UNIT-III

Main componentsof a LaserThe main conponents of a laser givenas1.Active Material - Active material such as the
substance have many number of free electrons.
And also have Met stable states.
Resonant Civity- it is a specially prepared
cylindrical tube in which light intensity can boil
up by multiply reflections. The ends of the tube
are

silvered,

one

end

is

made

perfectly

reflecting while the other end is made partially

transmitting , so that a very intense bean can
emery cut from is.
Pumping system-

By

this

the

population

inversion is achieved . in population inversion

state the Number of atoms in hither energy state
are more than that in lower energy state (i.c.N 2
>N 1 ) Under ordinary conditions most of the
atoms are in the ground state or lower energy
state E 1 and every small Number of a forms in

higher energy state E 2 i.e.(N 2 <N 1 ) under normal

condition so that there is a little chance of
stimulated

emission

as

compared

with

absorption therefore an incident photon is more

likely to be absorbed them to cause stimuli ted
emission. A large number of atoms are available
in higher energy state (E 2 ) stimulated emission
is promoted (i.e N 2 >N 1 )This condition makes
probability of stimulated emission greater than
the probability of induced absorption.
Principle of laser action- The principle of laser
is based on stimulated emission. The stimulated
emission is the process in which a photon of
right energy may induce an atom in excited
state to emit a photon and makes a transition to
the ground state. The excited atom would itself
emit photon and make a transition to the ground
state. But the incident photon of right energy
induces the excited atom to emit photon earlier.
The process may be represented symbolically as
follows-

Atom + proton atom+ 2 photon

This type of transition with emission of photon
is called the stimulated emission. The special
characteristic of stimulated emission is that the
two photons that are emitted coherent and
possess exactly the energy and same direction.
in the laser action, consider a group of a toms
all in the same excited state. A passing photon
may cause stimulated emission in one of these
a tons. This results in two coherent photons of
same frequency. Each of these two excited
atoms. Thus there will be now four more
excited atoms emit four photons. Now there will
be

produce

photons.

The

process

in

cumulative with the result that we get an intense

beam of coherent photons moving in the same
direction. This is the profile of operation.
Types of laser- There are several ways in which
we can classify the different types of laser,
Accordingly laser are broadly classified in to
five categories-

Solide state lasers- the term solid state has

different meaning in the field of electronics and
laser. A solid state laser is one in which the
active center are fixed in a crystal or glasry
material . the solid state lasers are.Rady laser
Nd- yag laser
Nd Glass laser
Tunable solid state laser etc.
2.Gas Lasers- Gas lasers are the most widely used
lasers. They have range from the law used in collage
laboratories and very high power co 2 laser used in
industrial application .there are different types of
gas lasers ion lasers natural atom lasers and
molecular lasers.
The first gas laser was (He-He)laser, which was
demonstrated

in

1961

at

Bell

telephone

laboratories.in USA by Ali javan.the different types

of gas lasers are
He-He laser
Argon laser
He-cd laser

Carbon diocxide laser

Excimer laser.
3.Dye lasers or liquid laser- Dye laser belongs to the
family of liquid laser the active material is a dye
dissolved in a host medium of a liquid solvent, such
as ethylene glycol. The dye laser differs from others
lasers that emit light at a fixed wavelength.
4.Semiconduetor

lasers- Semiconductor

lasers

is

fabricated p-n junction device that emits current

light ,when it is forword biased.
The first semiconductor lasers made in 1962 by
R.N.Hall and his coworkers of general electric
R&D Laboratories in U.S.A.It was made from
gallium

arsenide

(GaAs),which

orated

at

low

temperature and emoted light in the near infrared.

5.Chemical Laser- Chemical Lasers depends on the
excitation of atoms in the laser systems deseribed so
far was accomplished by optical pumping of an
electric discharge . the distribution of energy an

energy level system which follows a chemical

reaction might result exclusively in excited state
leaving lower states completely depopulated. Hence
achemical reaction could be extremely efficient this
types of laser
Hu Laser
Hf Laser
Solide state laser- The laser systems using active
material in solid state are called solid state lasers.
The material used for laser active should have story
absorption bands and high degree of quam tum
efficiency for fluorescent transists. The crystals of
glases having these characteristics are doped with
small amount of depots the do pants have optical
transitions between inner incomplete atomic shells .
The dopant materials having this characteristic areTransition elements like er 3+
Rare earth elements like Nd +3
Actinide series elements like U 3+

The premed materials must have pumping transition

in the broad band. The optical pumping can be
achieve by sources of light like are lamps, flash
lamps. The host material crystalline solide and
glasses, must have the following.
CharacteristicsThe material must be hard and chemically inert.
The material must power excellent optical, the
small and mechanical properties.
The material should have no internal strain or
impurity
The refractive index of material should be
constant the ragout
The material should
radiation.
The valiancy of

not

be

damaged

by

do pant ion must match with

the host ion. the cries tagline materials used as

hosts have clearer and sharper emission of
fluorescence

as

compared

to

glasses

.the

commonly used crystalline hats are sappier

( Al 2 o 3 )yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) and
calcium tungsten oxide(Cawo 4 ) the commonly

used glass hosts are silicate and phosphate

glasses. Some of common combination of do
pant and hostage
C r Al o
Nd +3 -YAG
Nd +3 -Caw o
Nd +3 - Class
The spectral range of solid state laser with in
+3

0.6 micro to 2.5microns.

Selection of Material for selection of material
for selected state lasers, the following points
must be kept in mind.
1.The fluorescent line with of the material should be
quite narrow.
2.There should be broad and intense absorption
bands.
There band must match with the spectral cut put of
the pump for effective utilization of pump radiation.
3. The host crystal must be strong and tough to work
eve under of severs ,operating conditions.

4. the non- radioactive life time of the upper level

taking part in laser action must be much greater than
the spontance oust radioactive life time of the atom.
This condition is necessary for better internal
efficiency of laser.
Difficulties in laser process- 1. The like time of an
excited state is of the order of 10 -8 second. This
means that before on excited atom be stimulated to
emit photon, it is most likely to make a spontaneous
emission. The photon, it is most likely to make a
spontaneous emission are not coherent . the Number
of excited atoms next and Number of atoms (No) in
ground state are related as Mex=No
Where

E=( E 2E1 )

is

the

e E / KBT

energy

difference

between the ground state and the excited state,

k B is the Bolt 2 Mans constant and it is
temperature in Kelvin. For radiation by a toms
E

<<K BT ,Hence in thermal equilibrium the

population of higher energy states in much

smaller than that of ground state.
The incident photon of appropriate energy is
likely to be absorbed by absorption is same as
that

of

stimulated

emission.

As

that

of

stimulated emission. As the population of

unexcited atoms is much larger than that of
excited atoms ans moreover that life time of
excited states is very short. Due to these two
reasons most of the photons of the incident
radiation

cause

induced

absorption

so

the

probability of stimulated emission is very small.

Removal of above difficulties- the above
difficulties may be removed by.Taking to active material having three energy
states, out of which the intermediate energy
state is metes table state.
Choosing a suitable resonant cavity, having
perfect reflector at the other end.
Creating population inversion by pumping, so
that the number of atoms in excited met stable
state is more than the atoms in ground state.

Three level lasers- Two level laser is not

possible

practically

due

to

following

two

reasonsIn a two level laser, the population inversion is

not possible.
The upon met stable level must have narrow
band to get a monochromatic transition, while
the pumping radiation has a comparatively
broader band of frequencies. this will effect the
efficiency of laser system.
Out the these two reasons, the first one is more
serious . that is why laser action employs three
or four energy states. To explain the laser action
considers a three energy level active material as
show in the figure.

In the figure E 1 ground state energy ,E 2 is the energy

met stable state and E 3 is the energy of excited state.
By supplying energy (by optical pumping)a large
Number of atoms are raised from ground state level
E 1 to any of the levels in the broad, excited Energy

band E 3. In excited state, atones decal rapidly to

Energy level E 2 by spontaneous emission. The
Energy difference level E 2 greater then number N 1
in ground state E 1 so population inversion achieved
this condition necessary for laser action.
Let N 1 ,N 2 and N 3 present the Number of atoms per
unit

volume

in

energy

levels

E 1 ,E 2

And

E 3 ,respectively. we assume that only these three

levels are populated and the transitions take place
only bet between levels. Then the total number of
atoms per unit volume.
N=N 1 +N 2 +N 3 ..
(1)
Population of level 3 changes due to induced
abruption from level 1 to level 3 (1
emission from level 3

3) 1 stimulated

There for the rate of change of population of level 3

is given by the equation.

dn3
= ( n1n2 )N 3 T 32
dt

(2)
Where we is the probability of induced absorption
for transition 3
transition 3

1and T 32 is the probability for

Further T 32 =A 32 +S 32 ..
(3)
Where is Einsteins coefficient corresponding to a
radioactive Transition rate S 32 in the non-radiative
transition rate from level 3 to level 2.

dn2
=wi ( n 1n2 ) +N 3 T 32n2T
dt
21

. (4)

Where first term represents the net stimulated

transition between level land 2, the second term
represents the spontaneous transition from level
3 to level 2 and the last term the spontaneous
transition from level 2 to level 1. The Quantity

w 1 is proportional to Einstein Coefficient B 21

and the energy density associated with lasing
1 if this

transition 2
Then

T 21

<A 21

transition is radioactive.
where

A 21

the

electronic

client.similargy the rate o change of population

of level is given by
.

N
w1 ( 2N 1 )+n2 T
dn1
=w p ( n3 n1 ) +
dt
21

(5)

Where the first and second terms represent the

stimulated transition between levels 1 and 3 and
the

last

term

represents

the

spontaneous

transition from level 2 level.

As N is constant so from equation (1)
dn1
dt

dn2 dn3
+
dt dt

=0 (6)

Equation (2),(4),(5) gives the rate of change of

populations of three levels and are called the rate
equations of a three level laser system at steady
state, the time derivative of population os each level
is zero ie

dn1
dt

=0,

From

dn2
dn
=0, 3
dt
dt

g n (2 ) putting

=0

dn3
=0N 2=N 3 for condition
dt

Wp (N 1 -N 2 )-N 3 T 32 =0
Wp (N 1 -N 3 )-N 3 T 32 =0

Wp N 1 -wpN 3 =N 3 T 32

=N 3 T 32 +Wp N 1 =N 3 (wp+t 32 )
wpn1
=N 3 + t32

.(7)

Similarly from

g n

(4) putting

dn2
t
3

=0

Wi(N 1 -N 2 )+N 3 T 32 N 2 T 21 =0

W i N i -W i H 2 +N 3 T 32 -N 2 T 21 -N 2 T 21 =0
W i N i -N 3 T 32 =W i N 2 +N 2 T 21 =N 2
W i W i+ T 32 N 3
W i+ T 21

.(8)

Using

N2

(7)

N2

i+T 32
W i +T 32
N1
(
)
W i +T 21 wi +t 21

W i N i +T 32(

W pN

+t 32

W i +T 21

(8)

The population difference between level 2 and 1 is

N 2N 1
N1+ N 2+ N3

Using

equations

(1)(2)

and

(8)

the

rutioof

population difference of level 1 and 2 and the total

Number of a atoms is
N 2N 1
N 2N 1
=
..(9)
N
N1+ N2+ N3

Similar from we finf the value of N 3, N 2, N 1, and put

in

(9)

Then we find

N 2N 1
N

wp

T
( 32T 21)T 32T
3 w p w i+3 T +2T 32 wi+T

21

21

32

w p+T

32

T 21

(10)

From this equation it is obvious that for population

inversion between levels 1ie for N 2 >N 1 then
T 32 >T 21 ..(10)
As the relaxation times of a tons in level 3 and 2
inversely

proportional

to

the

corresponding

relaxation rates. There for in according with

g n

(10) for achieving population inversion, the life time

of level 2 must be greater than the life time of level
3 i.e. energy state to must be met stable state.
In assertion to this condition in order tracheae
population inversion a minimum pump power is
required for this the minimum value of WP from
equation (9)is giving.
(wp)min (T 32 T 21 )- T 32 T 21 =0

(wp)min =

T 32 T 21
T 32T 21

..(11)

Thus for population inversion the following two

conditions must be satisfied (1)the level 2 must be a
meta stable state.

Wp> =

T 32 T 21
T 32 T 21

Above figure represent four level E 1, E 2, E 3, E 4, .

Are the energies of level, E 1 being ground state , E4
Exited state and E 3 Mta stable state and E 2 other met
stable state the pumping source carries some of the
atoms from ground level to one of the higher excited
level of energy E 4 the life times of excited state E 2
and E 4 is avout 10 -8 second while that of level E 3 is
about 10 -3
Second so that E 3is matestable state .there are three
transition is this process
There is a rapid non-radioactive decay from
level E 4 to level E 3

As E 3 is a met stable state there is a lasing

action between E 3 and E 2
There is a non radioactive rapid decay from
level E 2 to E 1 however it so happens that the
transition E 4
as compared

E 3 and E 2
to E 3

E 1 are much faster

E 2 Hence it is easy to

achieve population inversion with a four level

system than with a three level system.
The level 4 could be a collection of large number of
levels or a broad level than an optical pump milting
radiation over a band of frequencies can efficiently
excite atom from level 1to level 4 also the can not
be the upon laser level be cause the upper laser level
is required to be mirror.
Moreover the pumping power required in four level
laser is much less than a three level system. Because
in Faure level system there is no need to excite more
than half of the atoms from the ground state to get a
population inversion. This results greater efficiency
of a four level laser system than that of three level

system. H e -N e and nd YAG lasers comes in four

level lasers.
Let N 1, N 2, N 3, N 4, =constant (1)
The rate of change of population pr unit volume of
level 4 is giving by
Dn 4
= ( n1n 4 )T 4 N 4 .(2)
dt

Where

wp

n
( 1n 4 )

represents

the

net

rate

of

stimulated transited occurring between levels 1and 4

caused by pumping, T 4 is the net relaxation rates
from level 4 to any lower level (1,2,3....)then T 4
=

T 43 + T 42 + T 41 .(3)where T 4 represent

total relaxation rates (i.e. both radioactive and non

radioactive)T 43 is much greater than T 24 and t 41 so
most of the atoms pumed to level 4 dropdown to
level 3 the second term in equation(2) represent the
rate at which atoms deejay from level 4

The rate of change of population perunit volum of

level 3 will be given byDn 4
=
dt

T 32

T 4

+w i

(N 2

N 3 )-

=0

T3

N 3

..(4)
Where T 3 =T 32 +T 31
In equation (4) the first termterpresentsthe rate at
which the items jump from level 4 to level 3 the
second

term

represent

the

rate

of

stimulated

transition from level 2 to level 3 due to presence of

laser radiation and the third term represents threat of
loss of atoms from level 3 to levels 2 and 1 through
spontaneous transitions. Similarly the population
rate of level N 2 and would be
Dn 4
=
dt

T 32

T 4

+w i

(N 2

N 3 )-

=0

T3

N 3

..(5)
And

Dn 4
=
dt

T 41

N 3 +T 21 N 2 ..(6)

N4

+w p

(N 4

N 1 )+T 31

The inter predation of different term in above

equations are similar as in equation(4)
As N is constant for all Rates then
Dn 1 Dn 2 Dn3 Dn 4 Dn 5
+
+
+
+
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

=0..(7)

For steady stateDn 1 Dn 2 Dn 3 Dn 4

=
=
=
=
dt
dt
dt
dt

0..(8)

In most four level lasers the atoms from level 4 go

primarily to level 3 and hence T 42 << T 43 and T 41 <<
T 43 Also the atoms from level 3 go to level 2 i.e.
T 3 =T 32
Under these circumstances we see that in order to
obtain population inversion N 3 > N 2 we must have
T 21 >T 32 this means that the rate of decay of a toms
from level 2 to 1 must be greater than the rate of
decay from level 3to2 under this condition the
creation of population inversion between levels 3
and 2 is independent of the pumping power (wp) but

the magnitude of population inversion depends on

wp.
For a good laser action T 3 << T 43 and T 21 >> T 32 and
T4

T 43 under such an approximation the population

difference

/ T 3
1
n3n / T 3
=

.(9)

Equation(9) shoes that the population inversion can

be achieved much more easier in four level system
that the three level system.
It consist of pink ruby cylindrical rod whole ends
are optically flat and parallel .one end is fully
silvered and other is only partially silvered. The rod
is surrounded by a glass tube upon which is would a
coiled flesh lamp filled with xenon gas as shown
above figure.(a)
The ruby rod is a crystal of aluminum oxide (Al 2 o 2 )

Doped with 0.05% chromium oxide (CR 2 o 3 ),so that

some of the aluminum atoms in the crystal lattice
are replaced by chromium ions (Cr +++ )it is the small
amount of chromium ions which given pink color to
the Ruby.
As seen from the energy level diagram

the

chromium ion has two energy band E 1 and E 2 above

its ground level G and met stable level in slightly
below the energy land E 1 the level M has a life time
of about 3

10 -3 second)

Which is about 10 5

time s

greater than the life time of

other exited levels E 1 and E 2 (which is

10 -8

second)
When a flash of light falls upon the ruby rod, the
green and yellow light photons are absorbed by the
chromium ion which are excited to energy states E 1
and E 2 there absorption transitions 1 and 2 are the
pumping transition he excited ions give up by
collision a part of their energy to the crystal lattice

and

pass

to

the

mates

table

state.

In

the

corresponding transition 3and 4 are thus non

radioactive since the state in has Avery long life, the
number of ions in this state goes on increasing and
exceeds

the

population

number
inversion

in

ground

is

state

established

thus

between

detestable state M and ground state G. Shown above

figure. (2)
When an (exited) ion passes spontaneously from the
detestable state to the gaunt state (transitions) it
emit a red photon of wave long in 6943A this photon
travels through the ruby red and it is moving
parallel to the axis of the crystal is reflected back
and forth the causes it to emit a fresh photon in
phase

with

the

stimulation

photon

(stimulated

transitionsition 6) the process is repeated again and

again because the photons repeatedly move along
the crystal, being reflected from its ends. The
photon

thus

multiplies,

when

photon

beam

sufficiently intense part of it emerges through the

partially silvered end of the crystal.
He-Ne (Helium Neon) LASER
He-Ne (Helium Neon) laser consist of a narrow
discharge tube filled with a mixture of Helium and
Mean in the ratio of 10 % the pressure inside tube is
maintained at 1 mm of tlg.M 1 andM 2

are

two mirrors

(plane or concave) kept at the ends of the take.

Mirror M 1 is highly silvered and M 2 is partially
transparent as Shawn above figure (a)
M 1 andM 2 to gather constitute a resonating system.
When electrodes are connected to a source of high
potential electric discharge passes. Helium atoms
excited first due to collision of helium atoms with
neon atoms they are excited. These oscillations
result in population inversion is reached any of the
spontaneously emitted photons will trigger laser
action in tube. A will collimated monochromatic
intense beam emergs out of the tube .Gas laser are
preferred compared to ruby laser because the laser

beam is more directional and monochromatic intence

beam emergs out ot the tube .Gas laser are preferred
compared to ruby laser be cause the laser beam is
more directional and monochromatic. Moreover gas
laser can be operated continuously and there is no
need for frequent cooling as in case of solid state
laser.
The laser action takes place in neon atoms he is the
mixture serves the only purpose to enhance the
excitation process the strongest emission line occur
between 25 and 2 p level with a wake ling in 11573
A0
IONICLASERS

I. Argon ion laser

There is a special class of gas lasers called noble

ion lasers. These lasers operates in ionized species
of the gases like Argon neon, krypton and xenon,
therefore these are called .Ionic lasers . the argon
and krypton ion lasers provide out put in the form of

continuous wave, through some of them can operate

in pulse mode too.
Argon ion laser consist of Argon ion as laser
medium and operates in visible and ultraviolet
spectral

region.

About

25

different

visible

wavelengths can be evolved with argon ion laser

between 408.9 and 686.1nm. they can also operates
in tho ultraviolet wavelengths between 275 and 363
nm. A schematic diagram of Argon ion laser is given
blowLike He-Ne laser, Argon ion laser consists of a
resonant cavity (or tube) made of graphite or
beryllium oxide having He-Ne laser, an additional
tube called the Return Tube is provided in Argon ion
laser.
Due to high current density, Argon ion (Ar t ) move
towards negative electrode and electrons (

) moves

towards positive electrode, the return longer than

the laser tube itself to arrest the electric discharge

and stop it from passing through the laser tube. At

the high
current density the tube may get damaged due to
collision by not ions with the tube walls.
The temperature of ions in about 3000 k. that is
why the tube is made of graphite or beryllium oxide.
Asiatic magnetic field is applied parallel the tube In
the discharge region to reduces to diffusion rate of
electrons towards the walls of the tube .the most
intense wavelength .the most intense wavelength are
1=488 nm

2=514.5nm

(in blue region) and

(in

gradation region) the two wave long the are quite

important because the
photographs

and

photo emissive

human

eye

have

cathode
maximum

response. At this wave long the oscillation response

at this wavelength may be selected by placing prism
inside the resonant cavity.
2. Krypton ion Laser (An ionic Laser)

Krypton ion laser is similar to Argon ion laser in

energy levels and characteristics. It is note that the
krypton ion laser can be produced by Argon-ion
laser, just by replacing Argon by krypton in the
resonant tube. Due to difference in wake lengths the
laser reflectors are required to match the laser wove
length. The wave long range 406.7 n m to 676.4 n m
.the

dominant

wave

nm,413.1nm,530.5nm,568.2

length
n

are

406.7

m,647.1nm

and

676.4nm. The strongest transition is at 676.4nm is

red region of visible spectrum. The emption ion
lasers provide brooder spectrum of wave lengths and
high power output than give by Argon ion lasers.
Ionic lasers find their applications in pumping dye
lasers, call sytometry, stereo lithography, laser
printing sand photo the eye. Argon ion lasers are
very efficient pumping derive for titanium- sapphire
lasers and krypton ion lasers are used in call
cytometry this means these laser beams can count
different categories of living calls.

Molecular gas laser -(Carbon Dioxide Lasers)

In molecular gas laser the active material is in
molecular state .the molecular lasers are carbon
dioxide and nitrogen lasers .Carbon dioxide lasers is
the most deficient laser amongst the different of
presentable available lasers. These lasers used a
mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
A carbon dioxide molecule is made up of three
atom (one carbon and two oxygen atoms) thus in
addition

to

electronic

motions,

atoms

in

the

molecule may vibrate in different modes or rotate

about different axes. Three modes of vibration of
molecule of carbondioxid shown asThus the molecule is characterized not only by
electronic levels but also by rotational and vibration
energy levels.
Each electronic level is split in to various
vibration sub level (due to vibration motion) and
each vibration level is further subdivided in to

various rotational sublevels. The energy difference

between various electronic levels corresponding to
visible region, while the energy difference between
various visible region, while the energy difference
between various vibration level corresponding to
infrared region and the energy difference between
vicious rotational levels corresponding to far in
fared region of the spectrum.
Carbon dioxide lasers have been prepared in
different structure
1. Wave guide carbon dioxide laser
2. Transverse excitation atmospheric laser.
3. Longitudinal Excited laser
4. Gas dynamic laser.
Diagram of longitudinally excited Co 2 laser is
shown.
It is conventional gas discharge lager having long
cylindrical narrow glass enclosure with electrodes
at both ends. The windows W 1 andW 2 at the ends
of enclosure are fitted at an Angle the electrodes

current to a radio frequency power supply which

provides current for the discharge. The enclosure
is filled with a mixture of Co 2 in the Ratio
00.8:1.the additional N2gas to Co2 increasing the
efficiency
of this laser.
Carbon- dioxide lasers are much more efficient as
compared to other gas laser. The reason is that in
other gas lasers, the de-excitation from the lower
laser level to the ground level involves a
sufficient amount of energy, which is last and is
not contributed to output laser beam. On the other
hand in carbon dioxide lesser. The level taking
part in laser action is vibration rotational levels
of the lowest electronic level . these levels are
very close to the ground level and a large portion
of the input energy is converted in to the output
laser energy there by resulting in very high
efficiency.
Exciter laser

Exciter laser

is a molecular

laser in which the active molecule is always in

excited state the lasing action used vibration

energy levels of the molecule.
The rare gases like helium, neon argon and
krypton are considered as inert gates and in
general the rare gas atoms do not form molecule
with any other atom. The reason is that rare gas
atoms form closed shells of electrums. However,
if the rare gas atoms are in excited state, the
criterion

is

different

An

evicted

atom

of

neon(Me) is similar to sodium (Na) atom and

hence it is viable of taking part in a chemical
reaction similarly an exited argon atom (Ar)
behave like potassium (K)atoms.
The following chemical reaction takes place
K+F 2

(K + F)+F

In analogy one aNy expect the reaction of the typeAr+F 2 =(Ar + F - )+F
The exciter lasers are formed by combining arraigns
atom and a halogen atom (chlorine, fluorine,
bromine or iodine)the rare gas halide, so formed is

always in exited state. Whose energy is related to

the excited state of the component atom of rare gas.
If the rare gas is not excited no reaction with the
halogen donor (F 2 ) will take place. On account of
repulsion between positive charge .the atoms will
repel each other at small nuclear spacing.

Thus a

bound active molecule is in excited state hence the

name Drummer laser. The excited molecular state is
formed by one atom in ground state and the other
not exist .In around state the molecule dissociated in
to atoms. The lasing action takes place due to
transition between upper bound state and the lower
unbound level.
Above figure shows the energy versus inter nuclear
separation in ground state and excited state. The
ground state is repelling so the male clue does not
exist in this state, which means that molecule is in
dissociated (atomic) stated for excited state the
curve

touches

minimum,

which

means

the

existence of molecule in excited state. Exciter lasers

may be prepared in several forms A typing structure

is shown in the figure and is called wave guide
structure.
In this structure the discharge tube is made of glass.
The tube has region, of a narrow lateral diminution
(less than 1 mm) the gain medium has length o.5 m
to 1m .the metallic transverse electrodes E1and E2
are fixed externally to the bore the electrodes
provide apre-ionising pulse thigh voltage and a
radio frequency main pulse to the tube .in wave
guide laser the excitation by radio frequency source
in an excel laser is quite effective and efficient.
The exciter laser have the following unique char
acterisics
I.

After undergoing laser transition from excited

state

to

ground

state,

the

molecule

gets

dissociated. This indicates that the lower laser

II.

level is always empty.

There is no well defined rotational vibration
transition us existence .the transition has broad

energy. As a result a tunable laser radiation over

III.

the broad band can be obtained.

The population inversion is examiner laser is
achieved automatically, because the upper level
in

excited

molecular

state
level

is

populated,

is

always

while

empty

lower

due

to

dissociation of molecule in constituent atoms.

IV. The exciters lasers lasers operate inultravoolet
region of the speetrum,how over some of them do
operate in usable region also.
V. The excivmer lasers operate in ultraviolet region
of the spectrum, how-ever some of them do
operate in visible region also.
LIQUID (ORDYE) LASERS
Dye used in lasers is organic substance which

absorb in visible and near infrared and near

ultraviolet

regions

of

the

electromagnetic

spectrum. These substances are most commonly

solid which are dissolved in various solvents like
ethyl and methyl alcohol, ethylene glycol and
water etc. in these solvents the concentration of
dye molecules is of the order of 1 part in the ten

thousand (i.e.l.10 4 ) therefore the dye molecules

are Quite apart from one another and so each dye
molecule is surrounded only by the molecules of
the solvent.
Dye lasers may give pulsed and continuous waves
accordingly they are of three types.
1. Pulsed dye laser
2. Continuous wave (cw)lasers
3. Mode locked dye lasers.
Working-: the energy level taking part in the
laser be on emission are different irrational
sublevels of different electronic states of the dye
molecule. A typical energy level diagrams of a
dye

molecule

in

which

so

represents

the

electronic ground level which suntans a large

number of rotational-irrational levels of the
molecule. The rotational sub level are so closed
that they form nearly continuum.
[Typical energy level diagram of a dye molecule
so

is

the

lower

single

electronic

level

S 1 ,S 2 ..Represent excited singlet level,T 1 ,T 2

.Represent the triplet levels]

Each electronic state is characterized by a

similar

broad

continuum

of

energy

states.

Characteristic of dye molecule leads to the broad

absorption and emission spectrum of a dye
molecule .Because of the absorption of photons,
dye molecules get excited from ground level so
to higher irrational-rotational to next electronic
stat S 1 now thermal redistribution in energy level
S 2 takes place in about10 -11 5 due to which most
of the dye molecules dropdown to the lowest
irrational level B of S 1 the radiation is at once
emitted when the molecules jump from level B
to Andy higher vibration

level of so this is

called fluorescence . the life time

level B is

about 10 -9 5
As energy of emitted photon is lower than that
of emitted photon, the peak we velength of the
emitted florescence spectrum is higher than that
of the absorption spectrum the molecules from
state S 1 can also make a non radiative transition

to the triplet level T 1 this is called intersystem

crossing.
The schematic diagram of flash lamp pumped
dye is shown above figure this laser system
consists of a dye cavity (or cell) to flash lamp
and end mirrors. The mirrors reflect the light
back to dye solution to cause stimulation
obviously the design of laser system is similar to
solid state lasers. A Number of flash lamps have
used

in

dye

laser

xenon

flash

lamps

commercially available, are commonly used. for

better excitation of dye molecules, the length of
cavity generally taken equator that of the flash
lamps the dye solution is allowed to flow
continuously this is essential because even small
the mal gradient can deviously affect the
resonator characteristic the seriously affect the
resonator characteristic the spectral range of
flash lamp pumped dye laser extends- from near
ultraviolet to near infrared (340nm-850nm)

Applications of Dye lasers

1. Dye lasers are preferred for research. Work

where either tunable laser of ultrafast pulses

or tunable narrowband are required. They find
wide applications in spectroscopy, especially
in absorption spectroscopy of solid materials
and in photochemistry try in spectroscopy
they are used for is o toke separation.
2. Dye lasers are used in medical science for
removal of birth Marks and treatment of
cancer.
SHORT PULSE GENERATION
The method by which ultra short pulses are

generated in a laser is called mode. Locking

the output of the switched ruby and nod YAG
Laser system for examples Consist of a pulse
of duration is very short and results In out
bursts of very high power. If the average
energy is one joule and the pulse time is 20
nanosecond the average out put power is 50
106

waltz (so megawatts) it is interesting to

know that these pulses of Nio second

duration are made upon overlapping pulses of
even shorter duration of the order of 1 to 10
picot second (10 -12 Second) the technique of
made locking enables these pulses to be
unraveled and a train of pulses of picoseconds
duration to be produced and other techniques
enable single Pico second pulse too be is
elated.
Even with small total energies the power in
such externally short pulses is very high. The
very short duration of such pulses makes them
important as props of short lived phenomenon.
There are important fields of applications the
high energy short pulses have been used for
the compression of matter to very high
densities and temperatures for thermonuclear
fusion and there are large laboratories being
assembled for this in the U.S.A and Russia
these short pulses have also been used in
photochemistry and photobiology.

One of the most important feature of organic

dye laser is their ability to produce these ultra
short optical pulses organic dyes play a
significant

role

in

picoseconds

pulse

generation as well as being efficient laser

media.
Microdensitometer

trace

of

the

streak

recorded of ultra short pulses

The production of ultra
short pulses by laser mode locking have also
created some sort of challenge to measure
them. Measurement using ordinary photomulti
pliers and fast photo diodes are inadequate for
observing picoseconds pulses. This is simply
because the time solution of fast electronic
eireaut is -100ps and is much slow. The
ultrafast streak camera has been applied to the
measure mint of back ground intensity of
picoseconds pulses from a passively mode
locked dye laser. The streak camera has also
been form the initial notice in a dye laser

cavity. Ad indicated by regime, it is necessary

to employ the approach of the electron
optical chronograph or simply chronoscope
the principal of operation is based upon
changing the time variable in to a spatial
variable as shown in figure (a) A slit image of
the light sauce is favored on the photo cathode
of a streak image tube. By applying a-high
voltage ramp to the deflection plates the
electron optical image is moved across the
tube phosphor at a velocity which approaches
the velocity of light if the slit is illuminated
by a vontimu oust light source then a
continuous track would be record with ultra
short pulses, slit images are record ashen in
figure
(b) to measure the pulse duration at the
helfwiding of pulse is measured by its streak
velocity there is a fundamental problem in
using

streak

cameras

for

picoseconds

measured by its streak velocity there a

fundamental problem in using streak cameras

for picoseconds measure emends. The problem
lies in the statistics of toot electron emission
from

photocathode

as

for

Ex

at

the

neodymium laser wavelength of 1.6 um, there

is a spread of about a third of an electron volt
with a is photo cathode, at shorter wavelength
it is much greater for that reason the accuracy
of measure mint of ultra short

pulses was

limited to about 60 ps which was adequate

before the advent of picoseconds laser pulses
Basically what happens is that some of the
photo electrons are going faster than the other
and after awhile the initial pulse spreads out .
the time dispersion caused by the spread of
electron velocities is over come by genera a
static high electric field close to eh photo
cathode. A method of chronoscope has been
perfected by Bradley and using this method
optical pulse down to 1 picoseconds was
easily me assured.

Semiconductor Laser

first Semiconductor

laser was fabricated in 1962 using Gab As in

the form of diffused p-n nomojunction. The
resonant cavity is formed by just clearing the
junction ends. When an external voltage is
applied across the junction such that p-regio
is positive with respect to nreguib, both the
depletion region and the potential barer are
reduced and the diode is said to be for word
biased. Under theism biasing the current flow
through the junction due to majority charge
barriers take place more readily these charge
carriers

become

minority

vaddriers

on

crossing the junction. These are attracted by

butlery terminals to complete the credit and
hence current flaw place.
Spontaneous Emission

when p-n junction

is for ward biased, the concentration of

minority carriers in opposite type regions
leads to recombination of carriers across the
band jape. This process in shown figure (b)

for a defeat band jump semiconductor material

where the normally empty electron states in
conduction

band

of

p-type

material

and

normally empty hole states in the valence

band of n-type material are populated by
injected carriers, which recon bane across the
band gap. The energy released due to this
electron hole recombination is really equal to
band gap energy Eg that the excess of carrier
population decreases by recombine nation
which may be radioactive or non radioactive.
In non radiate me recombination process, the
energy releases is dissipated in the form of
lattice vibration and hence heat however ins
radioactive

recombination

the

energy

is

released with the creation of a photon the

frequency(v) or wavelength () of photon
produced in given
by
Eg = hv =

hc
=
eg

hc

this gives

1.24
eg(inev)

his process of spontaneous light emission

occurring in diode structure is called electro

lupine sconce . The amount of radiation
recombination
structure

and

depend

the

emission

upon

area

of

semiconductor

materials and the fabrication of device.

P.N.junction
Laser
the
population

inversion in semiconductor is achieved by

using app.-n junction diode of semiconductor.
Heavily doped with donors and acceptors
when no potential difference is applied a
potential barriers exists across the depletion
lager of junction diode and no vagrant flaws
when

a forward bias is applied, a current

flaws and the minority carriers are inked\cited

in both hand p-regions these recombine eighth
majority carrier and light is emitted at law ear
rent density the emission is spontaneous
giving a broad maxima the junction acts as a
light emitting diode (L.E.D)when bias is
applied, the current increases and maxima

tense to get narrow .when the threshold

current is reached , a population inversion is
created close to the junction the filled levels
neat the top of the valence band. Hence light
amplification is obtained is this region and
monochromatic and highly directional beam
of light is emitted from the junction.