Bahir Dar University

Bahir DarInstitute of Technology

School of Computing and Electrical Engineering
Solar Powered Automatic Water Level
Control with Solar Tracking
By
Gebru Tsega
Kassaye Gizaw
Netsanet Fiseha
Advisor
Mr. Ahunim Abebe

A project Submitted to the School of Computing and Electrical Engineering of Bahir Dar
University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in
Electrical Engineering [Power and Control System Engineering]

Jun, 2014
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Declaration of Authorship
We, the undersigned, declare that this project is our original work, has not been presenter for a
degree in this or any other universities, and all sources of materials used for the project have
been fully acknowledged.
GebruTsega
Kassaye Gizaw
NetsanetFiseha
NameSignature
Date of Submission
The project has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.
Project Advisor

Signature

Acknowledgements
For our document and progress of the thesis to arrive at its final stage, many individuals give us
their forwarding contribution since the beginning.
We express our deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to school of computing and electrical
engineering for giving such an opportunity and for its contribution in giving project room.
We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to Mr. Edemialem Gedefaw Mr.
AshagrieMekuria, Mr. Teketay and all of our instructors,for their valuable recommendations and
gave us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic automatic water level
controller which also helped us in doing a lot of research and we came to know about so many
new things.
We express our sincere gratitude to our project guide Mr. AhunimAbebe for sparing valuable
time in giving information and suggestions all through, for successful completion of the project
the way it is by now. He has helped us in every call and shortages of potential.
Last but not least, we want to thank our friends who treasured us for our hard work and
encouraged us and finally to God who made all the things possible for giving help and patience
in going such hard time.

Abstract
This project presents a model of the use of solar energy for automatic water level control. This
project aims at installing a low cost, energy efficient solar powered water pump controlling
mechanism. A mini prototype model is designed to watch the parameter namely water level and
the set level is maintained at all time. The pumping process is automatically controlled using
sensors, relays, transistors, 555 timers. By having this automatic control, large amount of energy
is saved and safety pump is taken care of. This will pave way for saving gas/fuel. The results of
simulation and prototype obtained indicate that the system presented has the potential to control
pumping to meet the requirements for home consumption. The circuit works off a 12V battery or
230V AC mains using a 12V adapter. It is a pollution free system.

Contents
Declaration of Authorship................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................i
Abstract............................................................................................................................................ii
List of Tables...................................................................................................................................v
Chapter 1..........................................................................................................................................1
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1

Background.......................................................................................................................1

1.2

Statement of the Problem..................................................................................................2

1.3

Objectives of the Project...................................................................................................2

1.3.1

General Objective......................................................................................................2

1.3.2

Specific Objectives....................................................................................................2

1.4

Methodology Used in this Project.....................................................................................3

1.5

Major Assumptions Made for the Project......................................................................4

1.6

Scope and Limitation of the Project..................................................................................4

1.7

Organization of the Project...............................................................................................4

Chapter 2..........................................................................................................................................5
Review of Literatures......................................................................................................................5
Chapter 3..........................................................................................................................................7
System Design and Analysis............................................................................................................7
3.1

System Design and Analysis for Controlling Circuit........................................................7

3.1.1

System Components and Operations.........................................................................7

3.2

System Design and Analysis for Water Pump and panel sizing......................................19

3.3

System Design and Analysis for Solar Tracking System................................................31

Chapter 4........................................................................................................................................47
Results and Discussions.................................................................................................................47
4.1

Software Simulation Results and Discussions................................................................47

4.1.1For Controlling Circuit...................................................................................................47

4.1.2
4.2

For solar Tracking System...........................................................................................48

Hardware implementation and discussion......................................................................48

4.2.1 Controlling circuit.........................................................................................................48

4.2.2 Solar tracking system....................................................................................................49

Chapter 5........................................................................................................................................51
Conclusion and Recommendation.................................................................................................51
5.1

Conclusion......................................................................................................................51

5.2

Recommendations for Future Work................................................................................52

Appendix........................................................................................................................................55

List of Tables
Table 3. 1: Specifications for the NE555 timer..............................................................................11
Table 3. 2 Specifications for DC relay [1].....................................................................................13
Table 3. 3 Average kWh/m sq. per day for each month for Anbesame town [11].........................23
Table 3. 4 Applications of different types of water pumps [21]....................................................26

List of Figur
Figure 1. 1 General block diagram of the system............................................................................3
Y

Figure 2. 1 Water level control using NE555 timer.........................................................................5

Figure 2. 2 Level sensor position.....................................................................................................5

Figure 3.1 A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of an NPN bipolar transistor....................8
Figure 3.2 555 Timer IC Pin Configurations.................................................................................10
Figure 3. 3: Different types Dc relays............................................................................................11
Figure 3. 4 Dc relay with freewheeling diode...............................................................................12
Figure 3. 5 Potentiometer circuit...................................................................................................13
Figure 3. 6 Comparator Circuit.....................................................................................................14
Figure 3. 7 LM393 dual comparator............................................................................................15
Figure 3. 8 Power supply for the circuit........................................................................................17
Figure 3. 9 Designed controlling circuit........................................................................................17
Figure 3. 10 Main components of submersible water pump.........................................................24
Figure 3. 11 Schematic diagram of typical SPSS showing parameters for lift level.....................25
Figure 3. 12 Different Lorenz pump characteristics for flow rate versus TDH.............................28
Figure 3. 13 DC power versus flow rate curve for ps1800 c-SJ8-7 pump....................................29
Figure 3. 14 servo motor operation................................................................................................37
Figure 3. 15 Two axis solar tracker model.....................................................................................42
Figure 3. 16 Illumination for different wave length [22]...............................................................45
Figure 3. 17 LDR operations.........................................................................................................46

Figure 4. 1 Simulation of controlling circuit.................................................................................47

Figure 4. 2 Hardware implementations for controlling system.....................................................48

Abbreviations

SPPS

AC

Alternative current

DC

Direct current

IC

Integrated circuit

BDU

Bahir Dar University

LED

Light emitting diode

DPST

Double pole single through

SPST

Single pole single through

IOT

Institute of technology

SCADA

Supervise ring control and data acquisition

PLC

Programmable logic control

PI

Proportional integrator

LED

Light emitting diode

PV

Photo voltaic

Solar powered pumping system

PSH

Peak sun hour

DOD

Depth of discharge

ASTS

Automatic solar tracking system

LDR

Light dependent resistor

IDE

Integrated drive electronics

Chapter 1
Introduction
In most houses and buildings, including Bahir Dar University IOT, water is first received and
stored in the ground or sometimes underground tank. The received water supply is allowed to fill
the lower tank first, and a water pump motor is then switched on manually so that the water from
the lower tank is pumped and shifted into the upper tank on the roof. Once the water from the
lower tank is transferred into the upper tank until it completely fills, the pump is again manually
switched off. This results in the unnecessary wastage and sometimes non availability of water in
the case of emergency.

1.1 Background
This dissertation entitled "Automatic Water Level Controller" was submitted by many
individuals and groups as a partial fulfillment of part of curriculum in bachelor of engineering
(Electronics and Communication). The project "automatic water level control system" is design
to monitor the level of liquid in the tank. The system has an automatic pumping system attached
to it so as to refill the tank once the liquid gets to the lower threshold, while offing the pump
once the liquid gets to the higher threshold. Sustainability of available water resource in many
reason of the word is now a dominant issue. This problem is quietly related to poor water
allocation, inefficient use, and lack of adequate and integrated water management. Water is
commonly used for agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption. Therefore, efficient use and
water monitoring are potential constraint for home or office water management system.
Moreover, the common method of level control for home appliance is simply to start the feed
pump at a low level and allow it to run until a higher water level is reached in the water tank.
This water level control, controls monitor and maintain the water level in the overhead tank and
ensures the continuous flow of water round the clock without the stress of going to switch the
pump on or o thereby saving time, energy, water, and prevent the pump from overworking.
Besides this, liquid level control systems are widely used for monitoring of liquid levels in
reservoirs, silos (a tall tower or pit on a farm used to store water). Proper monitoring is needed to
ensure water sustainability is actually being reached with disbursement linked to sensing and
automation, such programmatic approach entails microcontroller based automated water level

sensing and controlling or using 555 timers IC.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

It is common practice to see the water tank round the students' dormitory over flowing, at least
twice a day. An operator has to arrive at a particular interval of time and made the motor on for
pumping; regardless of the water level in the upper tank .An operator has to stand near the upper
tank and looking up ward to see the water over flowing, and thereby to turn off the motor. This
process has to be repeated quite regularly and at times become a bit of a headache. This task not
only requires the periodically coming of an operator, but it also encounters many other problems.
There is usually an empty tank, over flowing, wastage of water and electricity, unable to know
level of the tank, fail to operate when the grid is faulted. Having seen such problems for two
years, we are empowered to give solutions for such problems.
Our proposed system enables the existing system to control itself and make it free of power
interruption caused from the existing power line. Most water level indicators are equipped to
indicate and detect only a single level. The water level indicator to be implemented here can
indicate up to many levels as required and the micro controller or any other electronics
component displays the level number on a seven segment display. So, not only is the circuit
capable of cautioning a person that the water tank has been filled up to a certain level, it also
indicates that the water level has fallen below the minimum detectable level. This circuit is
important in appliances such as the water cooler where there is a danger of motor-burnout when
there is no water in the radiator used up. It can also be used in fuel level indication.
The sun tracker system is used to expose the surface of the solar panel towards the sun which
enables the solar panel to convert the maximum available sun light to electrical energy. When
compared to the electrical energy generated by a stationary solar panel with a solar panel on a
sun tracking system, the amount of energy generated is more than 20%.

1.3 Objectives of the Project

1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective this project is to build an automatic water level control with solar source.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

To design an automatic water monitoring system

To incorporate an interactive medium between the end user and the machine
To design water level sensors
To size and specify water pump To size solar panel
To design solar tracker

1.4 Methodology Used in this Project

Our methods of work are organized and accomplished through a sequence of stages. Prior to all,
we have reviewed related literatures. Then we have made the general block diagram for our
system that enables as to easily analyze each components of the system as shown in the
following figurative expression. We will carefully analyze each parts of the block diagram shown
below and do for their type identification and specification explained in chapter 3.After
identifying such specification and working principles, we finally designed the controlling part of
the general block diagram, for time limiting us from doing further.

Figure 1. 1 General block diagram of the system

1.5 Major Assumptions Made for the Project
The operational characteristics of most electronic components are compared against working
temperature range from 0 to 70 c.

Costs for each device are calculated based on the whole sale of the suppliers, not the price of
single unit in the electronics shop, hence minimum cost is considered.

The life time of each device are assumed to be as mentioned in the data sheet of
manufacturers, less consideration we have made related to working environment and fault
caused aging.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Project

Scope of the Project:

Construction of prototype for the controlling circuit and dc power supply

Sizing and selection of water pump and discharge
Solar panel sizing, design and prototype for solar tracking

Limitation of the Project

It is significant to know that this design is limited to 12v power supply, 30amps electric pump
rating and cannot be used to control industrial water pump above 30 amps.

1.7 Organization of the Project

The organization of this project report is well detailed and vast in its coverage; it covers all the
activities encountered during the project work. The first chapter of this work took care of the
introduction, aims and objective, and scope. Chapter two highlight on literature review, chapter
three highlight on description of system and some of the component used were emphasized,
chapter four highlight on result and discussion, construction, testing and simulation of water
pump controlling circuit. Chapter five is all about the conclusion and recommendation.

Chapter 2
Review of Literatures
Many water level controllers are common nowadays. The one is built around timer NE555 and
inverter buffer CMOS IC CD4049 as shown in g 2.1.

Figure 2. 1 Water level control using NE555 timer

It uses readily available, low-cost components, and is easy to build and install on the overhead
tank to prevent wastage of water. The circuit works off a 12V battery or 230V AC mains using a
12V adaptor. The three sensors built from non-corrosive metal are fitted to the overhead tank as
shown in Fig 2.1 and connected to the circuit (Fig 2.2) at appropriate terminals.

Figure 2. 2 Level sensor position

The system proposed based on the concept of fuzzy based controller for level control using
SCADA presents a SCADA control via PLC. Sugeno type of fuzzy algorithm has been used in
this study and to achieve the parameters of the membership function in the MATLAB/Simulink
program has been used.
The function of the SCADA in this research is for monitoring element. A SCADA system
hasbeen composed for monitoring the liquid level in the tank and position of the actuator valve.
It is possible to observe the time variations of the level water and position of the actuator valve.

This researcher has been done the comparison between simulation and implementation result and
similar results were obtained. However, the actual model of the system has not been simulated
completely, some negligible differences have been observed between the experimental and
simulation results of the actuator position [23][19].
Another project done describes how to implement a digital controller algorithm like PI controller
in real time using a simple yet effective digital control device-ATMEGA32 microcontroller for
controlling a prototype model of a liquid level control system. A liquid level sensor(rotary
potentiometer) detects the present level of the liquid in the tank in terms of the voltage across the
potentiometer and feeds it to the microcontroller and the control action generated by the
microcontroller is amplified through a suitable amplifier that actuates the actuator(the pump) and
finally controls the flow output of the pump. The operator has to set the desired level in the
microcontroller and accordingly the feedback control in the real time will get operated for
achieving the desired level [22]. Some researchers presented the other system that controls the
water pump by connecting it with an output pin of microcontroller via a motor driver circuit. The
display LED is used and should start to become o one after another from the top to bottom. If all
the LEDs becomes off that means the tank becomes empty again and the water pumpshould
become automatically on again exactly after the last LED becomes off. These operations should
automatically perform as a cycle [24].
[20]The other system is proposed based on conducting level sensors, a series of transistors and
relays for controlling the pumping motor.

Chapter 3
System Design and Analysis
Having investigated such problem and reviewing related literatures, we finally proposed an
automatic tank water level control as described in general block diagram shown in figure 1.1.
We selected, among alternatives, rotary potentiometer for sensing the level of the water. Because
it's operation is simple and easy for mechanical manipulation. The components and devices used

in our system are explained in the sections below.

3.1System Design and Analysis for Controlling Circuit

3.1.1

System Components and Operations

By now, we have designed the controlling part of the system as shown in section 3.2. The
components used in this designed circuit and in the general block diagram are discussed as
follows.
Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Our article explains how a
transistor work and the working of transistor as a switch. At present, transistors are applied in
most of the electronic equipments for switching purposes. Digital ICs, microcontrollers, most of
the power electronics circuits, the huge electrical networks etc. uses thousands of embedded
transistors for switching. Here we are discussing about NPN transistor switching circuit. To
realize the exact working principle, an LED (Light Emitting Diode) is connected to the collector
of NPN transistor. It glows according to the base current. We have to connect the base resistor
(Rb) to limit the base current otherwise the transistor become damage. Transistor switching
circuits are also employed in DC motor driver circuit. Transistors are commonly used as
electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and
for low-power applications such as logic gates [14].

Figure 3.1 A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of an NPN bipolar transistor
In a grounded emitter transistor circuit, shown above, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and
collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance

from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero
(or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and
the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter
freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as
switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector
to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies
depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on the
collector current. In our 555 timer resetting circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide
enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.
[2]In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that the output is either
completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation
is common in digital circuits where only on and o values are relevant. The saturation region of a
transistor represents the location wherein the current flow of the collector is at a maximum, and
its properties from collector to emitter are similar to that of a closed switch's properties. The
cutoff region of a transistor represents the location close to the voltage axis of the collector
characteristics graph, wherein its properties are similar to that of an open switch's properties. The
active region of a transistor represents the location to the right of the saturation region and above
the cutoff region, wherein the terminal currents show a linear relationship. Since the transistor as
switch only dissipates significant power in the saturation region, one of the main considerations
in design of switching circuits is to minimize the time the transistor spends in this mode.
When using a transistor as a switch.

Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or even motors.
A small base current controls a much larger collector load current.
When using it to switch inductive loads such as relays and solenoids, flywheel diode is

used.
When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington transistors can be used.
Darlington transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP type transistors
connected together so that the current gain of the first transistor is multiplied with that of
the current gain of the second transistor to produce a device which acts likea single

transistor with a very high current gain for a much smaller base current.
Transistors function as current regulators by allowing a small current to control a larger

current. The amount of current allowed between collector and emitter is primarily

determined by the amount of current moving between base and emitter.

In order for a transistor to properly function as a current regulator, the controlling (base)
current and the controlled (collector) currents must be going in the proper directions:

meshing additively at the emitter and going against the emitter arrow symbol.
The choice between NPN and PNP is really arbitrary. All that matters is that the proper
current directions are maintained for the sake of correct junction biasing (electron flow
going against the transistor symbol's arrow).

555 Timer: The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. It can perform a wide variety of functions using only a few
basic components, typically powered by +5V (but not necessarily mandatory +5V, it can be 5 to
18v).They can be used to set a line (electrical signal path) high or low after a delay, or constantly
oscillate with a square wave or other waveform. Also, it can be used to switch transistors, relays,
etc. before or after an event that is time related [3]. It uses a threshold pin that is typically
connected to an RC circuit. Depending on how it is connected, it can operate in one shot mode
(mono stable), a stable mode (retriggerable), or Schmitt trigger mode. Its pins are described as
follows.

Figure 3.2555 Timer IC Pin Configurations

Pin 1: Grounded terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible for
transition of flip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the
external trigger pulse applied to this pin.
Pin 3: Output terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in which a
load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin orbetween pin
3 and supply pin (pin 8).

Pin 4: Reset terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin due to
which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose, it
should be connected to + Vcc to avoid any possibility of false triggering.
Pin 5: Control voltage terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the thresholdand
trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the pulse
width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be used to
modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to ground
through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem.
Pin 6: Threshold terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1 inside the 555
IC, which compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 Vcc. The
amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop.
Pin 7: Discharge terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and
mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge terminal
because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When the transistor
is in cutoff state, the capacitor will charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and
capacitor.
Pin 8: Supply terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with
respect to ground (pin 1).
Specifications for 555 Timers: These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can
have different specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).[3]
Table 3. 1: Specifications for the NE555 timer
Parameters
supply voltage (Voc)
supply current (Vcc=+5v)
supply current (Vcc=+15)
output current (maximum)
maximum power dissipation
power consumption (minimum operating)
operating temperature

value
4.5 to 15V
3to 6 mA
10 to15 mA
200mA
600mW
30mW at 5V ,225mW at 15V
0 to 70 oC

Relays: Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not
usually control power consuming devices except for small motors and solenoids that
drawlowamps. However, relays can control larger voltages and amperes because a small voltage

applied to a relays coil can result in a large voltage being switched by the contacts [25].

Figure 3. 3: Different types Dc relays

Protective relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities, including
over current, undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition, relays are also widely
used to switch starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms.
Relays involve two circuits: the energizing circuit and the contact circuit. The coil is on the
energizing side; and the relays contacts are on the contact side. When a relays coil is energized,
current flow through the coil creates a magnetic field. The magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate,
which is part of the armature. One end of the armature is attached to the metal frame, which is
formed so that the armature can pivot, while the other end opens and closes the contacts.
Contacts come in a number of different configurations, depending on the number of breaks, poles
and throws that make up the relay. For instance, relays might be described as Single-pole, singlethrow (SPST), or double-pole, single-throw (DPST). These terms will give an instant indication
of the design and function of different types of relays.
General purpose relays are electromechanical switches, usually operated by a magnetic coil.
They operate with AC or DC current, at common voltages such as 12V, 24V, 48V, 120V and
230V, and they can control currents ranging from 2A-30A. These relays are economical, easy to
replace and allow a wide range of switch configuration.
Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off.
Fly Back Diode: A relay coil is not only an electromagnet but it's also an inductor. When power
is applied to the coil the current in the coil builds up and levels o at its rated current (depends on
the DC resistance of the coil, I = V/R). Some energy is now stored in the coil's magnetic field.
When the current in the coil is turned off this stored energy has to go somewhere. The voltage
across the coil quickly increase trying to keep the current in the coil owing in thesame direction

This voltage spike can reach hundreds or thousands of volts and can damage electronic parts. By
adding a y back diode the current has a path to continue owing through coil until the stored
energy is used up. The diode also clamps the voltage across the coil to about 0.7V protecting the
electronics. The stored energy dissipates quickly in the diode
E = V *I * t
(3.1)
The current stops owing and the relay turns off. The diode should be able to handle the coil
current for a short time and switch relatively fast.

Figure 3. 4Dc relay with freewheeling diode

Specifications for DC Relay

Table 3. 2 Specifications for DC relay [1]
Parameter
Type
Coil voltage
Pick-up voltage
Drop-out voltage
Operating current
coil resistance
operating power
voltage range

Feature
100A
12V Dc
Max 9V DC
Min 10V Dc
410mA
29 ohm
5W
10-16V

24V Dc
Max 18V Dc
Min 2V Dc
208mA
115ohm
5W
20-32V

36V Dc
Max 27V Dc
Min 3V Dc
139mA
260ohm
5W
30-48V

The Linear and Rotary Potentiometer: The potentiometer is an electrical device comprising a
resistor with a sliding third con-tact, often termed a wiper, which allows the voltage to be varied
depending upon where the slider is positioned along the length of the resistor. Manual adjustment
of the wiper along the length of the fixed resistance produces a variable voltage at the wiper. The
magnitude of this output voltage is directly proportional to its relative position along the length

of the resistor. If the potentiometer wiper is appropriately connected to a moving system then any
movement in that system will cause the wiper to move and so change the output voltage. This
signal provides a direct measurement of position or change in position, water level in our cases.
Hence, although still a potentiometer, it is of use as a sensor for measuring linear displacement.

Figure 3. 5 Potentiometer circuit

For the general case the output voltage is given by the expression:
Vout=

Vin

CB
AB (3.2)

Where: CB is the linear distance (or angular rotation) from B to C; AB is the maximum linear
distance (or angular rotation) from B to A. Hence when the potentiometer wiper is in position B
the output voltage will be zero and when in position A will be maximum, the full supply voltage
(Vin). In any intermediate position the voltage at the wiper will be some value between 0 and V in
as given by the above potentiometer equation.
Comparator Circuit: A voltage comparator is electronic circuits that compares two input voltages
and lets us know which of the two is greater. A comparator circuit compares two voltages and
outputs either a 1 (the voltage at the plus side; VDD in the illustration) or a 0 (the voltage at the
negative side) to indicate which is larger. Comparators are often used, for example, to check
whether an input has reached some predetermined value. In most cases a comparator is
implemented using a dedicated comparator IC, but op-amps may be used as an alternative.
Comparator diagrams and op-amp diagrams use the same symbols[13].

Figure 3. 6 Comparator Circuit

If Vin is greater than Vref, then voltage at Vout will rise to its positive saturation level; that is, to
the voltage at the positive side. If Vin is lower than Vref, then Vout, will fall to its negative
saturation level, equal to the voltage at the negative side. Inputs into a comparator can be an
analog voltage; the output is digital.
LM393 Dual Comparator: LM393 consist of two independent voltage comparators designed to
operate from a single power supply over a wide voltage range.

Single power supply, 2V to 36V

Operate over a wide range of voltages, up to about 36V
Low input o set voltages in the mV range. This means that the LM393 can compare

voltages that are very close to each other.

Like many older chips, the LM393N cannot source as much current as it can sink.

Figure 3. 7 LM393 dual comparator

741 Opamp: A 741 Opamp can be used to function as a comparator. The 741 functions as a

comparator when it is operated in an open-loop mode, that is, there is no feedback resistor. The
output varies from full on to full o with very small changes in the input voltage due tothe high
gain [8]. In practice, using an operational amplifier as a comparator presents several
disadvantages as compared to using a dedicated comparator.

Op-amps are designed to operate in the linear mode with negative feedback. Hence, an opamp typically has a lengthy recovery time from saturation. Almost all Opamps have an
internal compensation capacitor which imposes slew rate limitations for high frequency
signals. Consequently an op-amp makes a sloppy comparator with propagation delays that

can be as slow as tens of microseconds.

Since op-amps do not have any internal hysteresis, an external hysteresis network is always

necessary for slow moving input signals.

A comparator is designed to produce well limited output voltages that easily interface with
digital logic. Compatibility with digital logic must be verified while using an op-amp as a

comparator.
Some multiple-section op-amps may exhibit extreme channel-channel interaction when used

as comparators.
Many op-amps have back to back diodes between their inputs. Op-amp inputs usually
follow each other so this is ne. But comparator inputs are not usually the same. The diodes
can cause unexpected current through inputs.

Light Emitting Diode: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two lead semiconductor light source
that resembles a basic pn junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When LEDs anode
lead has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by approximately 0.6 to 2.2 Volts,
current often flows and light is often emitted. On the other hand, when LEDs anode lead has a
voltage that is less positive than its cathode lead by approximately 0.6 to 2.2 Volts, current often
does not flow and light is often not emitted.
Small rating LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching.
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color. Miniatures are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they
come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They
usually do not use a separate heat sink. A typical current rating ranges from around 1 mA to

above 20 mA. The small size sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat
caused by the high current density and need for a heat sink. Common package shapes include
round, with a domed or at top, rectangular with a flat top, and triangular or squarewith a at top.
The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle [14]. There
are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs: Low-current: Typically rated for 2 mA at
around 2V (approximately4MW consumption). Standard: 20mA LEDs (ranging from
approximately 40 MW to 90 MW) at around:

1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow

3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue
2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white

Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2V or 45V, designed for viewing in direct

sunlight.5V and 12V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series
resistor for direct connection to a 5V or 12V supply. These are what we included in our system
[14].
Power Supply:A classic 12V regulated DC supply based on 7812 IC is shown below. This circuit
works on 12 V DC supply, we need a step down transformer of 12 V 300mA.It converts input
230 AC voltage to 12V AC as an output. Then this ac voltage is rectified using a rectification
circuit with 4 diodes connected in a bridge form. The output after the diode is 12V dc which is
regulated using regulator 7812. This regulated output of 12V DC is used in the circuit.

Figure 3. 8 Power supply for the circuit

Figure 3. 9 Designed controlling circuit

The selection of each component for this system is based on the speciation and limitation
described in the above portion (3.1).

Working Principle of the Controlling Circuit

Knowing the above properties of components, in this project a floating ball and potentiometer
are used in sensing the water level. We have used two water level sensing components.
Generally:
1.

When the water level of the water tank is lower than level L, due to the effect of gravity,
the weights of the ball will be heavy enough to make potentiometer fully turned. This will
deactivate the comparator which has low reference voltage and results zero output voltage.
At this instant the 555 timer will be triggered and give high output,supplying base current
for the transistor. This base current will turn on the transistor and activate the dc relay
which then close the pumping motor and start pumping water to the upper tank.

2.

When the water level reaches level L,due to the effect of floating force,ball will float on
the water and activate the previous comparator. The mechanical potentiometer driving
system, the floating ball, will be made be in such a way that it will rotate the potentiometer
in clockwise and anticlockwise direction as the oat moves up and down respectively. At this

instant, comparator 1 will be activated resulting high output. However, due to the above
property of 555 timer, the dc relay will be still on. Therefore, the pumping motor keeps on
pumping water.
3.

When the water reaches level H, due to the same effect of floating force, ball will cause
the potentiometer to rotate fully to the other direction. When this happens, comparator 3
will be activated, transistor 1 will be turned on, and 555 timer will be reset. This will turn o
transistor 2 and hence dc relay. Therefore, the motor stops pumping water.

4.

When the residents use the water, the water will be lower than level H. In this case, the
555 timer will not give high output until it is triggered by low output of comparator 2.This
will happen when the water level is reduced below low level.

5.

Repeating the above procedure, the water in the water tower can be controlled between
level H and level L. Most water level indicators are equipped to indicate and detect only a
single level. The water level indicator implemented here can indicate up to many such
levels and the LED displays the level number on a display board. So, not only is the circuit
capable of cautioning a person that the water tank has been filled up to a certain level, it
also indicates that the water level has fallen below the minimum detectable level.

3.2System Design and Analysis for Water Pump and panel sizing
Pump sizing and specifications
Water pumping has a long history; so many methods have been developed to pump water with a
minimum of effort. These have utilized a variety of power sources, namely human energy,
animal power, hydro power, wind, solar and fossil fuels for small generators. Utilization of these
power sources has their own merits and demerits.

Types of Pumps
Solar panels generate DC current and so the vast majority of solar pumps use direct current
rather than alternating current so no current inverter is needed. Most of the pumps are packaged
without batteries so they really only run while the sun is shining. However, for most typical uses
this is perfectly acceptable and it has the advantage of being a very simple setup that requires
little maintenance. But since the site we consider is for a village of people, relatively many in
number, we will consider battery sizing and selection in order to ensure continuous availability

of water. One disadvantage of DC solar pumps which do not use batteries is that the energy they
generate varies throughout the day based upon the available sunshine to the solar panels.
Therefore most DC solar pump kits include a device called a linear current booster (LCB), also
called a pump controller, which acts like an automatic transmission, helping the pump to start
and not to stall in weak sunlight. An LCB also allows the pump motor to run longer during the
day by translating additional voltage to necessary current during periods of low sun.
A large number of pump types exist, but for simplicity, we will divide them into the following
main categories:
1. Jack Pump: is actually a mixture of the 2 types. The motor, gears, & electrical are on the
surface, but move a shaft (sucker rod) that attaches to the pump which is submerged. Good for
very deep wells. Example: Solar motor Jack Pump
2. Submersible Pumps: The submersible pump is one of the most recent developments in the
water well pump industry and has been widely accepted by well owners and drilling contractors.
It is estimated that more than 90 percent of new well pump installations in different states are of
this type. Submersible pumps can deliver water from any depth at a wide range of capacities,
may be installed in wells 3 inches or more in diameter, require no well house or frost proofing,
and have proven to be a very dependable type of pump. Special care should be taken to insure
that submersible pumps are protected from possible lightning damage.
The submersible pump has an electric motor and pump assembly that is suspended in the well
below the pumping water level on the pump discharge pipe. It has a special water-proof electrical
cable. The intake for the pump assembly is located directly below the pump section and above
the electric motor. Multistage centrifugal type submersibles are most commonly installed in farm
and domestic wells. However, in recent years, a helical rotary type has proved to be especially
useful in wells that produce excessive methane gas or sand with the water.
Submersible solar pumps are generally used for pumping from wells, and are designed to fit
inside the well casing in a drilled hole. The most common casing size is 6", but 5" and 4" are also
common. Some older wells drilled for windmills are less than 4", and most solar submersible
pumps will not fit for that the best thing is to replace the windmill with an ERA jack pump.

Submersible pumps can lift up to 650 feet and are used when the water supply is more than 20
feet from the surface. The well may be anywhere from a few feet to 1800 feet deep but the
deeper the well, the more expensive the system. Depths over 400 feet will generally cost quite a
bit more. Solar powered well pumps are seldom suited for large amounts of water, such as
irrigating larger fields if you have AC power available. The largest pumps generally available are
1/4 to 2 HP.
3. Surface Pumps: These types of pumps use a suctioning approach and are good for applications
with shallow wells, ponds, streams or storage tanks. Surface Pumps are not waterproof. They
must be located in weatherproof area near the water level, usually a pump pit or pump house. All
electrical parts are located away from the water. If the pump is too high above the water level,
these pumps will have suction problems that can make the system unreliable or damage the
pump.

Examples: Shurflo pressure pump, Dank off Flow light pressure pump, hot water

circulator. They work best if the water supply is 20 feet or less from the surface. The maximum
possible suction for any pump is about 20 feet but if you push them to lift more than a few feet
they will become noisy and come under more strain. As with other solar pumps the solar panels
for the pump can be remote from the pump itself which allows a great deal of flexibility in
placement. In some landscaping systems designed for pools and ponds the whole system floats
with the solar panels lying just below the surface of the water [10] [21].
Regardless of which type of pump is selected, it should be capable of delivering the required
daily demands at adequate pressures. However; the pump capacity should not be greater than the
yield capability of the well.
Among the above mentioned systems, submerged multistage centrifugal motor pump setis
probably the most common type of solar pump used for village water supply. The advantages of
this configuration are that it is easy to install, often with lay flat flexible pipe work and the motor
pump set is submerged away from potential damage. Either AC or DC motors can be
incorporated into the pump set although an inverter would be needed for ac systems. If a brushed
dc motor is used then the equipment will need to be pulled up from the well (approximately
every 2 years) to replace brushes. If brushless dc motors are incorporated then electronic
commutation will be required.

Solar pumps are used principally for three applications:

Village water supply
Livestock watering
Irrigation
The sun is the source of life on earth. It is the prodigious inflow of solar energy in the form of
sunshine and radiation that produces, through photosynthesis, all the food, fuel and free oxygen
upon which life on earth depends. The total amount of solar energy reaching the earth is about
7X1017KW hr. per year, more than 30,000 times as much as is used in all manmade devices.
Unlike the conventional sources of energy, solar energy is inexhaustible; it is also the least
exploited. When this technology becomes global, what will matter then will be the availability of
sunshine and large areas of land where solar power generating stations can be built. Ethiopia,
forthat matter Africa, is naturally abundantly endowed with both the prodigious energy of the sun
and the necessary expanse of land.
Generally, northern Africa including Ethiopia is the areas where there is the maximum intensity
and duration of sunshine over the globe, and as much as 4,000 bright sunshine hours are receive
in a year.
Ethiopia receives 7.4 to 7.6 KWh/m2 of solar radiation per day. This abundant solar energy of
the order of 7-8 KWh/m2, received daily for over 6-8 hours day in most parts of Ethiopia for the
major portion of the year, could be utilized for economic and social development. Ethiopia has
solar potential of 3,799,653,474 MWH/year [11].
Ethiopia imports various types of pumps for liquids. These include pumps for dispensing fuel
and lubricants, concrete pumps, pumps with measuring device, reciprocating and rotary positive
displacement pumps, Centrifugal pumps, wind pumps and solar pumps. Substantial efforts have
been made in recent years to develop reliable and cost effective solar powered pumping stations
solar water pumps are now a day used in rural areas of most of developing countries. Ethiopia
has also started applying solar energy for different purposes like in telecommunication, health,
education and water sector mainly in areas where there is no electricity. Southern nations and
nationalities of Ethiopia have huge potential in this type of technology due to its climatic
condition.

Project Site Location

The site location plays a major part in the feasibility of a SPPS. Peak sunlight hours (PSH) differ
slightly across areas. The general rule is that the less PSH available, the more expensive the
required photovoltaic (PV) array and pump. System costs increase when more storage is needed
to compensate for the limited exposure of the PV array to peak sunlight hours. Another factor is
the climate of the region. Solar powered systems are not typically designed for extremely cold
weather (temperature less than minus 20 degrees C or minus 4 degrees F). However, the systems
can be insulated to handle colder temperatures needed to compensate for the limited exposure of
the PV array to peak sunlight hours. The site of our project, Kokota, is located 25km east of
Bahir Dar near Anbesame town, 15 km west. Annual average direct normal irradiance (DNI)
(kWh/m sq. per day) for Kokotavillage is 6.460 and daylily average profile for each month is
give below.
Table 3. 3Average kWh/m sq. per day for each month for Anbesame town [11]
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

8.48

8.0

6.9

6.74

6.19

5.24

4.25

4.12

Sep
5.38

Oct
6.25

Nov
7.7

Dec
8.31

We have selected the above site for there is much use of ground water for domestic and irrigation
system.

System Security
Another important aspect to consider is security. The PV array is one of the most expensive
components of the system and it should be protected from theft, vandalism, and livestock. It is
strongly recommended that provisions be made to put a small fence around the array. The fence
needs to have enough set back that it does not cast a shadow on the array.

SPPS Components
A solar powered pumping system has the following minimum components:
1. Water well

2. PV array
3. Array mounting bracket and rack
4. Pump controller
5. Electrical ground for controller
6. DC pump with safety ropes, mount, and well seal
7. Wiring
8. Discharge tubing or piping
9. Storage tank
10. Tank flotation switch
11. Water taps or access points

Figure 3. 10 Main components of submersible water pump

Pumps designed specifically for solar power utilize direct current (DC) and tend to be very
efficient, but they usually cost more than a comparably sized alternating current (AC) pump.
Surface mounted pumps can be used for a SPPS but are discouraged because of their limitations

when used in deep wells. Based on the specifications from several manufactures, the typical lift
abilities for surface pumps designed for solar power are between 10 and 20 feet. Surface pumps
also have greater exposure to the climate making them more vulnerable to freezing weather.
Several of the more common solar-powered pumps are submersible type. The size of the pump
will depend on several factors including: available water supply, available power, available
storage, total dynamic head (TDH), diameter of well, and water need [21].
The head pressure against which a submersible pump operates is referred to as total dynamic.

Figure 3. 11 Schematicdiagram of typical SPSS showing parameters for lift level

Lift: Submersible pumps do not build pressure. They provide lift which overcomes head
pressure, which is measured in feet.
Underground depth = 10 meter
Above ground depth = 5 meter
The above two parameters are taken from our usual observations and experience in the project
area.
TDH=vertical lift +pressure head + frictional loss. (3.2)
Frictional loss is mostly taken as 4every 100 feet.

Vertical lift +pressure head = (10+5)*3.28 = 49.2feet

Where 3.28 is factor to change meter into feet
Fractional loss is 4/100ft*49.2ft = 1.968 ft.
Therefore total feet (TDH) = 49.2 + 1.968 = 52ft
From the following table, taking the above TDH and well water source, we selected dc
submersible pump.
Table 3. 4 Applications of different types of water pumps [21]
Water

depth to

Source

water

DC pressure pump

AC Submersible

DC

DC Jack

submersible

Pump
Not

NO

recommend

OK with deep
Cistern

Spring or
shallow
well

0 to 5 ft.

5 to 20
ft.

Best

cistern, or long wire

run
Best, use with

ed

OK if pump is

inverter &

Not

placed within 5 ft

transformer, pump

of water level

direct to pressure

OK

recommend
ed

tank
Best, use with
Medium

20 to

well

200 ft.

inverter &
NO

transformer, pump

Not
OK

direct to pressure

May be needed as
Deep

200 to

2nd pump to

well

450 ft

pressurize water
from cistern

tank
Best, use with
inverter &
transformer, pump
direct to pressure
tank

ed

OK with
2nd
pressure
pump

May be needed as
2nd pump to

Use generator, or

well

pressurize water

multiple inverters

from cistern

Not
recommend
ed
Good if

Very deep 450 to

1200 ft

recommend

NO

pumping to
cistern/tank/
reservoir

The next step is to take the well diameter, TDH, and desired flow rate and refer to manufacturers
tables to determine what type of pump will fulfill the target needs.
R = 1m, usually we have seen such radius of well in the project area. This is related to well
capacity and ease of access to the deep well.
v = r2h.. (3.3)
*1*10 = 31.4m3
Assuming recycling time = 8hour, the water hole will be filled three times a day.
Total volume = 31.4*3 = 94.2 m3/d ay
An estimate of the required flow rate of the pump can be determined by the following equation:
GPM = gallons per day / (peak sun hours per day *60 minutes).. (3.4)
1m3/day = 103 *0.264 gallon per day
Q=GPM=94.2*103*0.264/ (7*60) = 59gpm

Pump selection
One of the first things we will need to do in most water pumping scenarios is determine whether
a submersible pump or a surface pump is best. This is based on the nature of the water source.
Submersible pumps are suited both to deep well and to surface water sources. Surface pumps can
only draw water from about 20 feet (6m) below ground level, but they can push it far uphill.
Where a surface pump is feasible, it is less expensive than a submersible, and a greater variety is
available.
Lorentz Submersible Solar Pump System: Among the various types of pumps available, we have
selected Lorentz Submersible Solar Pump for its the following characteristics and distinctive
features [9].

 Applicable in drinking water supply, livestock watering, pond management, irrigation

Almost used in any other application
Max. efficiency 92 % (motor + controller)

Reduces the high cost of solar water pumping, cost-effective pumping

Simple installation
Lifts up to 240 m
Flow rate up to 11.0 m3/h
High reliability and life expectancy
Maintenance-free

Lorentz's brushless motors are water filled and maintenance free, while the electronics are not
inside the submerged motor but easily accessible on the surface. The controller is installed above
the ground.
From the following two manufacturers graph, the above head and discharge values, we have
selected the specific pump type and wattage requirement from graph 1 and 2 respectively [9].

Figure 3. 12Different Lorenz pump characteristics for flow rate versus TDH

Figure 3. 13DC power versus flow rate curve for ps1800 c-SJ8-7 pump

Once again, from the manufacturers data, the voltage, current and wattage specifications are
given as below.
V=100V
Power=1.4Kw
I=15A

Solar Panel sizing for the specified pump

Solar pumps get their power from solar panels. The type of solar panels we would use is no
different than the kind that might be put on a roof in a residential solar electric system. Solar
panels come in many different sizes. Generally the larger they are, the more watts of electricity
they can generate. The number of watts you will need to generate, and therefore the number of
solar panels you will need for your pump, depends upon the size of the pump and what we are
going to use it for. For example, when using solar panels with submersible well pumps, the
number of panels we will need depends greatly upon the depth of the well; the deeper the well,
the more power needed, and therefore the more solar panels needed. When using delivery pumps
the number of panels we will need is a function of the volume of water we need to move (usually
measured in gallons per minute) and the water pressure we must generate.
Most DC pumps are fairly small and only require a single solar panel. The solar pump kit
manufacturer will have properly matched the solar panels output to the power requirements of
the pump. However, if we find our pump requires more energy, we can usually add on another
panel since most panels are designed to be connected in strings or modules. The main thing is to
be sure that we don't exceed the maximum voltage the pump can handle. [10]

Sizing of solar panel

From the previous section, from the graph, we have had 1.4kw of water pump.

One 1.4kw dc water pump used 7 hours per day.

11W lamp used for 4 hours per day, for fence lightning.

We choose Trina TSM-DC01A 195 Watt Mon crystalline solar module, this is in order to
avoid bulk in number of panels and reduce cost with reasonable efficiency.

Determine total power consumption

i.
Total appliance use = (1400w*7hrs/day) + (11w*4hrs/day) = 9844 wh/day
ii.
Add 20% for energy loss, total pv panels energy needed = 11812.8 wh/day.
1. Determine number of PV panel
i.
Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed = 11812.8 / (0.8*6.463) = 2284.7 Wp. Where
6.463 is yearly average Kwh/m2/day and 0.8 to account the loss due to dirt, aging,
temperature and allowance for the panel performance being below specifications and
standards. Therefore,0.8 *6.463 becomes panel generation factor for Bahir Dar
which is different in each site location.
ii.
Number of PV panels needed = 2284.7 /195 = 12 modules.
2. Sizing of solar regulator
We have 12 modules each have short circuit current 5.56A. Hence, Solar charge
controller rating = 12*5.56*1.25 = 83.4Amps.
3. Battery sizing
total whs per day used by appliance

days of autonomy
()temprature factor

From the previous we have system voltage of 100v. We choose MF Lead Acid
solar battery 24v 400ah, with 3days of autonomy, 0.5 of DOD and an ambient
temperature of 60F with its factor is 1.11. Then,
wh
11812.8
( 3 day )1.11
day
Battery capacity (Ah) =
100 x 0.5

= 786Ah.

So the battery should be rated 24V, 786Ah for 3 day autonomy.

Hence, batteries in parallel = 786/400 = 2 batteries.
Batteries in series = 100/24 = 5 battery. Therefore we need total of 10 batteries.

3.3 System Design and Analysis for Solar Tracking System

Solar power generation had been used as a renewable energy since years ago. Residential that
uses solar power as their alternative power supply will bring benefits to them. The main
objective of this project is to develop an automatic solar tracking system which will keep the
solar panels aligned with the Sun in order to maximize in harvesting solar power. The system
tracks the maximum intensity of light. When the intensity of light is decreasing, this system
automatically changes its direction to get maximum intensity of light. LDR light detector is used
to trace the coordinate of the Sun. While to rotate the appropriate position of the panel, a servo
motor is used. The system is controlled by relays as a driver and a microcontroller as a main
processor. This project is covered for a single axis and is designed for residential usage. Finally,
the project is able to track and follow the Sun intensity in order to get maximum power at the
output regardless of motorspeed. The basic components used in tracking systems are described as
follows.
Servo motor:Servo motor is a special type of motor which is automatically operated up to certain
limit for a given command with help of error-sensing feedback to correct the performance. There
are some special types of application of electrical motor where rotation of the motor is required
for just a certain angle not continuously for long period of time. For these applications some
special types of motor are required with some special arrangement which makes the motor to
rotate a certain angle for a given electrical input (signal). For this purpose servo motor comes
into picture. This is normally a simple DC motor which is controlled for specific angular rotation
with help of additional servomechanism (a typical closed loop feedback control system).
Now days, servo system has huge industrial applications. Servo motor applications are also
commonly seen in remote controlled toy cars for controlling direction of motion and it is also
very commonly used as the motor which moves the tray of a CD or DVD player. Beside these,
there are other hundreds of servo motor applications we see in our daily life. The main reason
behind using a servo is that it provides angular precision, i.e. it will only rotate as much we want
and then stop and wait for next signal to take further action. This is unlike a normal electrical
motor which starts rotating as and when power is applied to it and the rotation continues until we
switch off the power. We cannot control the rotational progress of electrical motor; but we can
only control the speed of rotation and can turn it on and off [12].

Servo Motor Working Principle

Before understanding the working principle of servo motor we should understand first the basic
of servomechanism.
Servomechanism: A servo system mainly consists of three basic components; a controlled
device, an output sensor and a feedback system. Servomechanism is an automatic closed loop
control system. Here instead of controlling a device by applying variable input signal, the device
is controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input
signal. When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared
with output reference signal of the system produced by output sensor, and a third signal produced
by feedback system. This third signal acts as input signal of controlled device. This input signal
to the device presents as long as there is a logical difference between reference input signal and
output signal of the system.
After the device achieves its desired output, there will be no longer logical difference between
reference input signal and reference output signal of the system. Then, third signal produced by
comparing these signals will not remain enough to operate the device further and to produce
further output of the system until the next reference input signal or command signal is applied to
the system. Hence the primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at
the desired value in the presence of disturbances.
Coming in to its working principle of servo motor, a servo motor is basically a DC motor (in
some special cases it is AC motor) along with some other special purpose components that make
a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear
arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the potentiometer
makes the servo to rotate according to our wishes.
The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable resistor) that is
connected to the output shaft. The potentiometer allows the control circuitry to monitor the
current angle of the servo motor. If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If
the circuit finds that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct direction until
theangle is correct.

The output shaft of the servo is capable of travelling somewhere around 180 degrees. Usually,
its somewhere in the 360 degree range, but it varies by manufacturer. A normal servo is used to
control an angular motion of between 0 and 180 degrees. A normal servo is mechanically not
capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The
amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel. So, if the
shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it needs to turn only a
small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control.
The control wire is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined by the duration of a
pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called pulse coded modulation. The servo expects
to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds. The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor
turns. A 1.5 millisecond pulse, for example, will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position
(often called the neutral position). If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 ms, then the motor will turn the
shaft to closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the shaft turns closer to 180
degrees.
As we know, a small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its
rotation will not be enough to move even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a
servomechanism comes into picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the motor
(fast) and at the output we will get an output speed which is slower than original input speed but
more practical and widely applicable.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that
there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. This output port of
the potentiometer is connected with one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier.
Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now
difference between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes from
external source, will be amplified in the error detector amplifier and feeds the DC motor. This
amplified error signal acts as the input power of the dc motor and the motor starts rotating in
desired direction. As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates as it is
coupled with motor shaft with help of gear arrangement. As the position of the potentiometer
knob changes there will be an electrical signal produced at the potentiometer port. As the angular

position of the potentiometer knob progresses the output or feedback signal increases. After
desired angular position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob is reaches at such position the
electrical signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of external electrical signal
given to amplifier. At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the
motor input as there is no difference between external applied signal and the signal generated at
potentiometer. As the input signal to the motor is nil at that position, the motor stops rotating
[15].
There are two fundamental characteristics of any servo motor. These are:

The motor output torque is proportional to the voltage applied to it (i.e. control voltage
developed by amplifier in response to an error signal).

The instantaneous polarity of control voltage governs the direction of torque developed
by servomotors.

Types of servo motors

Servos come in many sizes and in three basic types: positional rotation, continuous rotation, and
linear.
1. Positional rotation servo: This is the most common type of servo motor. The output shaft
rotates in about half of a circle, or 180 degrees. It has physical stops placed in the gear
mechanism to prevent turning beyond these limits to protect the rotational sensor. These common
servos are found in radio-controlled cars and water- and aircraft, toys, robots, and many other
applications.
2. Continuous rotation servo: This is quite similar to the common positional rotation servo motor,
except it can turn in either direction indefinitely. The control signal, rather than setting the static
position of the servo, is interpreted as the direction and speed of rotation. The range of possible

commands causes the servo to rotate clockwise or counterclockwise as desired, at varying speed,
depending on the command signal. The 360 rotation servos are actually made by changing
certain mechanical connections inside the servo. However, certain manufacturer like parallax
sells these servos as well. With the continuous rotation servo you can only control the direction
and speed of the servo, but not the position. You might use a servo of this type on a radar dish if
you mounted one on a robot. Or you could use one as a drive motor on a mobile robot.
3. Linear servo: This is also like the positional rotation servo motor described above, but with
additional gears to change the output from circular to back and forth. These servos are not easy
to find, but you can sometimes find them at hobby stores where they are used as actuators in
larger model airplanes. Both dc and ac (2 phases and 3 phases) servomotors are presently in use.
In the next section we will discuss the details of a DC servomotor [12].
In DC operation, servomotors are usually responds to error signal abruptly and accelerate the
load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components, namely:

DC motor

Gear assembly

Position-sensing device

Control circuit.

Types of DC Servomotor
Unlike large industrial motors, dc servomotors are not used for continuous energy conversion.
The basic operating principle is same as other electromagnetic motors. Design, construction and
mode of operation are different. The rotors of this kind of motor are designed with long rotor
lengths and smaller diameters. They have large size than that of conventional motors of same
power ratings. There are various types of dc servomotors which are series motors, split series
motors, shunt control motor and permanent magnet shunt motor.

a. Series motors: The series motor has a high starting torque and draws large current .Speed
regulation of this kind of motor is poor. Reversal can be obtained by reversing the polarity of
field voltage with split series field winding (i.e. one winding for direction of rotation). This
method reduces motor efficiency to some extent.
b. Split series motors:Split series motor are the dc series motor with split-field rated with some
fractional kilowatt. This type of motor can operate as a separately excited field-controlled motor.
The armature is supplied with a constant current source. Split series motor has a typical torquespeed curve. This curve denotes high stall torque and a rapid reduction in torque with increase in
speed. This results in good damping.
c. Shunt control motor: DC shunt type servomotor is not different from any other dc shunt motor.
It has two separate windings; field windings placed on stator and armature winding placed on the
rotor of the machine. Both windings are connected to a dc supply source. In a conventional dc
shunt motor, the two windings are connected in parallel across the dc supply. In case of a
servomotor, the windings are supplied with separate dc source.
d. permanent magnet shunt motor:Permanent magnet shunt motor is a fixed excitation motor
where the field is actually supplied by a permanent magnet. Performance is similar to armature
controlled fixed field motor.
In case of field controlled dc motor, the field is excited by the amplified error signal mentioned
earlier. The armature winding is energized from a constant current source. Torque developed is
proportional to field current (If) up to saturation level. This method is applied in small
servomotors. It has longer time constant owing to highly inductive field circuit so dynamic
response is slower than armature controlled dc motor. But in armature controlled dc motor, the
motor armature is energized by amplified error signal and field is supplied from a constant
current source. High field flux density also increases torque sensitivity of motor (torque
proportional current times flux). Here dynamic response is faster because it has shorter time
constant of the resistive circuit.

Figure 3. 14 servo motor operation

As you can see in the diagram, the output signal is sampled and thereafter the actuating device
rectifies the errors. After that, the servomotor gear assembly is used for controlling the position.

Applications of servo motors

DC servomotors find its applications in various domains. Some of them are given below:
For very high voltage power systems, dc motors are preferred because they operate more
efficiently than comparable ac servomotor.
It also prevents power wastage, cooling process is easier.
DC servomotors are widely used in robots, computers, toy cars, radars, machine tools
tracking system, process controllers and other position controlled devices.
Conveyors are used in Industrial manufacturing and assembling units to pass an object
from one assembly station to another. Conveyor belts are used with servo motors so that
the bottle, for example, moves precisely to the desired location and stops so that the
liquid can be poured into it and then it is guided to the next stage. This process continues
until stopped. Hence the precise position control ability of the servo shaft comes in
handy.
As Camera Auto Focus, Basically, if the focal length (measured from camera lens) is not
proper, the image appears to be blurred. The corrective action to position the lens
precisely so that the sharpest image is captured is done using a highly precise servo motor
fitted within the camera.
In solar tracking system, if we attach servo motors to the solar panel s in such a way that
we are able to precisely control its angle of movement so that it closely follows the Sun,

then the overall efficiency of the system vastly increases. This is another application of
servo where angle control is critical and achievable by a servo motor
Servomotors used in applications that require precise positioning. Servomotors provide a
high amount of holding torque to maintain their position accurately, whereas stepper motors
can rotate forward or reverse, but they cannot move large loads.

Servo Motor Selection

There are many types of motor that can be selected in ASTS design. Currently, several types
of motors being used in the area of ASTS around the world are: Step-motor, Servo-motor, AC
asynchronous motor, permanent magnetic DC servo motor, permanent magnetic brushless
synchronous motor, etc. Generally speaking, as the gear ratio is high for the transmission
system, motor control precision has very small impact to the tracking precision. Therefore,
all kinds of the motor can satisfy the precision of the tracking system. However the feature of
each type of motor is different.
First of all, lets take a look at the AC asynchronous motor. To use this kind of motor, we
need an encoder to locate the position of the tracker. The PLC accepts the pulse to locate the
tracker, while the transducer is used to adjust the trackers speed. Certainly, we can install an
encoder at the end of the transmission to ensure the position of the tracker. The obvious
advantage to use AC asynchronous motor is its price. Even though it can achieve all the
needed functions, AC asynchronous motor is too heavy, too large, and too low in efficiency
to be installed. Also, for this type of motor, the torque at low speed is very small. In addition
to these disadvantages, it needs the work frequency be above 5Hz to function properly.
Secondly, lets compare the features of DC servo motor and AC servo motor. There are two
types of DC servo motor: motor with brush and motor without brush. Motor with brush is
low in cost, simple in structure, and high in start torque. Also it has wide range of speed
adjustment, is easy to control. Though it needs maintenance from time to time, it is very
convenient to repair (replace the brush). However it produces electro-magnetic interfere.
Motor without brush is small in size, light in weight, high in output, fast in response, small in
inertia, smooth in spinning, stable in output torque, low motor maintenance fee, high in

efficiency, low in electro-magnetic radiation, long life, and can be applied in different
working environments. However it has more complex control system.
AC servo motor is also a type of motor without brush. There are two types of AC servomotor: synchronous AC motor and asynchronous AC motor. Currently, synchronous AC
motor is generally used in movement control. It can cover a wide power range, which could
be up to a very high power level. Nowadays, with the fast development of semiconductor
technology, the shift frequency of power assembly, and the processing speed of microcomputer have been increased significantly. As such, it is possible to put the AC motor
controller into a two-axial coordinate system to control the directional current components, in
order to achieve the performance similar to the DC motor.
Fourthly, the comparison between AC servo-motor and step motor is done. AC servo-motor
runs smoothly during low speed period; while step-motor is appropriate to have lowfrequency vibration. In terms of the frequency-torque Characteristics, the output torque of
step-motor decreases with the increasing of rotation speed. Furthermore the decrease is steep
in high-speed range. AC servo-motor has a comparably stable output torque, when the
rotation speed is within the rated rotation speed. It gives the constant output power when the
rotation speed is beyond the rated value.
Step-motor doesnt have the overload capability; while AC servo-motor posses a satisfactory
overload capability: The maximum output torque is three times big of the rated output torque,
which can be used to overcome the inertia load during the start period. As the step-motor
doesnt have the overload capability, a much bigger size of stepper motor is needed.
Obviously the step-motor will be oversized during normal operation. Controllers type
ofStep-motor is open-loop type. It is easy to have the error of step loss or blockage when the
start frequency is high or the load is heavy. Also it is easy to have the error of overshoot
when it is stopped. So, to make sure the precision of control be achieved, designer needs to
pay more attention to the speed-increase or speed-decrease periods. AC servo-motor system
is a closed-loop system. It is possible for the driver-component to sample the signal from the
motor encoder to complete a position cycle and speed cycle internally. As such, AC servo-

motor system generally will not have the errors of step loss or overshooting, and is more
reliable in terms of controlling performance [17].
Step-motor needs 200 to 400 milliseconds to accelerate from still to a typical working speed
of several hundred rpm. AC servo-motor is better in terms of acceleration performance. For
example, Panasonic MSMA 400W needs only a few mil-seconds to accelerate from still to its
rated speed of 3000rpm. So it is clear that step-motors performance is not so good. However
its cheaper. Started from late 70s and early 80s, with the development of micro-process
technology, high-power, high-performance semiconductor technology, and manufacturing
technology of permanent magnetic material, the performance price ratio of AC servo-system
has been improved significantly. Price of AC servo-system also is gradually deceasing in
recent years. AC servo motor is becoming the dominant product.
Large AC motors are too inefficient for servo use. To move large loads, the ac motor draws
excessive amounts of power, and is difficult to cool. Hence, ac servo motors are used
primarily to move light loads. Most of the ac servo motors are of the two-phase or split-phase
induction type. Fundamentally, these motors are constant-speed devices, although their
speeds can be varied within limits by varying the amplitude of the voltage to one of the
motors stator windings. When the load becomes heavy, the workhorse dc servo motor is used.
The control characteristics of dc servo motors are superior to those of ac servo motors. The
dc servo motor can control heavy loads at variable speeds. Most dc servo motors are either
the permanent magnet type, which are used for light loads, or the shunt field type, which are
used for heavy loads. The direction and speed of the dc motor's rotation is determined by the
armature current. An increase in armature current will increase the motor's speed. A reversal
of the motor's armature current will change the motor's direction of rotation
The DC servo motors provide continuous stall torques from 1.8 Lb-In (0.2 N-m) to 56 Lb-In (6.3
N-m). They are designed to provide reliability and dependability and long life in today's tough
applications.
The conclusion is that all the motors, step-motor, AC asynchronous motor, DC motor
with/without brush, AC servo-motor, can be applied in ASTS. Asynchronous AC motor is the

cheapest. But it is big in size, and low in technical specification. The step-motor has a simple
controlling mode and is also low in price. AC servo-motor has the best performance and wide
power range. Its price is also the highest. As for the performance and price for permanent
magnetic DC brushless motor, they are both rated between step-motor and AC servo-motor. Its
performance is close to servomotor. For the situations that the output torque is not very high (less
than 2 NM), permanent magnetic DC brushless motor is a good option for our project to rotate
12 panels.
Finally we have selected 100v serious GYS401D5 DC servo motor with the following standard
specifications [17].
Max. Torque [N m] =3.58
Rated current [A] =4.8
Rated speed[r/min] =3000
Rated output [kW] =0.375

Tracking Structure and Arduino Programming

The full design of mechanical supporting structure is beyond the scope of this project and we,
instead, will show the basic operation and mounting of tracking system using 5v dc servomotors.
The simple mechanical structure for demonstration is made as shown below. The system is made
for moving East-West direction. This is because in tropical zones, like Ethiopia, North-South
variation is not significant. In addition, a single-axis solar tracker will typically require less
maintenance, and therefore, be more reliable than a dual-axis system. There are simply less parts
in a single- axis tracker, one motor and control circuit instead of two.

Figure 3. 15 Two axis solar tracker model

Arduino Uno: Arduino is a tool for making computers that can sense and control more of the
physical world than your desktop computer. It's an open-source physical computing platform
based on a simple microcontroller board, and a development environment for writing software
for the board. Arduino can be used to develop interactive objects, taking inputs from a variety of
switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights, motors, and other physical outputs. The
Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar physical computing
platform.
Arduino can sense the environment by receiving input from a variety of sensors and can affect its
surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and other actuators. The microcontroller on the board
is programmed using the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring) and the Arduino
development environment (based on Processing). Arduino projects can be stand-alone or they
can communicate with software on running on a computer (e.g. Flash, Processing,
MaxMSP).The boards can be built by hand or purchased preassembled; the software can be
downloaded for free. The hardware reference designs (CAD files) are available under an opensource license; you are free to adapt them to your needs.
We have selected Arduino microcontroller for it has the following features and characteristics.

 Inexpensive:

Arduino

boards

are

relatively

inexpensive

compared

to

other

microcontroller platforms
Cross-platform: The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems.
Simple, clear programming environment: The Arduino programming environment is
easy-to-use for beginners. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and
people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the
AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code
directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
Open source and extensible hardware: The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8 and
ATMEGA168 microcontrollers.
The current version of the Arduino hardware reference design is called the Uno (or One in
Italian) and is published by the Arduino team. It provides four basic functional elements:
An Atmel ATmega328P AVR microcontroller
A simple 5V power supply
A USB-to-serial converter for loading new programs onto the board
I/O headers for connecting sensors, actuators, expansion boards, etc

It is a feature of most Arduino boards that they have an LED and load resistor connected between
pin 13 and ground; a convenient feature for many simple tests. The previous code would not be
seen by a standard C++ compiler as a valid program, so when the user clicks the "Upload to I/O
board" button in the IDE, a copy of the code is written to a temporary file with an extra include
header at the top and a very simple main () function at the bottom, to make it a valid C++
program.

The Arduino IDE uses the chain and AVR Libc to compile programs, and uses avrdude to upload
programs to the board. As the Arduino platform uses Atmel microcontrollers, Atmel's
development environment, AVR Studio or the newer Atmel Studio, may also be used to develop
software for the Arduino.
Sensors (LDR): Alight-dependent resistor, alternatively called an LDRorphoto resistor, is a
variable resistor whose value decreases with increasing incident light intensity. An LDR is made
of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency,
photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and its whole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. In intrinsic devices, the only available
electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the
electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a
ground state energy closer to the conduction band - since the electrons don't have as far to jump,
lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device.

Figure 3. 16 Illumination for different wave length [22]

The most commonly used photo resistive light sensor is the ORP12 cadmium sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in the
yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance)
is very high at about 10Ms which falls to about 100s when fully illuminated (lit resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a
zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often
used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street lights ON and
OFF, and for photographic exposure meter type applications.
Connecting a light dependent resistor in series with a standard resistor like this across a single
DC supply voltage has one major advantage; a different voltage will appear at their junction for
different levels of light.

Vout=

VinR 2
RLDR+R 2

Figure 3. 17 LDRoperations
The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R 2 is determined by the resistive value of the
light dependent resistor, RLDR. This ability to generate different voltages produces a very handy
circuit called a potential divider or voltage divider network.
As we know, the current through a series circuit is common and as the LDR changes its resistive
value due to the light intensity, the voltage present at V OUT will be determined by the
voltagedivider formula. An LDRs resistance, R LDR can vary from about 100s in the sun light,

to over 10Ms in absolute darkness with this variation of resistance being converted into a
voltage variation at VOUT as shown.
In this project, we proposed nine LDRs to sense the light intensity. Each LDR will activate and
give output signal for Arduino independently. All the LDRs are hiding from sun light in such a
way that one at a time will get full sun radiation fall and hence the servo will be programmed and
set for nine positions.
The Ardiuno programming code is shown in the appendix. The code is developed for nine LDRs
to sense the position of the sun and to cause the required servo motor rotation. For we have only
three LDRs available, the prototype is made only using the available sensors.

Chapter 4
Results and Discussions
4.1Software Simulation Results and Discussions
4.1.1For Controlling Circuit
We have drawn and simulate the controlling circuit below on multism11 software. The
simulation result shows exactly what discussed before. All LEDs glow when their corresponding
level of water is reached.

Figure 4. 1Simulation of controlling circuit

When comparator com1 is activated, the left side LED1, low level display, glows. This
happens when we set input power supply immediately above 2V.LED2 (medium level) and

LED3 (high level) glows when the power supply voltage is set to 5 and 7V respectively.
The DC activates the motor immediately after when potentiometer position is in such a way

that output voltage is below 2V and.

The DC relay turns off the motor when the potentiometer is turned to give an output voltage

greater than 9V.

All components are tested independently and show very small deviation from expected

output.
Switch S1 a switch that must be installed at the lower water reservoir so that it can assure

the availability of water to be pumped; preventing the motor from dry running.
Switch S2 is used to control the motor manually.

4.1.2 For solar Tracking System

We have written the Arduino code on Arduino software using c++code. After that, we compile
and upload it to microcontroller (Arduino) board.

4.2 Hardware implementation and discussion

4.2.1 Controlling circuit
We have made the hardware configurations and connections of components that
enable the motor to operate automatically, and a photo of it is as shown below.

Figure 4. 2 Hardware implementations for controlling system

The exact diagram shown in the simulation is made on a circuit board. We have
tested it against the initial design objective and simulation results. It was a very
difficult task, for us, to get the expected outcomes in few trials. Components like
555 timers, opamps and transistors were beyond their designed characteristics
.Every problem is solved by replacing malfunctioning components ,and finally
we have get the same result as obtained from simulation.
We have replaced the water pumping motor by DC 12v motor and tried to
demonstrate the system fully. The rotation of DC motor is to tell that the pump is
pumping water, due to scarce of water in the upper reservoir. And when the motor
stops, it is to mean the tank is full and pumping is made off. The potentiometer is

made to rotate and sense water level by connecting it with structure like pulley
system.
We have suspended two floating masses on the two sides of the rope, mounted on
the pulley. The two masses are made different so that on is to follow the water
movement in touch and the other moves up and down in air environment. The
former is higher in weight so that it pulls the later mass when the water is
discharged out of the tanker, and hence it will rotate the potentiometer. During
the reverse process, that is when water has to be filled again, the mass one will
move up and mass two down hence rotate the potentiometer in reverse direction.
Based on the voltage output from the potentiometer, the Dc relay activates and
deactivates the motor for pumping and stopping respectively.
Having such simple demonstration, the pulley system can be redesigned or
reselected to meet tanker depth and ease of rotation so that it can be implemented
for the real environment.
4.2.2 Solar tracking system
The solar tracking structure is in construction and, indue process we used 3 LDR
located in left, center and right position. The three LDRs are positioned in such a
way that none of them receives equal sun radiation at any instant of time. In our
design, we assume that a single LDR is hardly efficient in sensing son movement
in reasonable time variation. To overcome this drawback we have position the
three LDRs to receive maximum sun radiation at a time and hide from sun light to
receive minimum radiation for the rest of time. In order to improve the system
sensitivity the number of LDRs is suggested to be nine and more in number. The
voltage output signal from all LDRs is fed to Arduino which will control the
position and rotation of servomotor, as shown in the programmed code.

But for LDRs more than five, since Arduino has only five analogue inputs, the
analogue output signal from LDRS must be converted in to digital signal in order
to use the digital pins. But the ADC process is beyond the scope of our project
objective and is left ideal.
The servo motor, for the above three position of light sensors, moves 180 from east
to west following a hand torch shining on each LDR starting from east to west.
After the 180 degree rotation and delay up to no total sunshine on right sensor, the
servo mechanism returns its position to the east and waits duration for a light to
shine on east sensor.

Chapter 5
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1Conclusion
Going through the planning, flow process, design and software implementation, the system has
been a tough one; the chapter one to four has actually tried as much as possible to explain vividly
almost all what is involved in the construction of this project. After the complete design of the
system, the deviation between the expected result and the actual result was very close. The

performance and efficiency was beyond expectation and from every ramification the design of
automatic water controller was successful.
Designing controlling part of the proposed system, as being the main task of our project, has
been achieved with great success, supported by simulation results and experimental tests. We
then after deal much of our tasks in designing and construction of solar tracking. Water pump
sizing and selection with its power source requirement and solar panel sizing, are all
accomplished in prior to the allocated time frame.
From the hardware circuit, one can find that very few external components are needed.
Moreover, one can also find that the software is very easy to be developed and modified if more
functions are to be added. Automatic water level controller can be used in hotels, factories,
homes, apartments, commercial complexes, drainage, etc., It can be fixed for single phase motor,
Single Phase submersibles, Three Phase motors and open well, bore well and sump. We can
control two motor and two sumps and two overhead tanks by single unit. Hence we have an
automatic water level controller with the following features

No man power required to operate, as fully automatic

Easy installation and low maintenance
Advance technology and simple to use
Saves water, motor and energy
Avoids leakage of water from roofs and walls due to over flowing tanks.
Consume very low energy, ideal for continuous operation

The pumping parameters and systems we have already sized and selected are very essential
findings which solve the much unforeseen problems of our people in rural areas. The system
enables water to be supplied from near wells or any other water source to the inside of the house
of any family, without a need for labor carriage. This is because the water can be pumped and
stored at a height in such a way that it will discharge to every house through gravity. The project
cost is seen to be fair and feasible as the system is to be common for many families in a village;
the share will be less and covered with payments from many houses.
The tracking system shows some potential of using additional and more scientifically and
effectively methods in harnessing the suns energy. It calls for Close and carful
demonstration so that such a system has to be installed in local vicinity.

redesign and

5.2Recommendations for Future Work

The controlling circuit already designed has been tested and gotten effective in operating as set
objectives.The rotating mechanism, i, e. the pulley driving mechanism, has to be remade by the
concerned professional. The radius of the pullet system should in be such a way that the 180
degree of its rotation will be equal to the depth of the tank. Having such modification,
alluniversities with water storage and pumping experience can replace the manual system by
using our inventions. At the will of the institute, we have the confidence and inspiration to install
our system for,at least, our institute, BIT.
Solar tracking system seems infeasible for very large or single unit of number panels;it will incur
high initial cost and complex system. Hence, it is more practical and cost effective to implement
such system only if it results meaning full advantage in both cost and efficiency aspects.
Opportunities and facilities must be well assessed and addressed in order to improve water
delivery methods in rural areas. It is cost effective and mostly needed system to have like our
findings, the peoples in a village can have a single water supplying system, which minimizes
cost and expands responsibility in handling the system including security. Therefore, responsible
body should take this task serious and find opportunities for its further research and
implementation.

Reference
[1] http://www.amazon.com/Amico-JQX-12F-General-Purpose-Power/dp/ B008MU0MRQ.
[2] http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_4/1.html.
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC.
[4] http://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/MF-Lead-Acid-solar-battery-24v_1859029609.html
[5] http://www.solaronline.com.au/195w-trina-24v-monocrystalline-solar-module.html
[6] http://www.solardirect.com/pv/systems/gts/gts-sizing-battery.html
[7] http://brightgreenenergy.co.uk/sizing-solar-systems.asp

[8] http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_4.html
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hrJVrA&bvm=bv.69411363,d
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visible=swera_dni_nasa_lo_res&opacity=50&extent=34.49,15.62,55.67,32.15
[12]http://mechatronics.mech.northwestern.edu/design_ref/actuators/servo_motor
[13] http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/opamp3.htm.
[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode.
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[18] Oltean, G, Electronic Devices, Editura U.T. Pres, 2006.

[19]Y. Birbir and H. S Nogay, Design and implementation of plc-based monitoring control
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Appendix
Arduino Programming code
#include <Servo.h>//include Servo library
Servo myservo;
//declare servo
int pos = 0;
// pos is horizontal position position
int right = 0;
// right ldr
int left = 0;
// left ldr
intcentre = 0; // centreldr

int ldr1 = 0;
int ldr2 = 1;
int ldr3 = 2;

// map LDR's to pins

voidsetup ()
{
myservo.attach (10);
myservo.write (90);
pinMode(ldr1, INPUT);
pinMode(ldr2, INPUT);
pinMode(ldr3, INPUT);

// attach servo to digital pin 10

// set initial position as 90 deg
// declare LDRs as input

}
void loop()
{
pos = myservo.read();
// pos takes reading from current servo position
int right = analogRead(ldr1); // records reading from each LDRs
intcentre = analogRead(ldr2);
int left = analogRead(ldr3);
// this portion is to control horizontal position
if(right > centre && left < centre)

// If right LDR has more light than center LDR,

and Centre LDR has more light than left
(means light is towards right)

{
myservo.write(pos +1); //increase position of servo1 by 1 (0 is left, 90 is Centre, 180 is
right)
delay(10);
// this delay is needed to prevent servo from going 0-180 without
stopping
}
else if(left > centre && right < centre) // if light is towards centre
{
myservo.write(pos -1); // decrease position of servo1 by 1 (0 is left, 90 is centre, 180
is right)
delay(10);
}
else
{

myservo.write(pos); // if neither condition is met, this means the panel is centre. Do

not move panel
}
}