Marine Technology, Vol. 20, No. 2, April 1983, pp.

164-176

Hopper Dredges and Certain Aspects of Their Design

John P. Martin 1 and Louis J. Mauriello 2

In recent years there has been a resurgence of hopper dredge construction and consequently a renewed
interest in the design of such vessels. Principal physical and operational characteristics of this type of
dredging plant are described briefly. Certain aspects of their design are discussed with particular reference
to proposed regulatory requirements, various features of new hopper dredges recently constructed or presently under construction both for the Government and private dredging contractors, and other current developments.

Introduction
THE SEAGOINGtrailing suction hopper dredge is generally recognized as a most important dredging plant for constructing,
improving and maintaining navigation channels, particularly
approaches to coastal ports. The modern hopper dredge represents well over a century of development and operational experience. Unfortunately, much of this experience is unrecorded.
Until recently (1977), hopper dredges used for navigation
channel dredging in the United States were owned and operated
exclusively by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In the 25-year
period immediately preceding 1977, only two new hopper dredges
(the Markham in 1960 and the McFarland in 1967) were built
in the United States. During the past few years, as a result of
Federal legislative actions and new Corps of Engineers policies
governing contractual procedures relating to dredging, several
private dredging contractors have constructed a number of
hopper dredges. In addition, the Corps of Engineers expects to
continue to own and operate a minimum number of hopper
dredges based mainly upon requirements for national defense
and other emergency purposes. Consequently, the Corps has
resumed dredge construction with a program of three new hopper
dredges. One of these new dredges was completed during the past
year and the other two are presently under construction.
This resurgence in hopper dredge construction has served to
generate renewed interest in the design of such vessels, and the
U.S. Coast Guard has proposed new regulations applicable to load
line and stability requirements. This paper discusses various
physical characteristics and operational considerations that affect
the design of this type of plant, including the aforementioned
proposed regulatory requirements, the characteristics of certain
new vessels recently constructed or presently under construction,
and other current developments of interest. It is intended to be
a brief discussion of various aspects of hopper dredge design and
related current developments rather than a comprehensive or
detailed treatment of the subject. A brief section describing
certain fundamentals of dredging and dredges, with particular
emphasis on how hopper dredges work, has been included as a
preface to the main body of the paper and a possible benefit to
those who may not be acquainted with this specialized segment
of the marine industry.
Dredging and dredges
Dredging may be defined simply as any process for the removal
1President, Dredge TechnologyCorp., New York, N.Y.
2 Marine and Dredging Consultant, Ocean, N.J.
Presented at the September 24, 1981 meeting of the New York Metropolitan Section of THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS.

164

of materials from underwater and the disposal of these materials

on shore, in deep water, or elsewhere. The dredging process
comprises three distinct operations:
excavation of the material,
transport or conveying of the excavated material from the
digging point to the disposal point, and
disposal of the material.
Plant and machinery for dredging vary greatly in both design
and construction, but it may be stated that all dredges fall into
one of two distinct classes. One class includes those dredges which
excavate mechanically, such as bucket dredges, dipper dredges
and grab or clamshell dredges. The other class, which is by far
the more extensive and important, includes all dredges which
excavate hydraulically, that is by pumping the material excavated
as a mixture (or slurry) with water.
Due to their comparative simplicity, dredges of the mechanical
type were the first to be developed. While they continue to be
especially suitable for use on certain work, the range of disposal
of mechanical dredges is restricted. Barges and tugs usually are
required in conjunction with their operation. In modern dredging
practice, the hydraulic dredge is recognized to be a more versatile
and efficient piece of equipment. The two principal types of
hydraulic dredges are the pipeline dredge and the seagoing
hopper dredge.
The pipeline dredge operates in a more or less stationary position which is maintained by spuds or by anchors (Figs. 1 and
2). It is equipped with a centrifugal dredge pump and discharges
the excavated material through a pipeline (either floating or
submerged) to the point of disposal on shore or in open water.
This type of dredge usually is nonpropelled, has a barge-like hull,
and is tended by a tug during operation. It is used principally in
sheltered inland waters, rivers and harbors since its normal
working capability is limited to a wave height of 3 to 4 ft.
The seagoing hopper dredge operates on the same principle
as the pipeline dredge in bringing the excavated material to the
surface, but here the similarity ends. The seagoing hopper dredge
is a self-propelled and sturdily built seagoing vessel with a ship
form hull (Fig. 3). It is a self-contained and self-sufficient
dredging plant that operates underway, requiring no anchors or
mooring devices while dredging and requiring no tug assistance.
It is designed for ocean service and for work in coastal waters and
is utilized principally for the improvement and maintenance of
navigation channels in locations where wave action or heavy
traffic does not permit the employment of stationary dredges.
In its normal mode of operation, the hopper dredge pumps bottom materials, such as mud and sand, into its hoppers through
trailing suction pipes (dragarms) and, when loaded, proceeds
under its own power to a deepwater disposal area where the
dredged material is disposed of by gravity-dumping through gates

0025-3316183/2002-0164500.51/0

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 1 Cutterheadpipeline dredge

or doors in the bottom of the hoppers. In recent years, some

hopper dredges of the split-hull type have been built in order to
facilitate the dumping operation. Also, some hopper dredges are
equipped with self-unloading facilities that permit the hopper
load to be pumped ashore through long discharge pipelines. In
some cases, rather than loading the hoppers, the dredged material
is pumped overboard (often through the overflow system) with
the objective that a major portion will be transported and deposited outside channel limits by tidal, river or littoral currents.
This method of dredging is called "agitation dredging" and is
used by the Corps of Engineers in certain entrance channels along
the Gulf Coast, such as the Mississippi River Passes. In the interest of developing more effective high-capacity agitation
dredging tools, a few hopper dredges have been equipped with
boom-supported discharge pipes that permit the discharge of the
dredged material at a point some distance from the ship's side.
This type of agitation dredging is known as "side-casting."
Regardless of the method used for disposal, the hopper dredge
invariably operates while underway with its dragarms in a trailing
position on the channel bottom during the dredging or pumping
phase. It provides a temporary depository (the hoppers) for the
dredged material until it can be transported to a disposal area.
It must be highly maneuverable and, most important, its construction and dredging equipment must be suitable to permit
dredging operations under adverse conditions (waves and swells).
These principal characteristics of hopper dredges need to be kept
foremost in mind in any considerations relating to their design.

General considerations
Dredging is a subaqueous earthmoving technique and therefore
dredges nominally are considered to be tools of the civil engineer.
The civil engineering discipline usually sets the performance
standards for dredging projects and these standards have an
important impact upon the design of dredges. These standards
relate to productive capability and the ability to accomplish work
in an orderly manner pursuant to established job specifications.
However, the actual design of dredges requires a blend of many
engineering disciplines with particular emphasis on naval architecture and marine engineering. This is especially true for
hopper dredges.
As in the case of other construction-type floating plant and
ships in general, the design of dredges is dictated mainly by the
proposed service and use, with due consideration of work requirements and prevailing environmental conditions. A hopper
dredge can be designed for operation in a particular waterway
or channel project involving the removal, transport and disposal
in a specified manner of a certain volume or quantity of a parAPRIL 1983

Fig, 2

Cutterheadpipeline dredge with floating discharge pipeline

ticular type of bottom material. However, in practice, such a

single-purpose dredge rarely can be economically justified unless
there exists a known requirement to meet constant operating
conditions over a long time period. Such requirements do not
exist in coastal port areas of the United States. Consequently,
hopper dredges are normally designed for multiproject use and
must be generally suitable for excavating, transporting and disposing of many types of bottom materials over a broad spectrum
of operational conditions in any coastal region. For example:
Materials to be dredged generally range from light, finegrained, clayey silts to heavy, coarse sand and gravel.
Haul distances vary from 1 mile or less to as much as 30 miles
or more, with the average presently running about 5
miles.
Environmental considerations in certain projects preclude
pumping beyond overflow during hopper loading operations,
and, in other cases, require that the dredged material be
disposed of by pumping into confined disposal areas or onto
beaches (for restoration or nourishment purposes) rather
than by conventional dumping in open-water disposal
areas.
In addition, the dimensions (depth and width) of navigation
channel projects in the United States in which trailing suction
hopper dredges are employed vary widely. Obviously, dredges
of suitable sizes to meet dimensional limitations (mainly length
and draft) with compatible hopper capacities are required. In this
connection, the Corps of Engineers hopper dredge fleet, both
existing and projected for the future, is composed of vessels in
three arbitrary but distinct categories based 0n hopper capacity,
as follows:
Small Class Hopper Dredge (SCHD)--hopper capacity of
1000 yd 3 or less.
Medium Class Hopper Dredge (MCHD)--hopper capacity
of over 1000 yd 3 up to 6000 yd 3.
Large Class Hopper Dredge (LCHD)--hopper capacity of
over 6000 yd 3.
Figures 4 through 6 show the three new Corps of Engineers
hopper dredges, each of which represents one of the classes just
described. The SCHD Yaquina was completed late last year
(1980) and presently is in operation on the West Coast. The
medium and large class dredges depicted are still under construction. Each of these designs is described more fully in references [1] 3 and [2]. Figures 7 through 9 illustrate three similar
commercially owned hopper dredges of diverse sizes that have
been recently constructed and are now in operation. Table 1 is
a tabulation of physical and other data pertaining to new hopper
dredges, both Government and commercial.
The high acquisition and operating costs of hopper dredges
3 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
165

~L".~"~,
. >. ~l~
.

._

[ .~,

" --

t............ D~"~I,. i~,t~..

--' '

~ ~ ~~,>~i'

47.,~+ < ,<>-oo

rtltltlt'@lt " I~D'

<a

:,~

{~:'/

/G

~l

.t<.

Fig, 3

166

.J-."":'

\ -IIIm'--

17~I

,-~

.1~,

- ~

"

Modern hopper dredge of European design

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Curves based on average hauls of 5 and 10 miles, respectively,

have been included to illustrate the significant effect that hauling
distance has on hopper dredge production.
Hopper dredges generally are designed and built for "ocean"
service in accordance with applicable rules and requirements of
the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and the American Bureau of
Shipping (ABS) and thus carry the prescribed ship service machinery, navigational equipment, life saving and fire fighting
apparatus, and communications equipment. They are completely
self-contained in that they have quarters, mess and sanitary facilities typical of a comparably sized seagoing vessel. As indicated
in the preceding, overall dimensions and hopper capacities vary
to suit the required operations.

Hull and hopper capacity

Fig. 4 Hopperdredge Yaquina
make maximum utilization mandatory. Every effort is made to
keep them fully utilized and, when working, they are usually
operated on a continuous 24-hours-a-day, 7-days-a-week
schedule, with an average downtime of one day or less every two
weeks for fueling, provisioning and preventative maintenance
and about one month a year for major repairs and shipyard
overhaul. Under such work schedules, crew members in most
cases must remain aboard the dredge for continuous periods of
two weeks or more. Accordingly, suitable accommodations and
facilities are provided for operating personnel. The geographical
distribution of work projects or range of potential assignments
of the dredge is another factor that must be given consideration,
and movement from one coastal location to another can involve
transit distances of 1000 miles or more.
In conventional dredging, hauling and dumping operations,
the productivity of hopper dredges generally varies with hopper
capacity. Figure 10 shows the estimated annual production of
hopper dredges according to size (hopper capacity) in terms of
the volume of dredged materials as measured in the hopper ("bin
measurement"). The operating schedule, design speeds and other
conditions upon which this graph is based are representative
assumptions of the normal operation of a general-purpose hopper
dredge in the United States and the results that can be expected.

Hopper dredges have many of the characteristics of other

seagoing ships, such as tankers and bulk carriers. They go to sea
both to discharge hopper loads and to move from port to port as
dredging requirements dictate. Therefore, the hull form is similar
in many respects to that of a conventional merchant ship and the
design process is subject to the same considerations.
Hopper door openings in the hull bottom, required for
emptying the hoppers during dumping operations, present resistance and structural design problems that must be considered.
Corps of Engineers hopper dredges, in particular, are equipped
with hinged dump doors that do not extend below the ship's
bottom when opened in order to eliminate or reduce the risk of
damage when dumping is relatively shallow ocean disposal areas.
Consequently, these doors are recessed within wells or troughs
of sufficient dimensions (longitudinally, transversely and in
depth) to accommodate the doors. In order to minimize such
problems, horizontal sliding doors have been used on a few
hopper dredges of European design. However, this design has
some disadvantages, particularly with respect to the relative
inaccessibility of door operating gear for operational maintenance.
Split-hull hopper barges (mainly nonpropelled) for the
transport of dredged material have been common for the past 20
years or more. These barges are divided in half longitudinally,
and the two halves are swung apart for discharging the hopper
load. The halves are connected by massive hinges at the main

1!

i!

ti

ii

II Itl

/t
re* "~

II

===========================================

Fig. 5 Hopper dredge Essayons

APRIL 1983

167

i
0

OUTBOARD PROFILE

- P H DECK

UPPER BR DECK

_.

/I
]1

l
FCSLEI

,~ ' T ~ ~ ]

WT

WT

W7

WT

~T

WT

16

28

40

61

117

WT

......
136

wm
149

/I

~EC
I_..D"

LTANK
TOP

I N BOARD PROFILE
Fig. 6

168

Hopper dredge Wheeler

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 7 Hopperdredge Manhattan Island

Fig. 8 Hopperdredge Eagle I

deck level. Opening and closing are accomplished primarily by

buoyancy forces, with the operation being controlled by hydraulic
rams located fore and aft of the hopper compartment.
The principle of operation of these barges has been adopted
in the design of most of the commercial hopper dredges constructed (or under construction) in the United States during
recent years. Split-hull type hopper dredges have a number of
advantages--particularly when handling cohesive or other difficult-to-dump dredged material--over the single conventional
hull type equipped with bottom dump doors, because:
The discharge aperture area is substantially larger than is
available with conventional systems.
The absence of any door-operating mechanism within the
hopper greatly reduces any resistance to dumping of the
material.
Possible "arching" of the consolidated material is virtually
eliminated because, as the longitudinal hopper walls move
apart, the cross-sectional area of the hopper increases significantly.
There is a reduced risk of damage as a result of dumping in
shallow water.
Maintenance cost is reduced due to elimination of doors and
operating gear.
The structure in way of bottom doors is eliminated, thereby
allowing a "clean" hopper with greater capacity.
As indicated, there is no question that the split-hull hopper
dredge possesses better dumping characteristics and has other
advantages over its conventional counterpart. However, it must
be recognized that the aperture extending over the entire length
of the ship makes it imperative that an effective simple and
maintenance-free sealing arrangement be provided in the hopper
area to preclude the loss of dredged material during the course
of loading or transit from dredging to disposal areas. Limitations
imposed by actuating cylinder dimensions (bore and stroke) that
grow in proportion to overall ship size and displacement also
cannot be overlooked. The largest split-hull hopper dredge built
in the United States is the 340-ft Eagle I, which was completed
and placed in operation in April 1981. The opening and closing
cylinders of this dredge have a bore and stroke of 43.3 by 181 in.
and a hydraulic working pressure of 4000 psi. One solution to this
limitation that has been used in European newbuildings is installation of four cylinders, two each in the forward and aft cylinder spaces.
The longitudinal strength calculations carried out for split-hull
designs differ significantly from the normal ship calculations in
that the section modulus for each hull half will vary considerably
when the ship is in the open or closed position. The forces in the
hull hinges and cylinders, as well as additional induced horizontal
and vertical forces caused by beam or oblique seas, must be cal-

culated. Because of the numerous variations that are possible,

the most practical approach to solving these problems is through
the use of computer programs as described in reference [3].
With respect to hopper capacity, the general design practice
is to provide the largest volumetric hopper space that can be
physically accommodated within a hull size which may be limited
by work project dimensions and other considerations related to
the contemplated area of operation. As mentioned previously,
channel bottom materials vary over a broad range. The in-place
density of such materials ranges from about specific gravity 1.3
or less for light fine-grained silts to specific gravity 2.0 or more
for heavy granular materials such as sand and gravel. The average
density of materials generally encountered on hopper dredging
projects in the United States is in the order of specific gravity 1.5
to 1.6. Consequently, hopper dredges designed for general-purpose use should have a hopper volume sufficient to permit essentially full loads of materials in that density range to be dredged

APRIL 1983

Fig. 9 Hopperdredge Atchafalaya

169

Table 1

Wheeler
(LCHD)

Essayons
(MCHD)

Length overall
409 ft
350 ft
Length between
384 ft
333 ft
perpendiculars
Breadth
78 ft
68 ft
Depth
39.5 ft
35 ft
Draft (loaded)
29.5 ft
27 ft
Hopper volume
8400 CY
6000 CY
Propulsion power 2-5280 hp
2-3600 hp
each
each
Speed (loaded)
14.5 knots
13.4 knots
Dredging depth
80 ft (see Note 3) 80 ft
(max)
(94 ft w/
(94 ft w/
extension)
extension)

Physical and general data

Yaquina
(SCHD)

Manhattan
Island
(see Note 1)

200 ft
193 ft

281 ft
265 ft

58 ft
17 ft
12 ft
825 CY
2-1125 hp
each
10 knots
45 ft

52 ft
21.5 ft
19.5 ft
3600 CY
2-1500 hp
each
11.5 knots
70 ft

(55 ft w/
extension)

DREDGE PUMPS:

Atchafalaya
(see Note 2)

Eagle I

197 ft
193.3 ft

340 ft
311 ft

372 ft
338 ft

68.3 ft
24.3 ft
22.4 ft
5514 CY
2-3730 hp
each
14 knots
80 ft

72 ft
34 ft
28.3 ft
8830 CY
2-6900 hp
each
14 knots
70 ft

40.7 ft
16.3 ft
14.5 ft
1308 CY
2-850 hp
each
9 knots
45 ft

Stuyvesant
Dredge

(65 ft w/
extension)

Dragarm mounted
number
2
2
...
discharge dia.
26 in.
26 in. . . .
power
1600 hp each
1450 hp each
...
Inboard
number
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
discharge dia.
30 in.
26 in.
16 in.
24 in.
20 in.
33.5 in.
36 in.
power
1800/3600 hp
1500/3000hp
565 hp each
850 hp each
600 hp each
1400 hp each
1852 hp each
each
each
(see Note 4)
(see Note 4)
Accommodations
40
38
28
22
16
28
32
Owner
Corps of
Corps of
Corps of
North American Gulf Coast
Bean Dredging Stuyvesant
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Trailing Corp.
Trailing Co.
Corp.
Dredging Corp.
Shipbuilder
Avondale
Sun Ship/Bath Norfolk
Southern
Twin City
Avondale
Avondale
Shipyards,
Iron Works,
Shipbuilding
Shipbuilding
Shipyard,
Shipyards,
Shipyards,
Inc.
Inc.
& D D Co.
Corp.
Inc.
Inc.
Inc.
Year built
under
under
1980
1977
1980
1981
under
construction
construction
construction
NOTES:
(1) First of a class of four dredges. Essentially similar vessels (and year built) are: Sugar Island (1979), Dodge Island (1980), and Padre Island
(under construction).
(2) The Mermentau, a vessel of the same class, except that it will be equipped with two dragarms and two dredge pumps, 18 in. and 472 hp
each, is under construction at Twin City Shipyard, Inc.
(3) The Wheeler is also equipped with a 42-in.-diameter center dragarm capable of dredging to 60 ft.
(4) Electric motor drive designed for dual power operation with higher power indicated for direct pumpout operation.

and transported at the design draft or assigned working loadline.

Using data contained in Table 1, the maximum hopper capacities (volumetric) of the various new hopper dredges have
been plotted in Fig. 11 against a function of hull cubic (length
between perpendiculars by breadth by depth) of the vessels
disregarding any differences in hull forms and block coefficients.
Curves indicating average trends for a number of representative
hopper dredges, both conventional and split-hull types of modern
European design, are shown as a basis of comparison. These
curves demonstrate that the split-hull-type construction generally is slightly more cubic-efficient than its conventional
counterpart due to the lack of internal structure in the hopper
mentioned earlier, although some cubic is lost to the cylinder
spaces. Most of the hopper dredges recently built or currently
under construction for private U.S. dredging contractors are of
the split-hull type. The exception is the largest, an 8830-yd 3capacity hopper dredge for Stuyvesant Dredging (See Table 1).
All of the new Corps of Engineers dredges are of conventional
construction.
It can be assumed that the vessels above the average curves
would be "deadweight limited" whereas those falling below the
average would be "cubic limited." Ships that are deadweight
limited would not be able to carry a full hopper of heavy materials
without exceeding the assigned load line. This condition can
sometimes be minimized by carrying fewer consumables such as
170

fresh water and fuel oil. Benefits of the larger hopper volume
would be realized when carrying lighter dredged material. On the
other hand, dredges that are cubic limited would be able to reach
the assigned load line only when carrying relatively dense dredged
material. Such a ship would be able to carry large amounts of fuel
oil and fresh water without affecting its ability to carry a full
hopper of any dredged material.
It is noted that all of the Corps dredges fall below the average
line (cubic limited), while all of the commercial dredges are above
the average line (deadweight limited). The reasons for this significant difference are varied and are probably the result of taking
into account the many possible operational requirements and
resulting design criteria. These different requirements and design
criteria may not be significant when considered singly. However,
when design decisions are based on a clearly defined design
philosophy, the end results are significant. The following indicate
some of the major differences that affect the comparative designs.
The Corps of Engineers dredges are designed to have the
capability of operating in remote areas during national defense emergencies. The crew complement and the capability
of carrying the relatively large amounts of consumables required for such operations are considered to be of prime
importance.
Dredging work performed under contract is usually paid for
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

IO000

9000

8000

7000

o
6000
D
J
o

~y

,y

5000-

i-

~'/

47

4000"
o
31:

CURVES SASED ON O~ERAT,ON

~
A
Y
,
7 DA~/ W~EK WOR~ SD.EDOLE AND

/
/
3000"

FOLLOWING

2000"

900/0 OF WORK TtME EFFECTIVE

SPEED - I0 M I L E S / HOUR
LOADING TIME - 6 0 MINUTES
DUMPING T I M E - I 0 M I N U T E S
AVERAGE LOAD - 70O/o HOPPER CAPACITY
( VOLUMETRIC )

ASSUMED

AVERAGES:

I000'

ESTIMATED

IO

12

I4

IS

lS

M I L L I O N CUBIC YARDS
ANNUAL PRODUCTION ( B I N M E A S U R E M E N T )

Estimated annual production of hopper dredges according to size (hopper capacity)

Fig. 10

I0

Stuyvesant Dredge

WHEELER

Representative E u r o p e a n
design (average)

/ /~

_z

~6

'

ESSAYONS

o
=: 4

r~ /

IO. C L A S S

M A N H A T T A N

ATCHA F A ~ / ' ~

CONVENTIONAL

HULL - CORPS OF ENGRS

CONVENTIONAL

HULL -

[]

SPLIT HULL-PRIVATE

PRIVATE U.S.
U S

O YAOUINA

I0

15

ZO

Z5

50

I
35

40

45

50

L B P x B E A M x DEPTH IN C Y x l O 3

Fig. 11

APRIL 1983

Hopper volume/ship size relationship

171

on the basis of the volume (cubic yards) of in-place material

removed from a specified area. A prime consideration of
commercial interests is to be able to load and carry the
largest possible volume regardless of the weight or specific
gravity of the dredged material.
The Corps dredges are designed to operate without relying
on the use of auxiliary plant or equipment, such as tugs and
booster pumping stations, for disposal of dredged material
by direct pumpout over long distances. For instance, the
inboard pumps on the Wheeler (LCHD) and Essayons
(MCHD) have about twice the power available then those
on the comparable Bean and Stuyvesant dredges. Naturally,
higher installed power requires a portion of ship volume that
is not available for the hopper section.
The shape of the bottom of the hoppers on the Corps dredges
substantially reduces the hopper volume in order to keep
the dump doors recessed within the hull.
The Wheeler has a centerwell in the hopper area to allow
installation of a third dragarm.
Space and weight considerations are most important factors
in hopper dredge design. The large amount of relatively heavy
components of the dredging systems and their associated power
machinery oftentimes present critical problems. In order to ensure that a full payload can be carried throughout most of the
range of expected specific gravities, it is desirable that some
reasonable margin (say equivalent to 3 to 5 percent of the estimated displacement) be provided for during the contract design
phase. Experience indicates that weight estimates generally increase as designs are refined and engineering details are developed. Alterations and modifications to hopper dredges during
the course of their long-term economic lives are often accompanied by increases in machinery weight and vessel displacement
that can have significant adverse effects on loading capabilities.

Load line and stability requirements

As previously indicated, U.S. hopper dredges were owned and
operated exclusively by the Government until nearly five years
ago when commercial dredging companies entered the hopper
dredging field. The area and mode of operation of hopper dredges
subject them to significant risks of damage from collisions,
groundings, etc. Although no applicable regulatory requirements
existed until recently, the Corps of Engineers has long recognized
a need for hopper dredge hulls to be designed to survive damage
from such casualties. This agency has followed a policy that,
whenever practicable, all of its hopper dredges would be designed
to survive flooding of any two adjacent hull compartments when
operating at the maximum loaded draft. No less than a onecompartment standard of subdivision would be provided in any
case.
When the construction and operation of privately owned
hopper dredges became imminent, the U.S. Coast Guard issued,
in the Federal Register of August 2, 1976, an Advance Notice of
Proposed Rule Making entitled "Damage Stability Standards
of Hopper Dredges." At that time, both the Corps and private
industry were developing plans for the new dredge construction,
and individual prospective owners and design agents had communicated with the Coast Guard with respect to requirements
under which a "working freeboard" would be permitted. Rules
similar to those established by Bureau Veritas were sought. Such
requests were answered on an individual basis, indicating that
pending further consideration by the Coast Guard of the problem
of stability standards specifically applicable to hopper dredges
pursuant to the aforementioned Advance Notice, existing load
line regulations did not permit freeboard less than the minimum
permitted for coastwise and international voyages. However, the
Coast Guard agreed that a working freeboard of up to one-half
the tabular B/100 freeboard might be authorized subject to
172

various conditions patterned somewhat after those prescribed

by Bureau Veritas [4].
Subsequently, the Coast Guard issued proposed rules on
"Hopper Dredges; Load Line and Stability Requirements" which
were published in the Federal Register on December 10, 1979 [5].
Fundamentally, these proposed rules would amend 46 CFR Parts
42 and 93 of the USCG regulations to permit the assignment to
a seagoing, self-propelled hopper dredge of a reduced working
freeboard that is one-half the B/100 freeboard allowed under 46
CFR 42.20-10 provided the vessel has sufficient structural
strength for the corresponding draft and does not operate more
than 20 nautical miles from shore or in conditions exceeding 10-ft
seas and 35-knot winds. In addition, all dredges must meet, at
their operating drafts, certain requirements specified for intact
and damage stability. Essentially, these proposed rules would
require hopper dredges to be designed to survive both side and
bottom damage assuming a spoil level and density in the hopper
which would result in the most critical condition of stability after
damage. Required calculations must assume that settling of the
dredged material does not occur and the spoil is an homogeneous
liquid regardless of its specific gravity and further that dumping
of the hopper load would not be permitted. The maximum angle
of heel permitted after damage would be 30 deg, or any lesser
angle where downflooding occurs. There are requirements for
calculation of minimum righting arm (GZ) and 20 deg range of
positive GZ after damage. Outflow of the dredged material in the
hopper when the ship is heeled over is taken into account.
The various marine interests involved, including commercial
hopper dredge owners, the Corps of Engineers, and design agents
have been taking an active part in assisting the Coast Guard in
developing appropriate rules. Most of these concerned believe
that the rules, as presently proposed, are unduly restrictive in
several aspects particularly with respect to not permitting the
hopper load to be dumped under any circumstance, requiring
high-density materials in the hopper to be treated as liquids in
all cases and the proposed extent of damage to the double bottom.
Comments expressing these views have been submitted by various parties concerned for consideration by the Coast Guard in
developing the rules in final form. The application of these rules
will have a significant effect on operational efficiency. For instance, as a result of various considerations and other circumstances over the past five years (as the proposed rules were being
developed) the Corps' Wheeler and Essayons have design drafts
that are less than their respective scantling drafts. This situation
imposes a deadweight restriction on vessels that are cubic limited.
It is hoped that the Coast Guard will reconsider the proposed
rules in the light of the aforementioned comments and will issue
appropriate guidelines for future designs as soon as practicable.

House and superstructure

In the past, it was often necessary to provide a superstructure
containing the pilothouse and quarters for deck personnel forward of the hoppers as well as a deckhouse aft in order to accommodate the remainder of the crew complement. Hopper dredges
of current design with modern marine power plants and automated control systems require significantly fewer operating
personnel. Consequently, the house and superstructure are located in a single structure aft of the hoppers. This arrangement
also facilitates the centralization of all dredging system controls
in the pilothouse area so that a single operator can control the
entire dredging system from a station on the bridge.
Deckhouse and superstructure decks generally are of conventional steel construction conforming to current marine
practice. In some cases, particularly in SCHD's with very stringent draft limitations, the use of an aluminum alloy structure to
reduce overall weight may be indicated. Consideration of this
option must include provisions for increased fire-retarding inMARINE TECHNOLOGY

sulation as required to meet the applicable standards of regulatory bodies.

Split-hull-type hopper dredges present a special design
problem with respect to the house and superstructure. Obviously,
dividing the house into two separate halves in a manner similar
to the hull is impractical. Accordingly, the entire deckhouse is
mounted on pivoting supports so that the entire above-deck
structure remains in a horizontal position during all phases of the
opening and closing process. The deckhouse unit lends itself to
modularized construction which is particularly desirable for
joiner work. In addition, the deckhouse can be placed longitudinally to correct trim problems.
Regardless of the type of construction involved, there is one
aspect of the deckhouse design that is of prime importance. The
pilothouse of a hopper dredge is the nerve center of its operations
both as a dredge and as a ship. Consequently, the pilothouse arrangement and especially the location of the consoles associated
with the operation and control of dredging systems are matters
t h a t must be given a great deal of attention. Those consoles
providing the controls and instrumentation to conduct and
monitor dredging operations fihould be as compact as practicable.
Also, notwithstanding the development of automated dredging
systems and associated instrumentation displays that permit
remote operation of the dragarms and other elements, the ability
of the operator to visually observe the operation of dredging
system components over the entire hopper area and as much as
possible over the sides of the vessel is most important and desirable. A prime consideration in developing the bridge design
must be this maximization of operator visibility.

As indicated in Table 1, the propulsion power (on each propeller) of the various hopper dredges recently built or under
construction ranges from 1000 hp for smaller vessels up to about
7000 hp for the largest. Diesel engines were the unanimous choice
for propulsion plants on the ships listed. In this connection, it is
noted that medium-speed (400 to 600 rpm) engines are preferred
for the larger dredges (such as the Corps' Wheeler and the Stuyvesant dredge); however, more severe space and weight constraints on medium- and small-size hopper dredges dictate the
selection of higher-speed engines (900 to 1200 rpm or more) that
are more compact and lighter in weight.
Controllable-pitch (CP) propellers have been adopted by the
Corps of Engineers for its new hopper dredges. The suitability
of such propulsion systems has been demonstrated from the
standpoint of being able to effectively provide full power during
all three principal modes of dredge operation (that is, trailing
suction dredging, free-running loaded to the disposal area, and
free-running light while returning to the dredging site). However,
CP propeller systems are more costly than comparable fixedpitch propeller installations. The vulnerability of hopper dredges
to propeller damage due to striking submerged obstructions,
steep channel banks, etc. during dredging operations also may
be a factor. Fixed propellers were selected for all of the new
commercial hopper dredge designs mentioned in this paper. If
a fixed-pitch propeller is used, the condition selected for propeller
design should be determined with care and weighted toward the
trailing (dredging) conditions. It is noted that the privately owned
dredge Atchafalaya is equipped with Z-drive propulsion units
with 360-deg steerable propellers.
Dredging

Propulsion
Since they must be highly maneuverable vessels capable of
turning in tight quarters, particularly when dredging in relatively
narrow navigation channels which may be only slightly wider
t h a n the length of the dredge, it has long been the general practice
to equip hopper dredges with twin screws and rudders. This arrangement also is desirable, if not essential, when dredging along
channel edges (banks) and for maintaining course in cross currents encountered in certain projects. Most modern hopper
dredges also are equipped with bow thrusters that serve to improve dredge control at slow propulsive speeds and facilitate
mooring operations particularly when engaged in direct pumpout
operations.
Considering the full-bodied hull form of hopper dredges and
taking into account that most hopper dredging operations involve
hauling distances that average about 5 miles and rarely exceed
30 miles, propulsive speeds in the 10-to-15-knot range when
free-running at loaded draft generally are adequate. However,
from the standpoint of design, consideration of power requirements during trailing suction dredging operations is considered
to be most important. Hydraulic drag of the suction arms as well
as the friction of the draghead against the bottom must be taken
into account. In the past, a significant number of dredges proved
to be underpowered in this respect notwithstanding the attainment of design speeds of 10 knots or more in the free-running
mode. The effectiveness of trailing suction dredging depends
largely upon the nature of the bottom material and the speed of
the suction draghead (and consequently the dredge itself) over
the bottom. Experience has shown that optimum dredging speeds
vary from 1 knot or less to 6 knots or more for various types of
materials under diverse job conditions. For general design purposes, a propulsive power sufficient to permit dredging at trailing
speeds of 4 knots against a 4-knot current is considered to be a
reasonable requirement. This criterion is generally used in the
U.S.; other areas may require more or less depending upon prevailing soils and currents. In addition, the adverse effect of prevailing shallow-water conditions at dredging sites should not be
overlooked in the determination of speed design requirements.
APRIL 1983

systems

The basic mission and capability requirements of hopper

dredges are given prime consideration in selecting and establishing design criteria for the various elements of the dredging
systems and associated power plants. To a large extent, hopper
capacity and configuration dictate the size and fundamental
characteristics of the pumping plant. In addition, the factors that
influence most significantly the selection and design of the
dredging systems are maximum dredging depth and dredged
material disposal methods, particularly with respect to requirements for direct p u m p o u t through long discharge pipelines and
special agitation dredging considerations.
The principle elements (or subsystems) of dredging systems
on hopper dredges are the following:

dragarm (suction) assemblage

dredge pumps
hopper distribution (discharge) system
hopper overflow system
hopper dumping system
hopper p u m p o u t system
instrumentation

Brief discussions of these individual components, with particular

reference to installations on the new hopper dredges, both Government and commercial, are given next.
D r a g a r m ( s u c t i o n ) a s s e m b l a g e . Modern hopper dredges
generally are equipped with side dragarms (one port, one starboard) and sliding trunnions t h a t permit each articulated assemblage to be raised and breasted in for stowage on deck when
not in use. All of the hopper dredges recently constructed (or
currently under construction) in the United States are so
equipped, except for Atchafalaya, which has only a single dragarm on the starboard side. In addition to its two conventional
side dragarms, the Wheeler has a third dragarm located in a well
on the longitudinal centerline of the hopper area. This dragarm,
which is intended for use principally during agitation dredging
operations, is provided with a sliding trunnion, but can be raised
only to deck level for stowage or maintenance or both. As indi173

cated in Table 1, most of these dredges have maximum dredging

depths of 70 to 80 ft, except for those of smaller hopper capacities
which are designed mainly for use in nagivation channels of
project dimensions (including depth) that are relatively shallow.
All dragarms are breasted, lowered, positioned for dredging,
raised and rebreasted by an integrated system of davits (or
gantries), winches and swell compensators. The size, strength and
power of components required for satisfactory operation of this
system are determined by the weight of the dragram filled with
dredged material, the line speed, and the clearance between the
hull and dragarm under dynamic conditions. An exhaustive investigation of the line pulls with different dredging depths, soil
mixtures and various positions during the dredging cycle is
considered necessary.
Winches can be electric or hydraulic depending on power requirements. Davits are usually fitted with hydraulic cylinders
for breasting but could also be breasted with the winches. The
design of the trunnion gantry is interesting in that it provides for
automatic locking of the trunnion (or sliding piece at the forward
end of the dragarm) in the inboard position. In the outboard
position the trunnion is automatically aligned with the track
recessed within the hull and released for lowering. The swell
compensator, which is normally mounted adjacent to the draghead davit, is the device that allows trailing suction dredging to
continue to operate in moderate sea states. This device consists
of a hydraulic cylinder with a farily long stroke which compensates for vertical movement of the ship in accordance with a
preset pressure. This preset pressure is realized by use of vessels
with a gas-hydraulic fluid interface pressure that must be adjusted in accordance with the weight of the dragarm and the
material being dredged.
In view of the relatively long life-span of hopper dredges and
continuing long-range trends toward deeper nagivation channel
depths, it is advisable that the dragarm hoisting and handling
gear be designed to permit some reasonable increase in maximum
dredging depth capabilities. In this regard, any possible future
modifications to dragarms, such as active dragheads, submerged
pumps or jetting systems, probably will necessitate significant
increases in the overall weight of the assemblages. Consequently,
provisions for such future increases in weight in the original design are considered prudent when developing design requirements.
D r e d g e pumps. The dredge pump generally is categorized
as the "heart" of a hydraulic dredge. Consequently, the selection
of the most suitable dredge pump for individual hopper dredges
is a matter of prime importance. Dredge pumps on hopper
dredges normally are low-head high-volume centrifugal pumps
as opposed to those on pipeline dredges, which are high-head
units. The design of dredge pumps on hopper dredges is developed by analyzing each element of the suction and discharge
system to determine the total head and estimating the quantity
and nature (that is, density, etc.) of the dredged mixture to be
handled. In development of the pump design, the volume and
surface areas of the hoppers are significant factors that need to
be considered. For hopper dredges equipped for direct pumpout
operations, where the same pumps (either singly or in series) are
used for unloading the hoppers and pumping the dredged material through long pipelines, the design must take this high-head
operation into account as well as the low-head operation involved
when loading the hoppers. Oftentimes, this results in the selection
of pump component dimensions (such as impeller diameter) and
operating range of rotative speeds that are practical compromises
rather than the optimum for either operating condition. All of
the new hopper dredges discussed in this paper, with the exception of the Yaquina, are either equipped for direct pumpout o.r
can readily be so equipped by the addition of required facilities
(for example, collection system, valves or doors, discharge piping,
valves) for that purpose. The future addition of such facilities is
usually considered in original designs. Dredge pumps in hopper
174

dredges generally are located as low as possible in the hull in order

to minimize the suction lift. At dredging depths of 70 ft or more,
the performance of inboard dredge pumps normally drops off
sharply and, as demonstrated in reference [1], the use of submerged dragarm-mounted pumps is indicated.
Such installations have the added advantage of providing increased effectiveness by being able to handle dredged mixtures
of greater specific gravity than possible with inboard pumps when
operating at most current channel depths. The desirability of
locating the dredge pump in the suction assemblage has been long
recognized, but problems associated with transmitting the power
(mechanical, electrical or hydraulic) required for this purpose
and the attendant operational and handling difficulties were
discouraging factors. However, the development in recent years
of relatively large electric motors (in the order of 1500 hp) specifically designed for underwater applications has made the installation of submerged dredge pumps practical. Such pumps
usually are located about halfway up the dragarm and increase
significantly overall dragarm weights. Therefore, heavier supporting structures and handling gear (including more winch
power, etc.) are required. The Wheeler and the Essayons are
being equipped with submerged dredge pumps on their side
dragarms that are driven by submersible a-c electric motors. The
motors on the Wheeler are oil-cooled and those on the Essayons
are water-cooled, thereby providing a basis for obtaining comparative operating characteristics, maintenance experience, etc.
of these two different design types in actual practice.
H o p p e r distribution (discharge) system. The hopper
distribution system (piping, valves, chutes, troughs, gates, etc.),
which conveys the dredged mixture from the dredge pump to the
point(s) of discharge into the hopper, usually is a subject of much
discussion during the course of the design development. Dredge
designers and operations managers often disagree as to the efficacy of alternative arrangements to load the hoppers uniformly
and effectively (minimum overflow losses) with diverse types of
materials ranging from heavy (rapidly settling--retainable)
materials such as coarse sand and gravel to fine-grained, light,
silty materials that settle very slowly and are essentially nonretainable after overflow in reached. Consequently, the configuration of hopper distribution systems on new dredges varies to
some degree. In most cgses, however, the system consists of a pipe
or chute fitted with gate-type or other valves that permit the
dredged mixture to be distributed over the length and breadth
of the hopper. The chute generally terminates in a baffled divergent section or diffuser that serves to reduce the flow velocity
and spread the material as it drops into the hopper. This is
especially desirable when handling relatively nonretainable
materials. The distribution pipe or lander over the hopper is
generally provided with a number of controllable discharge gates
or openings along its entire length to permit discharge when
handling relatively retainable materials. This helps effect uniform hopper loading. The need for providing a means of controlling material distribution in the hoppers, and satisfactorily
controlling vessel draft, list and trim during the hopper loading
process is a most important design consideration. In addition,
hopper distribution systems generally are subject to severe wear,
particularly when handling erosive granular materials; therefore,
ease of replacement must be given due consideration.
H o p p e r overflow system. During the course of loading,
hoppers can be filled only to an overflowievel. When pumping
beyond this level, excess water and/or lighter fractions of the
dredged mixture are discharged overboard. As indicated in the
previous discussion of hopper capacity, the in-place density of
bottom materials generally handled by hopper dredges varies
over a broad range. Consequently, with any given loaded draft
or load line, the volume of dredged material that can be carried
in the hoppers will vary inversely with its in situ specific gravity.
The lighter the material, the greater the volume (up to the
maximum hopper capacity) that the dredge can carry. In order
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

to provide some degree of flexibility in the use of hopper capacity

(volumetric) most suited to the particular material being dredged,
most dredges are provided with several overflow levels. These
levels are predetermined on the basis of the range of densities
expected to be encountered and provide a practical means of
readily selecting, for a particular dredge, the hopper capacity that
is most economically compatible with its design draft for the
specific material being dredged. In its three new hopper dredges,
the Corps of Engineers has gone a step further toward optimizing
production by providing them with continuously variable overflow levels which readily permit height adjustment, either
manually or automatically, during the hopper loading process.
This continuous adjustment is particularly useful when dredging
readily retainable materials (such as heavy coarse-grained sand),
by taking advantage of the burnout of consumables (fuel, etc.)
aboard the dredge.
Hopper dumping system. As previously indicated, one of
the basic design criteria for Corps hopper dredges is t h a t the
dump doors in the open position shall not extend below the ship's
bottom. Also, in the case of its new dredges, door openings are
substantially larger in relation to hopper area and volume than
in any of its previous designs. No undue difficulty is anticipated
in dumping dredged material usually encountered on hopper
dredge projects. Jetting systems are provided that can be employed for hopper washdown as may be required to facilitate
dumping of any "sticky" materials or those t h a t may have a
tendency to arch over the dump door openings. The dump doors
on the Yaquina are electrically operated and those on the
Wheeler and Essayons are hydraulically operated. In all cases
these doors can be operated singly, in pairs (port and starboard)
or all at one time as circumstances may require. As indicated in
the preceding discussion of hull and hopper capacity, split-hull
hopper dredges are distinctly advantageous from the standpoint
of dumping operations. The continuous wide opening t h a t is
unobstructed and runs the entire length of the hopper as the hull
is opened permits rapid and uniform dumping of diverse types
of dredged materials.
Hopper pumpout system. Except for the Yaquina, which
is a small-capacity dredge intended for use mainly in shallow
ocean bar inlet channels on the West Coast, all of the new hopper
dredges in the United States are equipped or can be readily
modified for direct p u m p o u t operations. It is anticipated t h a t
this disposal method will become more prevalent, particularly
in coastal areas where there is a need for sand for beach rehabilitation and nourishment purposes. In recognition of this anticipated need, the pumping plants of the Wheeler and Essayons
have been designed so that sand can be p u m p e d through discharge lines of two miles or more without the use of booster
pumping stations. Since these Corps dredges are also equipped
with submerged dragarm-mounted dredge pumps that are designed exclusively for hopper loading, the design of the inboard
pumps is based principally upon their use for direct p u m p o u t
operations, and more than satisfies this long-distance pumping
requirement when operating in series. In this connection, it appears that the dredge pumps on the commerical hopper dredges
discussed in this paper are designed mainly for the normal, relatively low-head operation required for hopper loading and have
a limited discharge capability for direct p u m p o u t operations.
Series operation of inboard pumps is generally provided for
pumpout.
The hopper collection (or suction) system required for direct
p u m p o u t operations essentially consists of piping or ducts with
necessary valves or doors and a sea suction (for dilution water)
running longitudinally the entire length of the hoppers to permit
controlled unloading of its contents. Also, a jetting system is
provided in most cases to minimize any possibility of plugging.
T h e internal spaces of the void compartments surrounding the
hopper are extremely restricted, making it very difficult to fit in
the facilities required, and thus present problems in construction
APRIL 1983

as well as future maintenance and repair. This is particularly true

in the case of the Corps designs.
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . The progress and results of dredging
operations usually are determined by making hydrographic
surveys before, during and after dredging, and computing the
volume of material removed from within project limits between
surveys. However, as discussed in reference [6], these means of
gaging dredge performance are based on after-the-fact field
measurements t h a t are of limited value for control purposes
aboard the dredge itself during actual operations. Instrumentation for measuring and controlling various elements of the hydraulic dredging process is considered essential to ensure t h a t
dredge productivity is maintained at levels comparable to desgin
capabilities. The need for instrumentation on hopper dredges
has been long recognized by responsible management personnel
and the development of equipment t h a t is reliable and maintainable has been going on for many years, both in the United States
and abroad. Devices and systems specially designed for dredge
use that display or provide continuous information on draghead
depth, dragarm position, dredge pump suction vacuum/discharge
pressure, flow velocity/density, solids flow rate/totalizer and
hopper load/draft are now available and given general acceptance
by dredge owners. The Corps of Engineers has been in the forefront of efforts in the United States to develop, test and evaluate
such instrumentation as a means toward improving its dredges
and their operation. The new hopper dredges, both commercial
and Government owned, are equipped with all of the aforementioned systems. These instruments also serve to provide intelligence or signals or both required for automatic control of various
elements of the hopper dredging process as discussed under the
following sections on automation and other developments.

Automation
Significant new developments in hopper dredge design t h a t
have been mentioned or described in preceding sections of this
paper include:
split-hull construction
submerged dragarm-mounted dredge pumps
continuously variable level overflows
In addition, primarily in order to reduce crew requirements,
automation of both ship and dredging machinery has been incorporated to a large extent in all of the new hopper dredges for
operation in the United States: With respect to propulsion and
other ship systems, these vessels generally are built with the capability for operation with unattended engine rooms in accordance with USCG Navigation Circular No. 1-69, dated 8 January
1969 and are inspected and classed by ABS with Maltese Cross
ACCU certification. Also, in all cases, the dredging system as a
whole on these vessels is designed to be operated by a single officer (or dredgemaster) at a central control station on the bridge.
On all Corps dredges, dragarm handling is completely automatic
from the stowed position on deck to the dredging positions,
during the dredging cycle and return to the stowed position. Also,
on the Wheeler and Essayons, the Corps has provided for automation to the maximum extent practicable of various elements
of the hopper dredging process as means for attaining more effective control and optimum efficiency of operation. Major portions of the automation system or devices or both being provided
on the aforementioned hopper dredges are prototype designs or
applications, as described in some detail in reference [7]. In
particular, "first-time" automatic control systems are included
that provide for:
governing hopper loading by automatically raising and
lowering variable overflow levels (forward or aft, port or
starboard) in response to preset instructions and to vessel
trim, list and draft;
control of the hopper dumping operation by opening/closing
175

pers, all the requirements of regulatory bodies that normally are

applicable to tankers must be met. Details of this dual-purpose
plant are given in reference [3]. Figure 12 is a photograph that
shows some details of the Cosmos.
Unfortunately, the extensive changes required to meet oil
tanker rules make it impractical to convert an existing hopper
dredge to perform oil spill cleanup operations.

Conclusion

Fig. 12

Hopper dredge/oil recovery vessel (Cosmos)

dump doors in timed sequence pursuant to preset instructions, and

automatic control of hopper unloading (including prevention
of discharge line plugging) during direct pumpout operations.

Other developments
Other new developments worthy of mention, but which have
not as yet been adopted on any hopper dredges in the United
States, are discussed briefly in the following:
Active d r a g h e a d s . Standard dragheads are relatively inefficient in hard compact soils, particularly in plastic clay. Fitting
suction heads with scrapers or cutting edges to improve efficiency
in these soils is a solution that has been tried with many variations. It is noted that, with such installations, the cutting forces
developed must be transferred through the suction pipe from the
propulsion system. In the case of compacted sands, the use of
water jetting nozzles fitted to the draghead has served to increase
production, and a further increase in production in such materials
can be gained by recirculating the overflow mixture through the
draghead jetting system. However, the most significant improvement that can be gained in both compacted sands and
plastic clays is by the application of hydraulically driven rotary
cutters within the draghead itself. Tests with developmental and
prototype units in The Netherlands have shown dramatic increases in production in such materials. Plastic clay is very cohesive and the loading of relatively large masses or "balls" of this
material could cause severe dumping problems in hopper dredges
with conventional dumping doors. The split-hull type dredge is
particularly advantageous for use in conjunction with active rotary dragheads if substantial quantities of this type of soil must
be dredged in locations where heavy traffic or adverse sea conditions make the use of conventional cutterhead pipeline dredges
impractical.
Multipurpose hopper dredge. The Cosmos, a combination
trailing suction hopper dredge and oil pollution control vessel,
was recently delivered in The Netherlands. The primary use of
this dredge is maintenance dredging of Europort channels in the
Rotterdam area; and it is designed and fitted with all the normal
equipment required to carry out this mission. However, the vessel
is also equipped with oil recovery arms for skimming and removing spilled oil from the water surface. For this purpose an oil
pump room is provided and, since the oil is collected in the hop-

176

Seagoing trailing suction hopper dredges are distinctive ships

as well as complex, highly versatile dredging plants that are essential for the construction and maintenance of coastal port
channels. The design of these vessels involves many considerations and this paper only highlights certain aspects that are
considered of interest. As indicated, the construction of a number
of new hopper dredges in the United States has resulted in increased attention being given to their design and construction
by all elements of the marine industry, including designers,
manufacturers, suppliers, and shipbuilders. This renewed activity
has contributed significantly toward the development of new
hopper dredges that are able to perform effective and economical
dredging operations required for the improvement and maintenance of navigation channels. It is hoped that this paper will serve
to encourage and sustain a continuing interest in the subject by
those concerned with hopper dredge design, construction, operation, and maintenance.
Metric Conversion Factors

1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 yd3 = 0.7645 m3
I mile = 1.6 km
1 nautical mile = 1.852 km
1 psi = 6.894 kPa
1 hp = 0.7457 kW

References
1 Fortino, Ernest P., "New Approaches to the Design of Hopper
Dredges," MARINETECHNOLOGY,Vol. 17, No. 4, Oct. 1980, pp. 371384.
2 Murden, William R. and Mauriello, Louis J., "Hopper Dredge
Design Considerations," Proceedings,Ninth World Dredging Conference
(WODCON IX), Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Oct. 29-31, 1980, pp. 149173.
3 van Dooremalen, J. J. C. M. and van Drimmelen, N. J., "The Effective Combination of Modern Dredging and Oil Spill Recovery Technologies on the 'Slicktrail,' "SNAME, New York Metropolitan Section,
Oct. 1979.
4 "Freeboard of Dredgers and Barges Fitted with Bottom Doors,"
Bureau Veritas, Guidance Note N.I. 144 BM.1, Oslo, Norway, Jan.
1971.
5 Federal Register, Vol. 44, No. 238, Monday, Dec. 10, 1979, Proposed
Rules, "Hopper Dredges; Load Line and Stability Requirements," issued
by the U.S. Coast Guard, Dec. 5, 1979.
6 Mauriello, Louis J. and Denning, Rick A., "Assessing and Controlling Hydraulic Dredge Performance," Proceedings, World Dredging
Conference (WODCON 1968) Oct. 1968, pp. 486-506.
7 van Dooremalen, J. J. C. M., Lohman, T. A. M., and Cornelis, C.
A., "Automation on Trailing Hopper Dredges," Proceedings, Ninth
World Dredging Conference (WODCON IX), Vancouver, B.C., Canada,
Oct. 29-31, 1980, pp. 873-887.

Discusser
Alexander Izett

MARINE TECHNOLOGY