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As learning theorists go, Howard Gardner and his “Multiple Intelligences” (MI)
(Gardner, 1983, 1999) is considered on the cutting edge of intelligence theory. Although panned
by critics as simply “talents” (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998), Gardner’s eight intelligences
(originally seven) offer a framework for human intelligence that recognizes abilities beyond the
verbal and linguistic traits measured by more traditional measures of intelligence (Brualdi,
1996).
As a clinical psychologist, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) expanded upon the work of Freud
and his contemporaries to include developmental stages for adults as well as children (Boeree,
1997). Since most previous developmental theories largely ignored continuing psychological
development after the teen years, Erikson’s work was truly innovative in that he postulated
Considered in tandem, the theories of Gardner and Erikson provide a powerful and
potentially useful framework for adult learning at every chronological point throughout
The son of refugees from Nazi Germany, Gardner was born in Pennsylvania in 1943
(Gardner, 2002). He attended Harvard for his entire post-secondary education, where he is now
the professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Gardner
also holds several other adjunct professorships and over eighteen honorary degrees from
universities throughout the world. Gardner was trained as a developmental psychologist and
neuropsychologist. Through his research with gifted and brain-damaged children, he came to
believe that intelligence, as traditionally measured, did not adequately measure a person’s
intellectual capabilities (Plucker, 1998; Gardner, 1983, 1999). Pursuing that belief, Gardner
intellectual constructs. Since each person possesses a uniquely derived combination of those
intelligences, Gardner theorized that instruction might be tailored and individualized to best
Gardner notes that many non-western societies do not recognize the term “intelligence”
as it is conceptualized in the west (Gardner, 1999). Other societies consider intelligence in terms
of “obedience, good listening skills, or moral fiber” (Gardner, 1999, pt. 2, pg. 1). Noted
intelligence,” Cole’s “moral intelligence of children”, and even leadership, executive, and
Gardner (1999) designed a theoretical construct that accounted for “the diversity of skills
and capacities that are or have been valued in different communities around the world”(pt. 2, p.
3). He theorizes that there are at least eight: linguistic, logical- mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. And, no two persons exhibit all
the intelligences in the exact same proportions. Because education has not (until this point)
largely recognized this, students have been provided “blanket” instructional strategies and
opportunities that differently benefit students with different intelligence profiles. Gardner
proposes that instruction might be individualized by attending to the particular strengths and
The two intelligences most traditionally valued in education and psychology, and thus
measured by most IQ tests, are linguistic and logical- mathematical (Gardner, 1983). Linguistic
intelligence involves the “ability to use with clarity the core operations of language” (Rogers,
2002). This involves a command of grammar, sounds, rhythms, inflections, and meter. It also
conveyance of information, or the like. Persons thought to exhibit linguistic intelligence might
fields of “pure” science. The capacity for abstract thought, reason, and problem-solving is
natural for this intelligence. The person with this intelligence also understands order, sequence,
and causality. Persons thought to have logical- mathematical intelligence are “mathematicians,
use that model to operate effectively in life” (Rogers, 2002). It involves the ability to
discriminate between emotional pleasure and pain, and to manipulate one’s own behaviors based
and symbolization of complex emotional issues between parties. Persons tho ught to exhibit such
involves detection and discrimination of the various moods of others, as well as intentions and
desires. It can be likened to intuition about others. Politicians, the clergy, and the helping
Musical Intelligence is “the abililty to use a core set of musical elements—pitch, rhythm,
and timbre” (Rogers, 2002). As with the other intelligences, there is a range of difficulty, with
the highest tiers involving perhaps composition, listening, or performance. Those who exhibit
musical intelligence include singers, composers, music producers, or simply music aficionados.
Spatial Intelligence is the “capacity to see the world accurately, and to be able to recreate
intelligence. Also involved is the ability to graphically reproduce spatial imagery according to
observed criteria. Persons who exhibit spatial intelligence include “sailors, surgeons, sculptors,
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence is “the control of one’s bodily motions and the ability to
might include “actors, dancers, swimmers, acrobats, athletes, jugglers, instrumentalists, and
artisans”(Rogers).
Finally, sometime before 1999 Gardner added his eighth intelligence, Naturalistic
Intelligence. Rogers (2002) describes it as “the ability to understand, relate to, categorize,
classify, comprehend, and explain the things encountered in the world of nature.” Gardner
suggests that “farmers, ranchers, hunters, gardeners, and animal handlers” exhibit traits of
Gardner (1999) equates the skills and capacities described within his theory with
intelligence(s). He does not see a problem with critics’ charges that they are merely skills; he
sees skills and capacities as synonymous with intelligence. And he readily admits that there may
be more, especially given technological (and other) changes that will most certainly occur in the
future. Gardner believes that three struggles concerning intelligence theory will continue: 1)
Purists (traditional I.Q.) will contend with pluralists (multiple intelligence) for some time to
come; 2) Purists will contend with pluralists about appropriate measures for intelligence, with
intelligence and human worth will continue to be debated. Regardless of the outcome, the
multiple intelligences framework allows for human worth beyond that of verbal and
computational skills.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994), born Erik Abrahmsen to his Jewish-German mother in 1902,
was originally an artist, then teacher, then psychoanalysis student in Vienna. He studied under
Anna Freud, and fled to Boston during the Nazi rise in the 1930’s. He taught at Harvard Medical
School and practiced psychoanalysis while there, but later also taught at Yale and Berkeley. He
changed his name to Erikson (from Homberger, acquired at age two from his stepfather) when he
However, unlike Freud’s extreme loyalists, Erikson’s theoretical construct allows for the
substantial influence of society and culture on personality development . Freud postulated five
developmental stages, ending sometime soon after puberty. Erikson refined Freud’s theory of
stages of personality development, but expanded the stages from five to eight, including
Erikson called his theory of development through stages the epigenetic principle. This
principal says that people develop through those eight stages, and that personality is molded by
the successes or failures at resolving crises that occur during each stage. The stages must occur
in order, or the person will suffer dire consequences, as each subsequent stage builds upon the
resolution experienced in the previous stages. If the crisis at each stage is successfully resolved,
then the person develops an appropriate psychological virtue. Similarly, if the crisis at each
stage is not successfully resolved, the person may develop what Erikson terms “maladaptations”
In stage one, the oral-sensory stage, infants undergo a crisis of trust v. mistrust, where
they either develop the virtues of hope & faith or the maladaptation of sensory distortion &
withdrawal. In stage two, the anal-muscular stage, toddlers experience the crisis of autonomy v.
shame/doubt, and must decide whether to hold on to their parents (for their most basic needs) or
to let go and learn for themselves. From stage two, children will learn either the virtues of will
and determination, or develop the malignancies of impulsivity and compulsion. Stage three, the
genital-locomotor stage, the pre-schooler undergoes the crisis of initiative v. guilt, and seeks a
balance between the two. Too much initiative without enough guilt may lead to ruthlessness; too
much guilt with little initiative may lead to inhibition. A good balance between the two will lead
In stage four, from age 7-12 (or so), school-age children face the crisis of industry v.
inferiority. The sphere of influence greatly increases from the immediate nuclear family to all
who come in contact with the child. Pushed too far toward the extreme of industry, children may
Gardner & Erikson 7
develop the maladaptation of narrow virtuosity, similar to becoming a “little adult.” Too far
toward inferiority may result in inertia, or total withdrawal from those activities where failure
was too painful to ever retry that activity. Balance results in the virtue of competency (Erikson,
Stage five, from age 12-18 (or so), presents the crisis of ego-identity v. role-confusion.
Adolescents must figure out “who they are,” and how they fit into the larger society. Rites of
passage offer adolescents opportunities to develop their own unique egos, and Erikson even
suggested a “psychosocial moratorium” where the youngster could simply take “time out” from
the demands of growing up to reflect upon their journey to date. If a person developed too far
toward a particular ego role, then the maladaptation could result in fanaticism, with no tolerance
of other views. Too little identity can result in the malignancy of repudiation, wherein
adolescents allow themselves to be absorbed into some group that provides their identity for
them, such as today’s gothic adolescent subculture. Boeree (1997) likens such a situation (being
“bad”) as better than having no identity at all. A good balance should result in a state of fidelity,
As for personality theory, five stages was as far as Freud ventured. Erikson, however,
addressed the unique and relatively uncharted territory of continued adult development. Stage
six, early adulthood (roughly the twenties), poses the crisis of intimacy v. isolation. Too far
toward intimacy can result in the maladaptation of promiscuity, and too isolationist can result in
the malignancy of exclusion, with an accompanying hatefulness toward others. The balance
point results in love, and not exclus ively sexual; love toward one’s friends, peers, and fellow man
Stage seven is middle adulthood. This time frame is somewhat fuzzy, but it includes the
childrearing years, with the crisis of generativity v. stagnation. This period is when people do
something useful with their lives, or not. Those who become self-absorbed (rather than
contributing without expectation of reciprocity) reach stagnation. Those “couch potatoes” who
Gardner & Erikson 8
generate little suffer the malignancy of rejectivity. Midlife crises may occur in this stage. Those
who successfully achieve a balance realize the virtue of care (Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).
Stage eight, the final stage, is termed late adulthood, and begins sometime around
retirement. Older folks face the crisis of ego integrity v. despair. As abilities necessarily
decline, seniors must come to terms with the life they have lived. If they lean too far towards
integrity, they may face the maladaptation of presumption, whereby they largely dwell on the
past without facing the actual difficulties of old age. Too far toward despair, and they may delve
into the malignant tendency of disdain, a contempt for their own and everyone else’s life. If
persons strike the successful balance between the two, then they achieve the virtue of wisdom
According to Erikson, each crisis must be addressed before the person can
developmentally proceed to the next stage. Failure to resolve each crisis will result in severe
developmental problems that will hamper or prevent proper development in subsequent stages.
Not surprisingly, few people reach the wisdom of old age without a developmental delay or two
The reduction of human intelligence to a single ordinal measure has probably done
immeasurable collective damage to literally millions of human psyches who are subjected to
such tests. However, they do serve a purpose, almost always dealing with classification, sorting,
some manifestation of discrimination, or the like. But those who come out on the wrong end, the
losing end, of such measures still grow up and continue to play a role within society. Gardner’s
multiple intelligences (1983, 1999) offer a more comprehensive, useful measure of intelligence
as a collection of skills. Critics argue that skills are not intelligence, but Gardner counters that
the ability to perform mathematical and linguistic operations are simply skills within those
domains of intelligence. And, there are others. This viewpoint is extremely promising and
Gardner (1983) makes many points that are particularly applicable to the field of adult
education. First, he believes that human intelligence is collectively a set of skills that a person
uses to resolve problems in life (Boeree, 1997). Those who seek adult educational opportunities
obviously are seeking to increase their skills, regardless of motivation. Second, he believes that
intelligence involves the ability to produce a resource that is of value, of worth, in that culture.
Adult students, by and large, are interested in improving their worth, either personally or
professionally. Third, Gardner believes that human intelligence creates the capacity to recognize
or create problems, necessitating the creation or pursuit of new knowledge to address those
problems. Mandatory public schooling generally stops after high school, but adult learning
theory realizes that persons experience the need for continuing education throughout their
educational settings. Gardner (1983) believes that personal background experiences are key to
all the intelligences; adults, by virtue of age, have deeper and more varied pools of experience
from which to draw upon. Gardner believes that age and life circumstance do not hamper the
potential for growth and development within the intelligences. Said another way, it is simply
On the developmental side, Erik Erikson (1965, 1968) offered one of the first staged
their life cycles. Previous theories stopped just after puberty, but Erikson theorized that human
cognitive and personality development continued until death. In fact, his adult stages
encompassed the largest portion of life, and stage seven (generativity v. stagnation) is predicated
upon the “life’s work” of the person; their contribution to society. The pursuit of improving
one’s life’s work (and worth) is at the very essence of adult education. Knowles et al. (1998) say
it best:
professionals listen closely to the motivations of their learners, they will often
Gardner & Erikson 10
hear some form of life transition pushing the adult to learn. By understanding the
framework. Naylor (1985) describes how Knowles theory of andragogy (1998) fits within
Erikson’s eight stages, and how those and other theorists’ constructs might provide a framework
for adult educational offerings. Boeree (1997) suggests that Erikson’s eight might actually be
considered in two parts, with the final four stages dedicated to adulthood and realizing one’s
“self.” He also notes, however, that Erikson’s eight stages meet a standard often considered
Therein lies the value most important for adult educators to consider about both
Gardner’s and Erikson’s work. Multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 1999; Rogers, 2002) and
Erikson’s eight stages of man (Erikson, 1965, 1968; Boeree, 1997) are offered as neither truth
nor requisite in the practice of adult education. They do, however, offer productive and
constructive avenues by which providers and consumers of adult educational opportunities might
References:
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/erikson.html
No. ED410226)
Erikson, E. H. (Ed.). (1965). The challenge of youth. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton Co.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basic
Books Inc.
Gardner, H. (1999). Who owns intelligence? [Electronic Version]. The Atlantic Monthly,
283(2), 67-76.
Gardner, H. (2002). Howard Gardner. Project Zero Website. Retrieved 7/5/02 from
http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG/htm
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner (5th ed.). Houston,
Naylor, M. (1985). Adult Development: Implications for adult education. Columbus, OH:
Plucker, J. (1998) Howard Gardner: American psychologist and educator. Retrieved July 5,
ttp://www.harding.edu/~cbr/midemo/prin.html