower
values mean that CA PEEK is more
brittle at room temperature.

Table 1: Mechanical and physical properties of 30% carbon fiber reinforced PEEK and 30% glass fiber reinforced PEEK.

Although it is more expensive, the

30% carbon-reinforced PEEK is replacing glass filled PEEK and stainless steel for valve plates in many applications because of its properties.
Carbon PEEK is almost black while
30% glass-fiber reinforced PEEK (glass
PEEK) is a light tan or brown. Both
use PEEK as the base resin, resulting in valve plates that: resist hightemperature environments; withstand
a wide range of acids, bases, hydrocarbons and organic solvents; absorb

very little moisture; resist wear and

abrasion; and are relatively unaffected
by continuous exposure to hot water
or steam.
The properties of carbon PEEK
(versus glass PEEK) that are driving
its selection for many of todays new
high-efficiency, high-speed compressor valves are increased strength, increased stiffness and significantly better cyclic fatigue resistance.
At higher temperatures, when the
glass reinforcement fibers tend to

become soft and pliable, carbon reinforcement fibers stay strong and
rigid. For higher temperature applications where added strength is
required, carbon PEEK is expected
to exceed the performance of glass
PEEK every time.
Because both the carbon filled and
glass filled polymers use PEEK as their
base resin, their thermal properties are
the same (Table 2).
Despite the mechanical property
continued on page 48

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46

CompressorTechTwo
4/16/12 4:14 PM
4/17/12 9:23 AM

Property

30% Carbon PEEK

30% Glass PEEK

Melt point

649F (343C)

649F (343C)

Maximum operating
temperature

480F (250C)

480F (250C)

Minimum operating
temperature

-50F (-50C)

-50F (-50C)

Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg) - onset

289F (143C)

289F (143C)

Table 2: Both carbon and glass PEEK have the same thermal operating range.

advantages of carbon PEEK over glass

PEEK, it also has two disadvantages.
The carbon PEEK valve plate costs
more due to higher expenses for
raw materials, processing, machining
and finishing.
Carbon PEEK also is more brittle and
can withstand less impact before breaking at lower temperatures (see Charpy
and Izod impact tests in Table 1).
The raw material cost is about 50%
higher for carbon PEEK compared to
glass PEEK. Then, the cost to mold,
machine and finish carbon PEEK plates
and rings is substantially higher.
Carbon fiber is much more abrasive on tools compared to glass fiber,
resulting in significantly greater wear
on the tooling used in both injection
molding and cutting the parts. Cutting

speeds are slow to prevent part deformation and to ensure the proper finish.
In the end, you can expect to pay
about two to three times more for a
carbon PEEK ring or plate than for its
glass PEEK equivalent.
The benefits of carbon PEEKs superb
performance in high temperature environments, due to its higher strength and
durability, far exceed the drawbacks of
its lower impact resistance.
We put in carbon PEEK in one particular problem application and the
valves are still running for almost three
years now, said Joshua Rozas, an applications engineer for Valerus Compression Services.
This factor (impact resistance)
does need to be considered when
the valve plate will be operating in a

low temperature, high volume, high

lift environment, he said. The higher
lift leads to more impact. Lower temperature materials with better impact
properties, such as glass reinforced
Mid-Temperature Nylon (nylon 4/6),
will likely perform better under
these conditions.
Modern valve designers face difficult challenges: compressors are
operating faster than ever and are
moving dirtier than ever gas under
variable operating conditions.
The shale gas plays are a good
example of high-temperature operations demanding a high-speed compressor to match the well depth and
required volume.
These compressors are particularly
susceptible to debris or liquids in the
flow, resulting in catastrophic failure of
most valve plate materials.
Carbon PEEK has shown to have
significantly fewer failures under these
types of operating conditions due to
its greater strength and far better resistance to cyclic fatigue, compared to
glass PEEK and other common thermoplastic valve materials.
In addition to the more challenging
operating conditions, the past decade
has also brought significant breakthroughs in 3-D modeling of sealing
element movement and the accompanying stresses. A

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The use of natural gas to fuel power generation has grown sharply.

Short-Term Outlook Sees

strong Natural Gas Demand
Latest EIA report predicts increased consumption,
production this year
By Brent Haight

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) released its latest short-term

energy outlook and the predictions are
favorable for companies dealing in the
natural gas marketplace.
Technical advances in natural gas
extraction from shale plays bode well
for the industry overall, and changes in
public sentiment toward coal, nuclear
and green energy only improve the
outlook for natural gas.
Japan, the once poster-child for
nuclear energy, is encountering public, no-nuke protests in the streets of
Tokyo due to the related aftermath of
last years earthquake and tsunami.
The world is responding by cancelling
or delaying most nuclear projects currently under development.
Coal, despite its aggressive lobbying campaign which included the
much criticized clean coal marketing campaign, will see a 10% decline
from 2011 to 2012 according to data
May 2012

released in the EIAs newly released

Short-Term Energy Outlook.
Even renewable energy such as
solar, wind and hydro-electric have
lost their appeal. The current price
of natural gas has removed the financial incentive renewable energy once
held. In 2007, wind power seemed
like a bargain at $35/MW-hr., when
wholesale electric prices reached
a staggering $85/MW/hr. By 2009,
thanks in part to a boom in the natural gas marketplace; prices fell under
$30/MW-hr., eliminating the edge
wind once had.
According to the EIA, the price of
natural gas delivered to electric generators averaged $3.67 per MMBtu
in January, which is the lowest price
since 2002. These low prices continue
to drive substantial displacement of
coal by natural gas for fueling electricity generation.
The EIA also projected that year50

over-year decline in hydroelectric generation in the western U.S. contributes

to higher levels of generation from natural gas this year. The EIA estimated
that the share of total generation fueled by natural gas will rise from an
average 24.8% in 2011 to an average
of 29.2% in 2012. The 4.4% point increase would be the largest annual
change in natural gass fuel share since
record-keeping began in 1949. The
share of total generation produced using coal would fall from 42.2% in 2011
to 38.3%, it said.
The EIA projected that natural gas
consumption will average 69.6 Bcf/d
in 2012, an increase of 2.8 Bcf/d
4.2% from 2011. The EIA expects
that large gains in electric power use
will offset declines in residential and
commercial use.
Thanks to above average winter
temperatures this year, the EIA said
residential and commercial consumption would fall by 3.9% and 2.7%, respectively, in 2012.
Projected consumption of natural
gas in the electric power sector would
grow by about 16% in 2012, according
the EIA report, primarily driven by the
increasing relative cost advantages of
natural gas over coal for power generation in some regions.
Consumption in the electric power
sector would peak in the third quarter
of 2012 at 30.6 Bcf/d, when electricity
demand for air conditioning is highest.
This compares with 27.7 Bcf/d in the
third quarter of 2011.
Growth in total natural gas consumption continues into 2013, with forecast
consumption averaging 70.5 Bcf/d. A
forecast of closer-to-normal winter temperatures drives increases in residential
and commercial consumption of 7.3%
and 4.7%, respectively. The increase in
consumption in these sectors, as well as
an increase in industrial consumption,
would more than offset a 3.4% decline
in power-sector natural gas burn.
Total marketed production of natural gas grew by an estimated 4.8 Bcf/d
(7.9%) in 2011, the largest year-overyear volumetric increase in history, according to the EIA. This strong growth
was driven in large part by increases in
shale gas production.
While the EIA expected year-overyear production growth to continue in
2012, the projected increases would occur at a much lower rate than in 2011
as low prices reduce new drilling plans.
According to Baker Hughes, the
natural gas rig count was 647 as of
April 5, 2012, down from a 2011 high
of 936 in mid- October. So far, the lower rig count has not impacted production levels, partly reflecting improved
drilling efficiency.

CompressorTechTwo

Gas storage is 60% higher then the average of the past five years.

While fewer horizontal natural gas

rigs, particularly in areas of dry production such as the Haynesville Shale,
probably indicate declines in these areas, these losses are more than offset
in the short term by other production
from wet plays.
Pipeline gross imports are expected
to fall by 0.7 Bcf/d (7.2%) in 2012 as
domestic supply displaces Canadian
sources. The warm winter in the United States also adds to the year-over-

year decline in imports, particularly to

the Northeast, where imported natural
gas can serve as additional supply in
times of very cold weather.
Pipeline gross exports grew by 1.0
Bcf/d in 2011, driven by increased exports to Mexico, and are expected to
continue to grow, at a slower rate, in
2012 and 2013.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports are expected to fall by 0.3
Bcf/d (28%) in 2012. EIA expects that

an average of about 0.7 Bcf/d will

arrive in the United States (mainly
at the Everett LNG terminal in New
England and the Elba Island terminal
in Georgia) in both 2012 and 2013,
either to fulfill long-term contract obligations or to take advantage of temporarily high local prices due to cold
snaps and disruptions.
Working natural gas inventories
continue to set new seasonal record highs as a very warm winter
has contributed to much-lower-than
normal inventory draws. As of March
30, 2012, according to EIAs Weekly
Natural Gas Storage Report, working inventories totaled 2,479 Bcf, 887
Bcf greater than last years level and
934 Bcf above the five year (20072011) average.
In the last 20 years, end-of-March
inventories have not risen over 1,700
Bcf, and prior to that, rose above 2,100
Bcf just once, in 1983.
With only a few exceptions, weekly inventory withdrawals have been
smaller than the previous 5-year average during this years winter heating
season, and though the end of March
is technically the end of the heating
season, net inventory injections began
the week ending March 16.
EIA predicted that inventory levels
at the end of October 2012 will set a
new record high as well. a

A COMPUTATIONALLY SIMPLE COMPRESSIBILITY MODEL

FOR GAS SERVICE WITH HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF CO2
Accurate modeling of CO2 properties is necessary
to overcome problems of inaccuracies at critical points
By David J. Hafvenstein, P.E., Michael E. Rhoades, P.E. and Warren D. Laible

Accurate performance analyses help ensure the health,

efficiency, and capacity of reciprocating compressors.
Such analyses require accurate thermodynamic properties
of the compressed gas for calculating compressibility effects and predicting the results of the compression process. Portable analyzers and PLCs use these properties
to calculate performance parameters such as suction and
discharge temperatures, clearances, volumetric efficiencies, capacities, and theoretical power. This information
determines how the compressor is controlled, inspected,
and maintained.
CO2 compression, as found in enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) and carbon sequestration applications, presents
unique challenges. Compression in these applications can
occur near the critical point of CO2 (88F/ 31C and 1070

psia/ 74 bar). Table 1 lists typical operating conditions for

these applications.

Table 1: Operating conditions for EOR application

For reciprocating compressors operating in these regions,

equations-of-state (EOS) modeling inaccuracies can lead to
incorrect prediction of cylinder discharge temperatures, end
clearances and flows. Accurate modeling of CO2 properties
is necessary to overcome these problems.
Scientists have developed extensive property data for CO2.
Span and Wagner [1] have reviewed earlier measurements and
created an EOS correlation with over 800 terms that accurately
predicts CO2 behavior. Unfortunately, such equations are too
computationally intensive for use in a portable analyzer or PLC.
Instead, these devices typically use a universal EOS such as
Redlich-Kwong or Beattie-Bridgeman. These universal EOS
models provide good accuracy for subcritical operation, but are
unreliable in the critical and supercritical regions. A simplified
correlation for the density of supercritical CO2 was created by
McCollum and Ogden [2], but this ignores the critical region.
To address these issues, Kinder Morgan CO2 is working with ACI Services and Windrock to develop improved
correlations for CO2 compression that are computationally
simple enough for field use. These correlations are used to
calculate performance parameters typically used in compressor analysis, including predicted suction and discharge temperatures, cylinder end clearances, and flows. The results
are compared to parameters calculated using RTwin, and a
hybrid method using compressibility factors calculated with
the Redlich-Kwong EOS method.
The new correlations are a series of cubic functions of pressure and temperature over the conditions given in Table 1, and
are presented in the Appendix. They are not conceptually as
simple as many of the EOS models currently in use. However,
they are computationally simpler than many such models because they do not require iterative solutions to get properties
of CO2 that are useful in compressor calculations, and they are
more accurate than other computationally simple EOS models.
continued on page 54

David J. Hafvenstein is Senior Project Engineer ACI Services,

Inc. Cambridge, Ohio, U.S.A. He received his B.S. in Mechanical
Engineering from Valparaiso University in 2001 and spent five
years designing hydraulic systems and lines for bulldozers and
pipe layers at Caterpillar. He then earned an M.S. in mechanical
engineering from the University of Minnesota in 2009, researching
pneumatic-hydraulic energy storage. He has modeled gas compression processes, proposed compressor performance improvements
and managed projects with ACI Services since 2009. He is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of Ohio. Michael (Mike)
E. Rhoades is Staff Machinery Engineer, Chevron, Houston, Texas,
U.S.A. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Texas A&M University. He has over 20 years experience with machinery installation and maintenance. This includes
domestic and international experience with operating, construction, and OEM companies. He is a registered Professional Engineer
in the state of Texas. At the time of writing this paper, he was a
Rotating Equipment Engineer for Kinder Morgan CO2 Company.
Warren D. Laible is Director of Technical Services, Windrock, Inc.
Knoxville, Tennessee. He has over 37 years of experience in mechanical condition, performance, vibration and pulsation testing.
He received a B.S. degree in Industrial Technology prior to serving
4.5 years in the Army as an Ordinance and Armor Officer. He
started his industrial engine and compressor training and began
his career as an Equipment Analyst in South Louisiana in 1974.
After 3 years as a company analyst and then 20 years of providing
contract analysis services, he accepted a Product Support Manager
position for a compressor manufacturer, packager and leaser. For
the next four years he specialized in high speed compressor package evaluation, spectral vibration troubleshooting and performance
measurement. For the past 10 years, Warren has managed the
training, contract analysis services and product testing activities at
Windrock, Inc. Authors: David J. Hafvenstein - Sr. Project Engineer,
ACI Services, Inc.
May 2012

52

CompressorTechTwo

QuAlity CAtAlysts
sinCE 1950
BloomER, Wi 715-568-2882 GillEttE, Wy 715-933-2641

UNDERSTANDING
CATALYSTS

A Handbook for the User

Part 13 Rules of the Road
looking Back
A common question is, Why do we have to control the
emissions from our engines? The answer lies in the history of
the environmental movement and public outcry over pollution
that culminated in the creation of the EPA in 1970 by Congress
at the request of President Nixon. Despite the noise coming
from both sides of the political debate, EPAs mission is best
summarized by this excerpt from the memo that recommended
its formation to the president:
The enormous future needs for land, minerals, and energy
require that the protection of our environment receive a
powerful new impetus. In this, the nation will be on the horns
of a dilemma. The economic progress which we have come to
expect, or even demand, has almost invariably been at some
cost to the environment.
Pesticides have increased the yield of our crops and made it
possible for less land to produce more food. They have also
polluted the streams and lakes. Automobiles have broadened
our economic and social opportunities, even as they have
dirtied the air and jammed our highways. Some means must
be found by which our economic and social aspirations are
balanced against the finite capacity of the environment to
absorb societys wastes.

Catalyst Emissions
EduCation Program
A scheduled series from Catalytic Combustions Catalyst 101

The Quad J rules cover what are called Criteria Pollutants:

NOx, CO and VOCs. The limits on engine emissions are
determined based on the engines combustion type (rich or
lean burn), horsepower, date of manufacture, fuel source and
operating hours. Quad Z regulations derive from the Clean
Air Acts requirement to control the emissions of Hazardous
Air Pollutants (HAPs), such as formaldehyde, which are
known or suspected to be carcinogens.
Likewise the Quad Z regulations have different emission
limits depending upon the engines combustion type and
horsepower, but additionally have different limits depending
upon whether the site where the engine is located is classified
as a Major Source of HAPs or an Area Source. A Major Source
is defined as a location that has the potential to emit more
than 10 tons/year of any single HAP or more than 25 tons/
year of any combination of HAPs.
In order to address ozone levels that contribute to smog
formation, certain states and other local administrative
districts have enacted even stricter regulations. Southern
California and the corridor from Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW) to
Houston are two examples of this. For instance, while the
Quad J limit for NOx emissions on a new rich burn engine
is 1 g/bhp-hr, in the DFW region is 0.5 g/bhp-hr. For spark
ignited, 4 stroke, Lean Burn engines located at a Major
Source, EPA has given you the choice of demonstrating
control of CO instead of formaldehyde. However, your state
may have requirements to control formaldehyde to higher
levels than required for CO.
It is up to you to stay informed with what your emissions
limits are and how frequently you need to test your emissions
to demonstrate compliance.

Where We are today

What Will Happen tomorrow

Over the intervening years, EPA, in conjunction with the states

and sometimes even smaller local administrative districts, have
enacted rules aiming to reduce the emissions of pollutants
that have demonstrated human health or other adverse
environmental effects. Currently the sections of the Code
of Federal Register (CFR) known as Quad J (40 CFR Part 60,
Subpart JJJJ) and Quad Z (40 CFR Part 63, Subpart ZZZZ) set
the maximum amounts that can be emitted from an engine.

The societal discussion or argument, rather, on the merits of

pollution control vs. economic growth will continue. Overall,
the trend in emissions limits since the 1970s has been for
continual tightening of regulations no matter which party
is in power in Washington. It is likely that this trend will
continue and that everyone involved with industrial engines
will have to keep working to meet the challenges that will
come.

For your catalyst questions, contact:

John W. Robinson Jr., V.P. Catalyst Group 715-568-2882 Ext. 127 Fax: 715-568-2884 jrobinson@catalyticcombustion.com

www.CatalyticC ombustion.com

IN THE NEXT ISSUE Ash, Ash Everywhere

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Theory
Formula Symbol Nomenclature
Variables
Clr fixed clearance, %
k
ratio of specific heats
M
molar mass
n
non-ideal compression exponent
P pressure
Qend volumetric flow of one cylinder end
RPM crankshaft revolutions per minute
Ru
universal gas constant
T temperature
Vend swept volume of one cylinder end
Z
compressibility factor
hv
volumetric efficiency
r density
Subscripts
s
suction condition
d
discharge condition
B
base conditions (for standard flow calculations)

tions require time-intensive iterative processes that may be

beyond the capability of a PLC or portable analyzer. Furthermore, many programs written for these devices already use
equations that require values of Z and n. We will, therefore,
present simplified correlations for Z and n.
Reference data for the correlations comes from the RefProp software created by NIST [3]. For CO2 properties, RefProp is based on the work of Span and Wagner [1], which
is accurate to within 0.05% for the ranges used in this article
(except in the vicinity of the critical point). The new correlations in this article are third-order curve fits to the reference
data, and are presented in full in the Appendix.
Z correlation
Figure 1 shows reference Z values for pure CO2 at typical
EOR temperatures and pressures. (Note that Figure 1 omits
the liquid and supercritical liquid regions, as they are not
pertinent to EOR CO2 compression.) The gas is nearly ideal
(Z 1) at low pressures, but deviates from ideal behavior as
pressure increases, particularly near the critical point.

Many gas compression calculations performed by handheld analyzers and PLCs use P-V data based on ideal gas
models. For ideal gases, the pressure, temperature, and density are related by:

(1)

(All pressures and temperatures must be in absolute units.)

If the compression process for an ideal gas is isentropic, the
following equation relates suction and discharge pressure
and temperature:

(2)

where k is the ratio of specific heats, cp /cv.

Ideal gas models work for most gases at low pressures. However, in the range of conditions encountered in EOR applications,
gases do not always behave ideally. A compressibility factor, Z,
can be added to the ideal gas law as a correction, such that:

Figure 1: Z for pure CO2.

(3)

Alternately, a more complicated EOS can be used to model gas behavior. Analyzers and PLCs often use the RedlichKwong EOS for its simplicity and speed of calculation.
The compression process in a reciprocating compressor is
often treated as isentropic. The isentropic compression equation is often inaccurate when k is used in the exponent, but
its form is useful for flow and power calculations. Therefore,
k is often replaced by a variable called n, as in Equation (4)
below. The value of n is calculated using the P-V card from
an analyzer, or from pressure and temperature values taken
from entropy charts for isentropic compression.

(4)

From a thermodynamic perspective, any EOS that can

generate values for Z can also be used to directly calculate
the entropies and enthalpies required to model isentropic
compression. However, for most EOS models, such calculaMay 2012

Figure 2: Error in Z from Redlich-Kwong EOS.

continued on page 56
54

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Figure 3: Error in Z from new CO2 correlation.

The Redlich-Kwong EOS produces significant errors when

simulating CO2. Figure 2 illustrates the deviations in RedlichKwong Z calculations from the reference values shown in Figure 1. The deviations exceed 10% in some areas. This is not
surprising; Redlich-Kwong accurately models CO2 at low pressures, but loses accuracy in the critical and supercritical regions.
The new Z correlations show significant improvement
over the Redlich-Kwong correlations. Figure 3 illustrates deviations in the new Z correlation from the reference values
shown in Figure 1. Values exceed 2% in only a few conditions near the critical point.
n Correlation
Figure 4 shows theoretical n-values for isentropic compression of CO2 using the reference data [3]. The n charts
presented in Figure 4 are more complicated than those for
Z because values of n for isentropic compression depend
on three variables: Ps, Pd and Ts. At the low end of the
Ts range (40F/ 4C), n initially rises with suction pressure but then drops off sharply after 700 psia (48 bar)
and flattens into a plateau. As Ts increases, the dropoff occurs at a higher Ps and becomes less steep. Over
most of the operating range, n is relatively independent of
discharge pressure.
Models such as those used in the reference data are too
complicated for most handheld analyzers and PLCs. Therefore, many of these devices assume that n = k in their calculations. In the simplest cases, a constant value of k appropriate to the process is used. It is also common to use functions
where k depends only on temperature, as such tables are
readily available for many gases.
Figure 5 illustrates deviations in n from reference values
using a temperature-based model for k at Ts = 100F (38C).
This model is obtained from data in Ref. [4]. As the chart
shows, such methods lead to large errors in the supercritical region, because of the assumption of ideal gas behavior.
Figure 6 illustrates significant improvement for the new n
correlation at 100F (38C). This correlation is limited to CO2,
but is accurate over the entire pressure range. In developing
the correlation, we found that discharge pressure could be
neglected without significant error, particularly if pressure
ratios of greater than 10 and less than 1.1 were ignored (uncommon in EOR applications). Because only suction conditions were involved in this correlation, temperature was
limited to 160F (71C) and suction pressure to 3500 psia
(248 bar).
May 2012

Figure 4: n for pure CO2 over a range of suction/discharge pressures

at three Ts values.

Figure 5: Error in n using n = k(T) at 100F (38C) suction temperature.

continued on page 58
56

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ends of each cylinder. Suction and discharge temperatures

were taken with Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) located on valve caps at each cylinder end. Temperature readings
were fairly uniform ( 1F /0.6C) between sensors, and average values were entered in RTwin. Crank position was measured with a magnetic pick-up, and the cylinder #1 outer dead
center (ODC) was confirmed using the positive stop method.
The analysis consisted of six test runs, conducted at 100%
and 88% load steps, at suction pressures of 645, 660 and
680 psig (44, 46 and 47 barg). Operators adjusted suction
pressure with a control valve upstream of the compressor.
Loading was decreased from 100% to 88% by opening head
end pockets on cylinders #1 (1st stage) and #2 (2nd stage).
Station flow rates were measured with an orifice plate located downstream of the compressor. Gas compositions are
checked monthly, with CO2 values typically deviating less
than 0.2% through the year. Gas composition for this analysis was 98.2% CO2, 1.7% N2, and 0.1% CH4
Results
This section presents results from Run #5, considered representative of the six test runs. Table 2 lists baseline data for this
run, including measured pressures and temperatures, volumetric
efficiencies calculated by RTwin, and nameplate clearance data
for each cylinder. This baseline data is used to calculate Z and
n (or k) values, as well as compressor performance parameters.
Table 3 presents results using three methods: RTwins
proprietary algorithms, a basic Redlich-Kwong EOS (with k
values from RTwin), and the new correlations. Figures 7-10
graphically compare the performance parameters calculated
with each method.

Figure 6: Error in n using new CO2 correlation at 100F (38C) suction

temperature.

Performance Parameters
Parameters used to evaluate or control compressor performance include theoretical suction and discharge temperatures,
cylinder end clearances, and flows. Theoretical Ts and Td are
calculated using Eqn (4) above, assuming isentropic compression. Clearance and flow for each cylinder end are related to
n, Z, P, and the suction or discharge volumetric efficiency of
the end. Suction volumetric efficiency1 is calculated as:

(5)
This equation can be solved for the percent clearance of the
cylinder, Clr. This is useful with analyzers, which measure the
volumetric efficiency based on the P-V card of the cylinder but
need to estimate clearance to confirm that the unit is operating
properly. Finally, flow per end is calculated as:

Table 2: Baseline data for test run #5.

RTwin predicts the highest Z values of the three methods

because of a preheating correction implemented during Z calculations. The higher Z values lead to lower calculated flows.
For the 1st stage (Cylinders #1 and #3), RTwin predicts lower k
values than the corresponding n values calculated with the new
correlations. However, RTwin predicts higher 2nd stage (Cylinder
#2) k values. These differences lead to differing theoretical discharge temperatures between RTwin and the new correlations.
Figure 7 illustrates the differences in two typical cylinder
ends: Cylinder #3 CE (1st stage) and Cylinder #2 HE (2nd stage).
For the 1st stage, with a measured temperature increase of
104F (58C), RTwin under predicts the measured discharge
temperature by 20F (11C), while the new correlations are
12F (7C) lower. For the 2nd stage, with a 32F (18C) increase, RTwin predicts the measured discharge temperature
exactly, while the new correlations are 13F (7C) lower.
Since four temperature readings were averaged for each discharge temperature, it is unlikely that the temperature difference comes from a bad sensor. A possible explanation is
preheating of the suction gas in each cylinder. Preheating
appears unlikely to be caused by valve leakage, as operators
confirmed valve condition prior to testing and report that
these test runs represent normal behavior for the unit.
If preheating occurrs, then the suction temperature may
be less accurate than the discharge temperature, and a theocontinued on page 60

(6)

For the analyst, accurate performance parameters improve

the ability to detect leakage or damaged parts when measured temperatures, clearances, or flows diverge from expectations. With PLC control, accurate parameters help avoid
damaging conditions such as high discharge temperatures or
low volumetric efficiencies.
Experimental Measurements
Kinder Morgan measured performance on a Dresser-Rand
3HHE-VL-2 compressor at its Cortez facility. The compressor is
3-throw, 2-stage, motor-driven, 327 rpm unit operating in 98% CO2
service. Cylinders #1 and #3 have 13 in. (330 mm) bores, and make
up the 1st stage. Cylinder #2 has a 10 in. (254 mm) bore, and makes
up the 2nd stage. Each cylinder has a 4.5 in. (114 mm) rod and two
valves per corner (8 valves per cylinder). Kinder Morgan collected
data using a Recip-Trap 9260 analyzer with RTwin software.
Testing generally followed the methods recommended by
Wilcox and Brun [5]. Cylinder and flange pressures were taken
through Kiene valves using 5000-psi (345-bar) transducers. Suction flange pressures were taken at the suction nozzles of each
cylinder. Because discharge nozzle locations were unavailable,
discharge flange pressures were taken at valve caps in both
May 2012

58

CompressorTechTwo

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retical suction temperature should be examined. Figure 8

shows theoretical suction temperatures, calculated from the
measured discharge temperatures using Eqn. ( 4).

Table 3: Performance parameters for run #5 from RTwin, Redlichand the new correlations.

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continued on page 62
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Since Eqn. (4) requires a value for n, and the n correlation

is dependent on suction temperature, interactive calculations
of suction temperature and n were made until an error of
less than 0.01% was observed. A comparison of theoretical
(Table 3) and actual (Table 2) values shows the new correlations predict suction temperatures 5 12F higher than
measured. Table 3 also lists theoretical values of Z and n at
the corresponding theoretical Ts. For the 1st stage, the values
of Z and n at theoretical Ts are 5.5% and 0.3% higher, respectively, than at the measured Ts. The theoretical calculation
has more effect at the 2nd stage, where Z and n values are
35.0% and 4.4% higher, respectively. The 2nd stage values
are large enough that, if preheating were occurring, it would
lead to noticeable changes in flow and clearance calculations
through Equations (5) and (6).

relations with preheating taken into account. Figure 10 shows

flow per cylinder end, calculated using Eqn. (6) for each method. Flows are calculated using both suction and discharge volumetric efficiencies, and include both cylinder ends. As with the
clearance calculations, 1st stage flow values are generally consistent across the three methods, and suction and discharge flows
are roughly balanced. The 2nd stage flow values, however, differ greatly. The flow calculated using suction conditions is 20%
higher than the flow calculated using discharge conditions with
the Redlich-Kwong EOS. The RTwin method shows better consistency, with a 3% difference between suction and discharge
flow calculations for the head end, and 6% for the crank end.
The new correlations show significant improvement, with a 1%
difference between head end and crank end.
The new correlations do not resolve issues that exist in calculating the flow balance between stages, however. Table 4
compares the flows from each method at the stage level and
also provides the station meter reading for Run #5. RedlichKwong produces the worst results, with a 12% imbalance in
flow between stages and an average flow 12% larger than the
102 MMscfd (2.89 MMscmd) recorded at the station meter.
RTwin shows a 5% imbalance between stages, although the
average flow of the two stages is within 1% of the station meter.
The new correlations show a 1% imbalance between stages, but
the average flow of the two stages is 5% higher than the station
meter reading. (For test runs other than Run #5, the imbalance
between the stages was as high as 6%, and variation from the
station meter as high as 8% for the new correlation. For RTwin,
the imbalance between the stages was as high as 10%, and
variation with the station meter as high as 4%.)

Figure 9: Calculated suction clearances, run #5.

Table 4: Calculated flows, by stage and suction/discharge conditions.

Large discharge pulsations may introduce inaccuracy into

flows calculated with the new correlations. Table 2 shows 1st
stage discharge toe pressures ranging from 1303-1391 psia
(89.8-95.9 bar), and pressure swings of over 200 psi (13.8 bar)
were observed during discharge events at each cylinder. Figure
11 illustrates these pressure swings for the 2nd stage crank end
discharge. These swings may make the discharge toe pressure
less representative of the flow leaving the cylinder as a whole,
leading to decreased accuracy in flow calculations. Even the
best EOS is limited by the accuracy of the operating conditions.

Figure 10: Calculated flows, run #5.

The new correlations significantly improve clearance calculations if preheating is taken into account. Figure 9 compares nominal head-end and crank-end clearances calculated
from the RTwin, Redlich-Kwong, and new correlation methods. Clearances are calculated using the Z values predicted
by each method, along with the theoretical Ts described
above. Each method provides reasonable estimates for 1st
stage clearances. However, for the 2nd stage, the RedlichKwong calculation estimates negative clearances, while the
RTwin method estimates clearances that are 172% and 65%
greater than nominal values for the head and crank ends,
respectively. The new correlations give negative values like
the Redlich-Kwong method if the measured Ts value is used.
However, if the theoretical Ts is used instead (shown in Figure 9), the new correlations predict clearances 88% and 4%
above the nominal head and crank-end clearances, respectively. The improvement comes because Z varies greatly
with T near the critical point, changing 35% even though the
theoretical Ts value is only 7F (4C) higher than the measured value. This further demonstrates how preheating may
create difficulties in calculating performance parameters.
The flow balance for each cylinder end also improves for
both suction and discharge conditions when using the new corMay 2012

Figure 11: Pressure-crank angle data for run #5, cylinder #2 CE, discharge event.
62

CompressorTechTwo

Conclusion
The new correlations for calculating Z and n for CO2 have
been shown to be more accurate than other methods often used in PLCs or hand-held analyzers. This improvement
comes without the computational expense and complexity
of a high-end reference EOS.
This higher accuracy leads to improved prediction of
theoretical temperatures and clearances, as demonstrated
using measurements from a 98% CO2 compressor at Kinder Morgans Cortez Station. Such improvements should
make it easier for operators of CO2 compressors to predict
and understand the performance of their machines.
Some improvements in flow measurements were also
observed, although inconsistencies in flow between stages
remain. This analysis suggests that preheating of the gas
in the cylinder significantly affects compression near the
critical region because of large changes in Z values. The
fact that preheating is observed in a case where only small
temperature changes 24F (13C) were predicted suggests
the need for further investigation into heat transfer effects
near the critical point.
Windrock, Inc. (owner of RTwin) is implementing these
new correlations on a trial basis in its analyzers to further
investigate their value. Additional testing is planned to develop correlations for mixtures of up to 10% nitrogen or 10%
methane in CO2 gas compression streams. A

2. McCollum, D. L. and Ogden J. M., TechnoEconomic Models for Carbon Dioxide Compression,
Transport, and Storage & Correlations for Estimating Carbon Dioxide Density and Viscosity, Institute of
Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis,
UCD-ITS-RR-06-14 (2006).
3. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
REFPROP software, Version 7, 2002. http://www.nist.gov/
srd/nist23.cfm
4. Cengel, Yunus A., and Boles, Michael A. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 2nd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.
5. Wilcox, M. and Brun, K., Guideline for Field Testing
of Reciprocating Compressor Performance, Gas Machinery
Research Council and Southwest Research Institute, Release
1.0, November 2009.
Follow compressortech2 on

www.compressortech2.com

CT Twitter_RSS halfvert.indd 1

Congrats Bill, your gas engines all stayed

in compliance this year.

10/1/10 2:39:01 PM

Appendix: New Correlation Equations

The correlations presented in this paper are a series of
equations of the form:
Z or n = a0 + a1P+a2T+a3PT++a15P3T3
They are available upon request from ACI Services (www.
ACIServicesInc.com).

References
1. Span, R. and Wagner, W., A New Equation of State for
Carbon Dioxide Covering the Fluid Region from the TriplePoint Temperature to 1100 K at Pressures up to 800 MPa, J.
Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 1509-1596 (1996).

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Macro Sensors is offering its miniature AC-operated LVDT position sensors
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PE.WSNi wireless sensor system made
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Paradox Engineering, a Swiss specialist in wireless sensor networks,

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The company is joining forces with
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Paradox Engineering will provide
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TConnect is for oil and gas companies that need to develop a dedicated
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CompressorTechTwo
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Cracking The Code

Smartphones become portal to compression machinery data

By DJ Slater

Some companies in the compressor industry are exploiting a new

medium to help them connect with
their customers.
The boom in smartphone technology over the past few years has enabled
compression companies to take advantage of quick response (QR) codes,
which are square, stamp-like barcodes
that can access data for anyone with
the computerized phones.
When they are scanned - which requires a special application - the QR
codes send information directly to the
smartphone, allowing the user to access web pages, specification sheets,
product literature or any other data
specified by the codes creator.
In the compression industry, QR
codes now are commonly seen on
product literature, advertisements and
at trade show booths. But several comMay 2012

panies think this is just the beginning,

that QR codes will become a staple in
the industry and soon could be used
on physical products, such as compressors and components.
That would be a great way to utilize these codes, said Mike Kottwitt,
a marketing communications specialist
for Woodward. Somebody could just
open up the hood, scan the code and
get technical specs.
General Equipment Co. already uses
QR codes in this manner. The Owatonna, Minnesota, U.S.A., company
makes earth augers, post-hole diggers
and ventilation equipment.
General Equipment puts QR codes on
all of its products, giving rental operators
and end users access to videos, literature, operational tips, service information and manuals (see the January 2012
issue of Diesel Progress North American).
66

The compression industry isnt far

behind. Some companies, such as Ariel
Corp., are exploring the feasibility of
incorporating QR codes on equipment.
We are looking into that, but there
are a lot of applications, said Ron
Egle, senior web system designer with
Ariel. For now, (QR codes) are incorporated into our marketing materials
and into our trade show booth.
Denso Wave, a company that makes
industrial robots and programmable
controllers, created the first QR codes in
1994 as a tool for the automotive industry to track vehicles during the manufacturing process, said Koji Miyachi, with
Denso Waves sales planning division.
Before the QR code, companies
used barcodes to transmit data. With
the QR code, they are able to transfer
large amounts of data using less space,
Miyachi said.

CompressorTechTwo

One of the values of QR codes is

that they can be printed on economical things, such as papers, in order to
express digitalized information, Miyachi said. Although placing an HTML
link on something will accomplish the
same thing, using QR codes is easier
because you only have to scan it.
The easy use of QR codes is a key
reason why Woodward, a company
that makes hydromechanical and
electronic fuel controls and delivery
systems, subsystems and components, integrated them into its marketing strategy.
Its a real quick and easy way to
get information, Kottwitt said. If you
dont have a computer with you, you
can scan the QR code and retrieve
the information on your smartphone
whenever you want.
GT Exhaust, which supplies sound
attenuation and emissions suppression products, is using QR codes on
its product literature, enabling end
users to make buying decisions, said
Ed Woods, the companys marketing
manager. A GT Exhaust advertisement
in the March 2012 issue of CompressorTechTwo reveals how much information can be accessed from a QR code.
This particular code directs users to a
website asking them if their equipment
is ready for the National Emissions
Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(Neshap) that applies to reducing exhaust emissions in reciprocating internal combustion engines (RICE).
The definition of the regulation is on
the website, as well as several subsections that users can browse. For example, a user can access a webpage from
the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency or a portable document format
(PDF) of the regulations. Additionally,
users can also find GT Exhaust products that help them meet the RICE Neshap; there are three subsections dedicated to this.
FW Murphy, which provides instrumentation and controls for engines
and engine-driven equipment, also
uses QR codes to direct users to a specific landing page instead of a generic
website. By using this technology, FW
Murphy can also track how many responses it receives from an individual
ad, said Jessica Carthen, a product support marketing manager.
Since weve started tracking and
using the codes, weve seen a great
response, she said. You will actually
see people take out their phones and
scan them at tradeshows. People are
glad there are other ways to get our information besides just taking literature
home with them.
In the near future, Carthen said QR
codes could begin replacing users
May 2012

manuals for equipment. Instead of

searching for the paper product, an
operator could just scan that equipment with their smartphone and pull
up the users manual, she said.
Our thought process was that this
isnt a fad or something that wont
be relevant in two years, Carthen
said. Instead of going to a computer
and typing in a web address, people
can just scan a code. It gives us a
more immediate response from our
customers.
Cameron Process & Compression
Systems is one of the many companies
beginning to explore the potental of
using QR codes on its literature and
flow equipment.
Mark Thayer, a Cameron marketing
specialist, said, Were investigating
the use of QR codes and plan to try
them out during a trade show in May.
Weve not seen a lot of customer demand for them so far, but that could be
a chicken-and-egg issue. As the codes
become more widely avaliable in literature or on equipment, customers may
want to use them more.
Elliott Group is starting to explore
using QR codes. Communications
manager Tom Brown said the company, which supplies and services
turbomachinery, is brainstorming the
different ways they can be used.
While the near- and long-term future
of QR codes remains to be seen, Miyachi is not surprised at the technologys
rapid integration within several industries, especially since smartphones
have became so commonly used.
We expected QR codes to be used
frequently in industrial markets, Miyachi said. QR codes will continue
to be a staple in society as long as
there are papers and things around
us. It will be in the consumer markets
as a tool for accessing information
and as a system management tool in
industrial markets. a
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Industry News CompressorTechTwo

KTR Corp.

Williams Partners

KTR Corp., a manufacturer of power

transmission components, plans to expand its North American headquarters
in Michigan City, Indiana, U.S.A., which
would create up to 20 new jobs by 2014;
KTR Corp. currently employs 43 people.
The company, a subsidiary of Germanbased KTR Kupplungstechnik GmbH,
will invest US$1.6 million to purchase
computer-numerical-control machinery
and renovate its 42,000 sq.ft. (3902 m2)
manufacturing, warehouse and sales facility at 122 Anchor Road. Renovations
and equipment installation have already
started and should conclude in 2013, the
company said.

Williams Partners has agreed to buy

Caiman Energys wholly owned subsidiary, Caiman Eastern Midstream LLC, for
US$2.5 billion, giving Williams Partners
a foothold in the natural gas liquids-rich
portion of the Marcellus Shale.
Caiman Eastern Midstream is an independent gathering and processing
business operating in northern West
Virginia, southwestern Pennsylvania
and eastern Ohio. Caimans assets include a gathering system, two processing facilities and a fractionator. All are
being expanded and an ethane pipeline
is planned.
Williams Partners said an estimated 300
Tcf (8.5 x 1012 m3) of gas is in place within
a 35 mi. (56 km) radius of the system. It
expects the Caiman system to gather more
than 2 Bcfd (56 x 106 m3/d) and produce
300,000 bbl/d of liquids and condensate
by 2020.
The partnership also will enter a joint
venture with Caiman Energy to develop
midstream pipeline infrastructure in the
Utica Shale of eastern Ohio and northwestern Pennsylvania.
Williams Co. owns 72% of Williams
Partners, including the general-partner interest. Caiman Energy is backed by private
equity investors including EnCap Flatrock
Midstream, EnCap Investments L.P. and
Highstar Capital.

Chesapeake
Chesapeake Energy Corp., M3 Midstream LLC and EV Energy Partners LP
plan to build a US$900 million midstream
services plant to process gas and natural
gas liquids (NGL) from the Utica Shale of
eastern Ohio, U.S.A.
The 600 MMcfd (17 x 106 m3/day) complex in Columbiana County will consist of
gas-gathering and compression facilities
constructed and operated by Chesapeake,
plus processing, NGL fractionation, loading and terminal facilities constructed and
operated by M3 Midstream.
The first cryogenic processing and fractionation plants are due in service by the
second quarter of 2013.
Chesapeake affiliates will own 59% of
the partnership, Momentum 33% and EV
Energy 8%. Total E&P USA Inc., Chesapeakes 25% joint venture partner in Utica
Shale wet gas acreage, has an option to
participate in the project.

Recip Engine Services

Recip Engine Services has added sales
managers to support its expanded offering
of new, used and reconditioned compressor packages powered by both high- and
low-speed engines.
George Goza, based in Houston, Texas,
U.S.A., has more than 30 years of experience with high- and-low speed equipment
at Rino K&K in Pasadena, Texas. David
Morales, based in Odessa, Texas, has 14
years of experience with high-speed engines and compressors with Rino K&K in
that city.
Recip Engine Services buys complete
gas pipeline compression plants and packages through B&T Recycle Services LLC. It
dismantles the units and stores the engines
and compressors at an 11 acre (44500 m2)
yard in Odessa. It also parts out some units
and purchases other surplus equipment.
Owners are David Tomes, formerly
general manager of NRG Engine Services, and Tommy Boicourt, formerly of
Boicourt Salvage.
May 2012

GE Oil & Gas

GE Oil & Gas and Chesapeake Energy
Corp. have formed a partnership to facilitate the use of natural gas as a transportation fuel.
The two companies plan a multi-year
collaboration to develop and bring to
market solutions that expand the use of
compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) as transportation fuels.
In the fall of 2012, GE will provide
more than 250 modular and standardized compression stations, known as
CNG in a Box, to expand access to
CNG at fueling stations and other designated installations.
Peake Fuel Solutions, a Chesapeake
affiliate, will provide assistance regarding natural gas vehicles, vehicle emission
controls and gas market dynamics.

Kuntur Transportadora de Gas

Peruvian President Ollanta Humala
said construction will begin soon on a
US$3 billion, 675-mi. (1085 km) pipeline
from the Camisea gas fields to a planned
petrochemical plant on the nations
southern Pacific coast.
Kuntur Transportadora de Gas will
build the Southern Gas Pipeline, which
has been stalled for several years. It will
68

extend from the Cuzco Province fields to

the cities of Cusco, Juliaca, Arequipa and
Ilo Matarani.
Humala, who took office in July, and
campaigned on promises to make inexpensive natural gas widely available on
the domestic market.
Currently, the 335-mi. (540 km) Camisea pipeline moves gas to Malvinas,
where gas liquids are separated. Some
gas moves on to a liquefied natural gas
export terminal at Pisco. A pipeline
also carries gas from Malvinas 444 mi.
(714 km) north along the coast to Lima
and Callao.

Mexico Pipeline
President Felipe Caldern said Mexico
is inviting bids for a 1240 mi. (2000 km),
US$3.5 billion gas trunkline from the
United States border south to Mazatln
in Sinaloa state. He said the pipeline will
revolutionize the northern Pacific coast,
especially Sinaloa state, which has no natural gas.
Caldern also said bids have been invited for the construction of US$800 million
in gas distribution lines on the west coast
and in Morelos, Veracruz and Michoacan
states. The 12,400 mi. (20,000 km) of lines
will expand gas service to nearly one million homes and businesses.
Finally, Caldern announced the construction of a 100 mi. (165 km) gas pipeline between Aguascalientes and Calera
in Zacatecas state, central Mexico. The
US$110 million, 10 in. (254 mm) line will
move 20 MMcfd (566,000 m3/d) initially
and double that in the longer term.
The projects are part of a US$10.5 billion
initiative Caldern announced last year to
expand Mexicos use of gas through the
construction of pipelines and local distribution networks.

BG Service Co.
Denso has appointed BG Service Co. as
a distributor for its industrial spark plugs.
Denso industrial spark plugs use an iridium alloy electrode with a high melting
point, which helps extend the products
service life, according to Denso.
John Front, BG Services president, said
Denso industrial spark plugs have been
demonstrated to be a superior product in
many engine applications.
BG Service is a manufacturer of ignition
products, electrical connectors and specialized spark plug cables and extensions.

Exterran Holdings
Exterran Holdings Inc. said Venezuela
will pay it US$112.4 million for assets nationalized in 2009.
Subsidiaries of Exterran and Williams
operated the WilPro Energy Services Ltd.s
El Furrial Ltd. and PIGAP joint ventures

CompressorTechTwo

Industry News CompressorTechTwo

providing gas compression and injection
services to a Petroleos de Venezuela affiliate. Exterran owned 33.3% of El Furrial
and 30% of PIGAP II. Williams held 66.7%
and 70%, respectively.
Exterran received US$37.6 million initially and will get the balance in payments
through the first quarter of 2016. Williams
collected US$147 million and is due to get
US$165 million in future payments.
Williams is also getting US$63 million
for its interest in Accroven SRL, which
operates two natural gas liquid extraction
plants, a fractionation plant and associated
storage and refrigeration facilities.
Exterran and Williams said they would
suspend an arbitration proceeding they
had filed against Venezuela for full payment for the nationalized assets.

seabed in 980 ft (300 m) of water will increase pressure in production flowlines

and ultimate recovery from the Mikkel
and Midgard fields (See May 2011 CompressorTechTwo, p.58.)
sgard subsea gas compression is a
profitable and robust project. Development of the worlds first compression
facility for gas under water is a challenging task, said production director
Astrid Jrgenvg.
Statoil said all of the major contracts
for the compression project have been
awarded and most of the engineering is
completed. Assembly of the modules will
begin this spring at Aker Solutions yard
in Egersund, Norway. Startup of the compression system is scheduled for the first
half of 2015.

Statoil

GE Oil & Gas

Statoil said the Storting (the Norwegian

parliament) approved the installation of
subsea gas compression at sgard field in
the North Sea on March 27.
The state oil company also said that
project costs have increased 20% from last
summer due to a tighter supplier market
in marine operations and design modifications that will increase the weight of the
compression modules.
It said placing compressors on the

GE Oil & Gas said the first 43,000 hp

(32 MW) MS 5002E gas turbine fully assembled in St. Petersburg, Russia, has
passed commissioning acceptance tests at
REP Holdings Nevsky Zavod manufacturing facilities.
Under a 2008 license agreement, REP
Holding is building Ladoga 32 gas compressor units based on MS 5002E gas
turbines. The Russian firm plans to sell
the Ladoga gas turbine to OAO Gazprom

to power compressor stations on the

Bovanenkovo-Ukhta gas pipeline.
GE said the MS 5002E/Ladoga 32 turbine can be fully serviced at the customer site, which is important due to
Russias harsh weather and remote locations. It said the MS 5002E technology
is an upgrade from its MS 5002 product
line, which has totaled more than 16 million operating hours worldwide.

Gas Processors Suppliers

Association
The Gas Processors Suppliers Association has named 10 persons to serve twoyear terms (2012-2014) on its board of
directors.
Houston/Gulf Coast District: Greg Jean,
Cameron Process Systems; Chuck Dewees,
Cummins Inc.; Harvey Hensley, S&B Engineers & Constructors.
Rocky Mountain District: Sean Sullivan,
Elkhorn Holdings; Steve Tzap, ZAP Engineering & Construction.
Mid Continent District: Mark Helm, Exterran; Lamar Seale, Thomas Russell Co.
At Large District: Brent Haight, CompressorTechTwo.
Permian Basin District: L. Clark Dickson, Dickson Process Systems.
North Texas/North LA District: Alan
Sudbrock, Gas Technology Corp.

Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Couplings
Gear Pumps
Rotor-Tech Inc. has published a catalog on its energy exchange, electric drive and Hydra-Lectrik rotary gear pumps
for glycol gas processing systems. The catalog features
sections on energy exchange pump features, tables and
schematics, as well as features, models and schematics on
Hydra-Lectrik pumps.
www.rotor-tech.com

Stucchi has released a product

guide on its coupling products.
The guide features
a photo of each
coupling model,
along with a description and a
distinction
on
whether the product is new or patented (or both).
A Coming Soon
section
features
three new couplings: the VD, VLS and VR series.
www.stucchiusa.com

Onshore Production
Processing
Cameron has published a brochure
on its onshore oil
and gas production
processing capabilities for wellhead
and midstream applications. The brochure includes sections on wellhead
production separation, gas processing, gas conditioning, and oil treating
and storage.
www.c-a-m.com

Performance:
the first time,
every time.
For top performance in critical applications, you need
a partner with the right technology and proven solutions
to the industrys greatest challenges. Waukesha Bearings
designs and manufactures custom-engineered
bearing solutions to exacting specifications and
unmatched quality standardsfor performance
you can trust.

Water-Cooled Clutches
And Brakes

Leading With engineering

Waukesha Bearings extensive range of engineered hydrodynamic bearings, dampers
and seals are optimized for superior performance...designed to meet the challenges
of high-load, high-speed applications. We are proud to also offer the innovative,
patented technologies developed by KMC, including Flexure Pivot bearings and
Integral Squeeze Film
Dampers ( ISFD).

waukeshabearings.com

may 2012
WaukeshaBearings.indd 1

Wichita
Clutch
has published a
brochure about its
AquaMaKKs line
of water-cooled
clutches
and
brakes with composite water jackets. The clutches
and brakes are
pneumatically or
hydraulically controlled and water
cooled. They consist of a series of
alternating friction discs and water jackets. Torque
is transmitted by applying axial force from the
pneumatic, hydraulic, or spring-set actuator.
www.Wichitaclutch.com

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1/19/12 1:40 PM

Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Turbomachinery
Elliott Group has
released a capability brochure.
The Pennsylvania, U.S.A.-based
turbomachinery
company serves
a variety of industries, such as
oil and gas, LNG,
refining, power
generation
and
process.
Elliott
Groups product
lines are centrifugal compressors, steam turbines, power recovery expanders and axial compressors.
www.elliott-turbo.com

Turbine Capabilities
McGuffy Turbine Services has created a brochure on its capabilities as a turbine specialist. The company offers installation, inspection, test, and maintenance and repair services for frame type combustion gas and steam turbines, as
well as associated equipment. McGuffy has two locations:
Cypress, Texas, U.S.A. and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
www.mcguffygroup.com

continued on page 73

Turbine Services
Literature
from
NAES Corp. details turbine services offered from
the
companys
Houston, Texas,
U.S.A. service center. NAES provides
field maintenance
and shop services
for the overhaul
of large rotating
equipment in the
power
generation, refinery, petrochemical, and gas pipeline industries. It also offers technical support and operations-maintenance
services for an array of turbines and reciprocating engines.
www.naes.com

Turbine,
Industrial Cleaning
Literature produced
by Turbo Filtration
Corp. provides information on the
companys capabilities. The company,
based in Mobile, Alabama, U.S.A., provides turbine and
industrial cleaning.
Its services include
new construction
projects, normal
planned outages,
emergency outages
and plant restoration projects.
www.tfcglobal.com
May 2012

71
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To Get Your Own Copy?

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Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Ignition Coils

Pressure Switch

Motortech has produced a

catalog on its ignition coils for
gas engines. The catalog offers
a range of shielded and unshielded ignition coils for all
applications. Motortech coils
are manufactured in Germany
in a semi-automated process
coupled with modern highspeed winding equipment.
www.motortech.de

Ashcroft has introduced its latest A Series pressure switch, designed for industrial and OEM
installations. The switch, made
from 316 stainless steel, features
a weatherproof IP67 enclosure
and an operating temperature
from -40 to 100C.
www.ashcroft.com

Packing Vent
Monitor

CECO Compressor Engineering

Corp. has produced literature
on its electronic packing vent
monitor (ePV), which is designed to monitor gas compressor packing cases. The ePV can
be mounted or used as a portable device to meet U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Greenhouse Gases Reporting
Rule Subpart W requirements
for emissions monitoring.
www.tryceco.com

Pipe Endworking

Germany-based Arla Maschinentechnik has released

a new brochure describing
CNC machine tools for the
finishing of tubes and pipes.
This kind of machining is
necessary for the welding
end preparation like facing,
turning, and also for grooving
and threading. The catalog
presents all available machine
models and shows Arlas facing head technology.
www.arla.de

continued on page 74

May 2012
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Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Expander
Compressors

Gas Compression
Systems

Measurement And
Automation

Database System

Atlas Copco Mafi-Trench Co.

(ACMTC) has published literature on its new line of
standardized expander compressors, which are designed
for domestic natural gas processing installations. Features
include a seal-less design,
tilting pad radial bearings and
tapered land thrust bearings,
and expander and compressor wheels milled from solid
billets or forgings.
www.atlascopco.com

Literature on gas compression systems from GEA Refrigeration North America

Inc. is available. The companys
gas
compression
systems can handle gas turbine fuel gas boosting; CO2
compression and liquefaction; carbon sequestration;
enhanced oil recovery; hydrocarbon refining and dew
point control; and process
gas compression.
www.gearefrigeration.com

EnerSys Corp., an EnerACT

company, has published a
brochure on its capabilities.
The company offers products
and services for oil and gas
measurement and automation. Its capabilities include
design, fabrication, testing,
installation and commissioning. EnerSys, founded in
1994, is based in Houston,
Texas, U.S.A.
www.enersys.com

CSC has created a brochure

on its Petroleum Enterprise
Intelligence database system, which is a framework
that helps users integrate all
technical, operational and
financial information across
an enterprise into one unified system. The system is
designed for exploration and
production companies in the
oil industry.
www.csc.com

Midstream
Capabilities

Adsorbents

Valves, Actuators,
Adapters

Centrifugal
Compressors

Literature from Burns &

McDonnell provides information on the companys
capabilities as a midstream
specialist. The company has
experience in gas processing
and treating; compressor stations; environmental permitting and compliance; pipeline hydraulics; natural gas
liquid pump stations; turbo
expansion; amine treating;
and fractionation.
www.burnsmcd.com

BASF Catalysts has published

a portfolio on its range of adsorbents. Those adsorbents
include alumina, sorbead
and active bentonite adsorbents, as well as PuriStar
metal oxide-based products,
catalyst substrates and intermediates. The adsorbents are
designed for applications in
the refining, petrochemical,
chemical and gas processing
industries.
www.catalysts.gasf.com

ViNtrol Inc., a manufacturer

of flow control products
tailored for the oil and gas
industry, has published a
brochure listing its product
offerings. The company has
a range of actuators, flanges
and valves. The valve offerings include cast and forged
steel trunnion ball valves;
flanged and threaded floating ball valves, check valves,
and metal-seated and severeservice ball valves.
www.vintrol.com

A brochure from Cameron

details the companys process gas centrifugal compressors. The brochure lists
the companys compressor
technology, as well as the
components that make up
that technology. A table on
the advantages of Camerons
centrifugal compressor technology is also included.
www.c-a-m.com

May 2012

74

continued on page 77

CompressorTechTwo

This screen shot is

typical of the data
message that the GE
software sends operators when it identifies
a problem.

Software Uses Fault Patterns To

Prevent Compressor Failures
GE Updates its SmartSignal Shield 4.0
monitoring software
GE has introduced version 4.0 of
its Proficy SmartSignal Shield software
to detect equipment problems before
they become equipment failures.
It said in the oil and gas industry, the
software can be used for compressors,
turbines, gearboxes, generators, motors, piston engines and pumps.
The Proficy SmartSignal Shield provides early warnings of impending
equipment problems, diagnostic guidance and prioritized actionable intelligence to focus resources on the most
pressing issues.
GE developed the software, which
provides a continuous monitoring
service, using shared blind data from
its customers. With a database based
on millions of machine hours and
thousands of failures from more than
12,000 rotating and nonrotating machines, GE was able to identify fault
patterns in operating behavior and incorporate them into the software.
Shield 4.0 was built entirely with
the help of and input from our customers, said David Farrell, a senior
solutions manager for GE Intelligent
Platforms. Only GE has the customer
base to make this level of advanced
diagnostics possible.
The software routinely takes historical data and analyzes it to detect,
diagnose and prioritize impending
equipment problems. For each piece
of equipment, the software puts the
normal operating relationships among
may 2012

all relevant parameters, such as load,

temperatures, pressures, vibration
readings and ambient conditions,
into context.
Next, the software compares actual
sensor readings to that particular machines normal operating behavior.
This allows the software to detect and
identify events and abnormal behavior
for each piece of equipment by using
the differences between its real-time,
actual data and predicted, normal behavior, GE said.
When a problem is detected, the
software notifies the equipment operators and gives them a brief summary
of the problem, key tags and values.
Because it can model linear, nonlinear
and discontinuous data, the software
can also identify and compensate for
bad sensors, according to GE.
It said there are a limited number of
failure effects in instrumentation, and the
softwares diagnostic algorithms combine observations from multiple individual sensors to pinpoint these effects.
GE said that before the software was
developed, a variety of condition monitoring products focused on alerting
technicians to potential problems, but
none of them were able to diagnose
and prioritize the problems.
The Shield 4.0 release includes a suite
of applications that provides access to
diagnostics and rules, allowing users
to understand and adjust the software
based on their own expertise. A
75

B42
A, 9.1- 19
M
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H
AC
1C
GAZ, 2
NEFTE
BORSIG Compressor Parts
GmbH, a member of the BORSIG
Group, offers the following product
and service program:

Compressor Valves &

Reconditioning
Engineering &
Consultancy

Condition Monitoring
in Real Time
Capacity Control
Systems

Individual Products &

Special Applications
Customer focus, innovative engineering, highly qualified workforce
- BORSIG Compressor Parts
GmbH is your reliable partner for
reciprocating compressor parts.
For more information,
please contact:

BORSIG Compressor
Parts GmbH
Lise-Meitner-Str. 10
D-24941 Flensburg
Germany

Phone: +49 (0) 461 / 9871-0

Fax: +49 (0) 461 / 9871-1
E-mail: info@cp.borsig.de
www.borsig.de/cp

CompressorTechTwo

Colombias major gas

pipelines

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

The Promise of Colombia

Government opens new acreage to
oil and gas exploration
By Roberto Chellini

Foreign investors are looking with

renewed interest at Colombia, where
oil and gas reserves are already considered large but most of the territory
is still unexplored or under-explored.
The Colombian government is willing to attract foreign investors and has
opened 52,000 sq.mi. (135,000 km2)
of acreage to oil and gas exploration.
The acreage is divided into 109 blocks
spread across several regions some
of which are under-explored, such as
Colombias mountain ranges, jungles
and Caribbean coastal areas.
Canadian independent Pacific Rubiales, Colombias largest foreign oil
producer, reported 109% year-overyear net income growth in 2011, bringing profits to US$554 million for the
year. The results also point to healthy
operational fundamentals, including
51% year-over-year growth in proven
and probable reserves, 547% reserves
May 2012

replacement and 52% in year-over-year

production growth.
These operational results put the
company on a strong footing, suggesting 2012 could be another record year.
Nevertheless, labor strikes, delays and
transportation problems pose a threat
to such a positive outlook.
Although 2011 net production
(after royalties) was 52% higher
than in 2010 at 86,497 bbl/d of oil
equivalent, strikes at the companys
flagship field Rubiales and a
slower-than-expected start up at the
Quifa Norte field have harmed operations. As a result, the company reported gross field production at the
end of the year of 218,450 bbl/d
short of its 250,000 to 260,000 bbl/d
production guidance.
Transportation problems have constrained the companys output, although investment in new pipelines
76

over the coming years should see production accelerate.

Despite these setbacks, the firm remains positive about its prospects in
2012. The company plans to spend
US$285 million to drill 285 development wells, with a focus on developing the Southwest Quifa and Quifa
Norte fields, as well as continuing with
expansions at Rubiales.
A further US$560 million will be
spent on facilities, with about 40% of
that going to the Quifa fields and 30%
going to Rubiales, offering new opportunities for South American gas compression equipment providers.
Pacific Rubiales success story is
likely to draw other investors to the
country. Business Monitor International (BMI) expects Colombias 2012
Open Round to record a strong showing that should help boost reserves
from an estimated 1.86 million bbl
in 2011 to 2.50 million bbl by 2015.
Production should also experience
a significant acceleration in growth,
with output rising from an estimated
903,000 bbl/d in 2011 to 1.46 million
bbl/d in 2018.
The construction of an oil and gasfocused port in Cartagena is good
news for its shipping and freight transport sector and more good news for
compression manufacturers, who have
struggled to handle increasing volumes
as the countrys extractive-industry
boom continues.
BMI expects Colombias oil and
gas exports to continue rising steadily
during the forecast period, ensuring
there will be ample volume to supply
the new facility. Colombian holding
company Pacific Infrastructure plans
to begin operations at the Puerto
Baha port complex in Cartagena on
Colombias Caribbean coast by the
end of 2013.
As well as the port construction,
Pacific Infrastructure is investing
US$300 million to build a 90 mi. (145
km) pipeline to the port. The Olecar
pipeline can be expanded to 300,000
bbl/d, but start-up capacity will be
180,000 bbl/day. The company expects other firms will buy into the
pipeline project to secure extra transport capacity.
Pacific Rubiales also is continuing
its Colombian investments. It recently signed an agreement with Belgian
company Exmar to build and operate
a floating liquefied natural gas (LNG)
terminal, the first for Colombia.
Rubiales subsidiary Pacific Stratus
will supply up to 7 Bcfy (197 x 106
m3/yr) to the LNG unit from its onshore La Creciente field in northern
Colombia, via a pipeline to the Caribbean coast. a

CompressorTechTwo

Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Hydrocarbons
The Gas Processors
Association
has
created a brochure
titled Table of
Physical Properties
for Hydrocarbons
and Other Compounds of Interest to the Natural
Gas Industry. The
literature provides
gas processing professionals with a
compilation of numerical values for
the paraffin hydrocarbons and other compounds that
occur in natural gas and natural gas liquids.
www.gpaglobal.com

Engineering & Services

A brochure from Technip provides information on the
companys engineering capabilities and services. The brochure has an upstream engineering section, with topics
on subsea, pipeline, riser technology and well systems,
floating systems, fixed platform, and topside facilities engineering. The upstream and downstream engineering
section contains information on process engineering and
gas processing.
www.technip.com

Dilution Ad_Layout 1 4/24/2012 4:32 PM Page 1

Machinery Repair
Baton Rouge Machine Works Inc.
provides
24-hr.
machinery repair
services from an
80,000 sq.ft. (7400
m2) facility in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A Valve
and pump repair
are
specialties,
but the company
also offers machinery services
such as journal
and shaft repairs, metal locking and casting repairs,
contract millwright services, and metal locking and
casting work. It can provide complete parts fabrication in a variety of metals and alloys.
www.brmw.net

High Speed Gear Drives

Lufkin Industries
Inc. is publicizing its offerings of
high-speed precision gear drives.
The drives are
available for axial,
centrifugal, process, reciprocating, refrigeration
and rotary compressors. They are
also available for
various pumps,
fans, generators,
and turbines. The Lufkin, Texas, U.S.A.-based company said each high-speed gear unit undergoes rotor dynamics analysis to assure smooth operation
under all working conditions.
www.Lufkin.com
May 2012

Problem Solving
Synthetic Lubricants
Lubricant Dilution?

Lubricants used in oil flooded compressors will

tend to absorb the gas being compressed.

This is especially true for hydrocarbon gases with

high BTU content. This absorption results in a

thinning of the oils viscosity and compromises

its ability to properly lubricate bearings. The
effect is known as dilution. To combat this

problem, Summit has developed specialized

equipment that measures a lubricant s change

in viscosity under gas stream and compressor
conditions. Were able to use that information

to predict the dilution effect a gas stream will

have on different lubricant base stocks and
choose a lubricant will meet your specific
OEM compressor specifications.

Prevent dilution and protect your compressor

Summit

Industrial Products

800.749.5823

www.klsummit.com
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Raeanna Haight, Puzzle Master

Field Service Technology

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Visit www.compressortech2.com for answers.

May 2012

78

CompressorTechTwo

Marketplace CompressorTechTwo
EXPLOSION PROOF

AC&DC ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS

STARTER MOTORS ALTERNATORS
SWITCHES CLASS I, DIV. 1&2, GROUP D
UNITED STATES ENERGY CORPORATION

A World of
Opportunity

CAREERS AT
COOK COMPRESSION

1600 MISSILE WAY, ANAHEIM, CA 92801

(714) 871-8185 (714) 871-9229 FAX

WWW.USENERGYCORPORATION.COM

Cook Compression is currently recruiting

skilled and professional people in the natural
gas compressor industry. Now is the time to
join an established and growing company
that offers excellent benefits and growth
opportunities. We are recruiting for the
following positions in Odessa, Texas:

Custom Reprints
Available

Name: US Energy Corp. 2003

Size: 1 Col x 1 in.

Articles in COMPRESSORTechTwo can be re

printed at a very reasonable cost and used
for effective direct mail purposes, answering
inquiries, trade show distribution and many
other sales development activities. These re
prints can be produced to your specifications
in one or multi-color formats on selected paper
in standard 8 x 10 1/2 or DIN A4 sizes. Layout
production services are also available. Contact
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Mary Graesing
mgraesing@dieselpub.com
Phone: 262-754-4147
Fax: 262-754-4177

Manufacturing & Production Managers

Mechanical Engineering Manager
Purchasing Supervisor / Buyer
(CIRM, CPIM, or CSCP certification is a plus)

Safety & Environmental Manager

Inside Sales
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Manual Machinists
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CNC Operators
Quality Control

Cook Compression is a Division of Dover

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Cook.indd 1

Cook Compression is a leading provider of

engineered components, monitoring
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reciprocating compressors. Cook Compression
offers excellent wages, 401k, profit sharing,
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We are recruiting candidates with three or
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Qualified applicants should contact:
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P.O. Box 1209
Odessa, Texas 79760
hr@cookcompression.com
Fax: 432-366-7017

A Division of Dover Corporation

CookCompression.com

4/24/12 5:23 PM

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79

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4/23/12 10:02 AM

May

Advertisers Index

Company Name

Page Number

Company Name

Page Number

Company Name

Page Number

ACI Services, Inc. ......................................................... 36

www.aciservicesinc.com

DCL International Inc. .................................................... 7

www.dcl-inc.com

KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts Mfg. ..................... 27

www.kbdelta.com

Altronic, Inc. ................................................................2-3

www.altronic-llc.com

Dresser-Rand................................................................ 35
www.dresser-rand.com

Kiene Diesel Accessories, Inc. ................................... 32

www.kienediesel.com

ARIEL............................................................................... 1
www.arielcorp.com

DYNALCO...................................................................... 69
www.dynalco.com

ARMCO Compressor Products Corp. ........................ 43

www.armcocompressor.com

MIRATECH Corporation............................................... 11
www.miratechcorp.com

E Instruments International......................................... 34
www.E-Inst.com

MOTORTECH GmbH................................................14-15
www.motortechamericas.com

ECOM America.............................................................. 71
www.ecomusa.com

Murphy, FW.................................25, 57, & Fourth Cover

www.fwmurphy.com

Elliott Group..............................................Second Cover

www.elliott-turbo.com

M-Squared P & S, Inc. .................................................. 60

www.m-squaredinc.com

*Ellwood Crankshaft Group........................................... 32

www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com

Neuman & Esser Group............................................... 31

www.neuman-esser.com

FLP, Fluid Line Products............................................. 73

www.fluidline.com

PROGNOST Systems GmbH........................................ 55

www.prognost.com

FS-Elliott, Co., LLC....................................................... 23

www.fs-elliott.com

*Rolls-Royce..................................................................... 9
www.rolls-royce.com

Gastech 2012................................................................. 79
www.gastech.co.uk

S2M, an SKF Group Company..................................... 34

www.S2M.fr

*GE Oil & Gas.................................................................... 5

www.geoilandgas.com

Summit Industrial Products......................................... 77

www.klsummit.com

GT Exhaust, Inc. ........................................................... 51

www.gtexhaust.com

Tech Transfer, Inc. ..................................................20-21

www.techtran-hou.com

GUARDIAN Engine + Compressor Control ................. 47

www.guardiancontrol.com

Testo, Inc. .....................................................Third Cover

www.testo350.com

Hahn Manufacturing Company.................................... 60

www.hahnmfg.com

* Voith Turbo BHS Getriebe GmbH................................ 37

www.voithturbo.de/bhs-gears

Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers............................... 49

www.harscoaxc.com

* Voith Turbo Inc. ........................................................... 48

www.voithturbo.com

Hoerbiger Kompressortechnik Holding GmbH.....18-19

www.hoerbiger.com

Waukesha Bearings...................................................... 70
www.waukeshabearings.com

ITW Chockfast Grout.................................................... 46

www.chockfastgrout.com

Woodward, Inc. ............................................................ 63

www.woodward.com

AXH air-coolers............................................................. 65
www.axh.com
BG Service Co. Inc, The............................................... 39
www.bgservice.com
BorgWarner BERU Systems GmbH............................ 45
www.beru.borgwarner.com
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH................................ 75
www.borsig-zm.com
Burckhardt Compression AG...................................... 29
www.recip.com/api618
Camerons Compression Systems Group.............40-41
www.c-a-m.com
Catalytic Combustion Corporation............................. 53
www.catalyticcombustion.com
CECO, Compressor Engineering Corp. ..................... 67
www.tryceco.com
Chart Cooler Service Company
Aftermarket Division..................................................... 61
www.chart-ec.com
Continuous Control Solutions..................................... 17
www.ccsia.com
Cook Compression....................................................... 59
www.cookcompression.com
CPI, Compressor Products
International.................................................................. 13
www.c-p-i.com
CPI Lubrication Group................................................. 33
www.c-p-i.com

* Further information on this companys products can be found

in the 2011 Edition of the Global Sourcing Guide (at GSGnet.net) and 2012 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).

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