Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

Black and White in Indian Typography

Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam, Department of Design, Indian Institute of
Technology Guwahati <d.udaya@iitg.ernet.in>
Abstract
India is a diverse country with multiple scripts, the ancient script Brahmi is the
root of all Indian scripts. The medium and tools used for writing played an
important role in the evolution of scripts. Traditionally, Tamil language was written
on palm leaves, one of the major mediums used for written communication in
India. The writing tool and unique writing system on palm leaves were unlike the
Far Eastern and Western calligraphic cultures. In manuscript writing, the concept
of black and white was no concern for the scribe, because the content was more
important than the calligraphy or composition. A script that has evolved with such
culture and written practices reflected the same in the contemporary typography;
it has little or no concerns for the black and white. The paper aims at
understanding black and white in Indian typography especially in Tamil script from
its palm leaf manuscripts tradition.
Keywords
Calligraphy, Palm-leaf, Tamil, Typography

1.0 Introduction
Ancient India was a land of oral tradition based on the gurusishya relationship.
The knowledge was orally transmitted from a guru to his/her disciple (sishya)
likewise to the future generations. The emphasis of spoken language led to the
negligence of writing tradition. The concept of writing system in India started
much later than its language. The first reference to writing in India was found in a
Pali Buddhists canon of the 5th century BC (Kesavan, The Book in India, 1985, p.
9). The heterodox traditions of Buddhism and Jainism had a high esteem for
written word. To them, writing was considered as a means of transmitting and
documenting knowledge that would otherwise be lost forever.
1.1 Brahmi script
The ancient script, Brahmi is the root of all Indian scripts. It is the mother of
several other major script families of Central and Southeast Asia (Salomon, 1998,
p. 7). Brahmi was used to write Prakrit language which prevailed during the
ancient India (Visalakhy, 2003, p. 39). The development of Brahmi script can be
broadly classified into two major groups, the Northern Brahmi and Southern
Brahmi (Visalakhy, 2003, p. 41). These major groups developed into further
subgroups based on the regional variations. The regional variations further
evolved into several modern Indian scripts; from Northern Brahmi developed
Devanagari, Punjabi, Gujarati, Bengali, and Oriya, from Southern Brahmi, Telugu
and Kannada emerged. According to Mahadevan, there existed another ancient
script called Tamil Brahmi which has evolved independent of Northern and
Southern Brahmi. Tamil Brahmi was an adaptation of Brahmi script used for
writing ancient Tamil (Mahadevan, 2003, pp. 173-178) (Figure 1). The modern
Tamil script that we use today is an offspring of the Tamil Brahmi script
(Encyclopedia of Tamil Literature, 1990, p. 105).

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

Figure 1: Vowels and consonants of Tamil Brahmi script. (Image source: Illustration by the
author)

1.2 Tamil Language

Tamil language one among the classical languages in the world, belongs to the
Dravidian languages of Southern India. It is the official language of Tamil Nadu a
southern state in India and is also recognized as an official language in Singapore
and Sri Lanka. The earliest known source of Tamil literature dates back to 500BC
to 300AD known as Cankam literature1 (Varadarajan, 2001, p. 18). Tamil Cankam
was a congregation or assembly of Tamil scholars and poets who displayed and
shared their knowledge during the ancient times. It is in one of the epic work of
Cankam literature, Tolkappiyam2, a detailed description of Tamil letterforms was
found (Varadarajan, 2001, p. 6). The modern Tamil still continues to follow the
literary history and has its roots in Tolkappiyam (Encyclopedia of Tamil Literature,
1990, p. 10). The script has total of 247 characters that consists of twelve vowels
called uyir (Life), eighteen consonants called mey (Body), one secondary sound
called aytam and two hundred and sixteen compound characters called uyir-mey
(Animated body). The script also has six Grantha3 alphabets to denote words of
Sanskrit origin.
1.3 Materials used for writing in Ancient India
In ancient India, various mediums such as stone, metal, paper, cloth, wood,
bamboo, brich bark and palm leaves were used for written communication.
Overtime the use of various mediums have influenced and transformed the Indian
scripts (Naik, 1971, p. 13). According to Tamil literature there were three modes of
graphic communication in ancient Tamil Nadu (Encyclopedia of Tamil Literature,
1990, pp. 123-124). They were stone inscriptions, cloth and palm leaf
manuscripts.

2.0 Palm leaf manuscripts

Palm leaf manuscripts were one of the most commonly used medium of
communication during the ancient times. Though inscribing on stone, metal and
earthen vessels did exist concurrently, the popular medium of writing remained
the palm leaf manuscripts (Figure 2). The precise origin of palm leaf writing is still
unclear. The oldest available palm leaf manuscript in India belongs to 10th century
AD. According to Salomon, the earlier works written on perishable materials such
as palm leaves, tree bark and cloth got completely destroyed due to the extreme
climatic conditions of India (Agrawal, 1984, p. 1) (Salomon, 1998, p. 14). The
traditional practice is that whenever a palm leaf decays, its contents were
transferred on to fresh new leaves and that was how the writing system has been
passed on from generations to generations through scholars and scribers. The
magnitude of the medium is such that its composition and method of writing has
remained unchanged right from its known existence. People still prepare and use

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

palm leaf manuscripts the way our ancestors used centuries ago (Kumar,
Athavankar, & Sreekumar, 2009, p. 2). The practice of writing on palm leaves was
more prevalent in Southern India and Southeast Asian countries like Nepal, Sri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia and Cambodia (Agrawal, 1984, p. 24). The
widespread use of the material in these regions was due to the abundant growth
and availability of palm trees in the coastal area.

Figure 2: Tamil alm leaf manuscript. (Image source: Government Oriental Manuscript
Library, Chennai)

2.1 Types of palm leaves

There are many species of palm trees but the leaves of only a few are used for
writing purpose. The most widely used are Borassus flabellifer Linn (the palmyra
palm), Corypha umbraculifera Linn (talipot, fan palm) and Corypha taliera roxb
(Agrawal, 1984, p. 25). The leaves of talipots are the best because of its smooth,
delicate and supple nature. Its fibers do not damage easily and are more resistant
to decay. All varieties are found to be used for writing in India. Palm leaf
manuscripts are found in linear horizontal format this is basically due to the
natural size of the leaves. Normally, length of the leaves vary from 15cm60cm
and width between 3cm12cm. The manuscripts dimension depends on the
available size of leaves. Before writing, palm leaves have to be processed and
prepared to make it suitable for writing.
2.2 Preparation of palm leaves for writing
There are several ways of processing palm leaves, these methods differ from
region to region. In South India, different method is adopted whereas in Orissa
and other Southeast Asian countries different technique is adopted. The basic
method of palm leaf preparation for writing is as follows (Patnaik, 1989, pp. 1617) (Kamat, 2000).
Palm leaves are first cut from the trees before they could dry up and become
brittle. Only a half opened young shoot of palm leaves are suitable for making
manuscripts. These are cut into required sizes and then boiled in water to the
required temperature in order to render them soft. The softened leaves are then

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

dried in the shade or mild sunshine (Figure 3). The unwanted middle ridge is
removed from the main leaf. The desired portion is pressed, polished and trimmed
to size. Then holes are made on either side of the leaves with a red hot wire. A
cord is passed through the holes to hold the leaves together. Two wooden planks
of leaf dimension are then placed above and below the manuscript as covers to
protect the leaves and stored in dry place. After sometime the leaves are taken
out which by now would have become flat and smooth for writing. The total
number of leaves in a manuscript depends on its content.

Figure 3: Palm leaves cut to size and dried under shade or mild sunshine. (Image source:
Photographed by the author with permission from pulavar Chockalingam, Tanjore)

2.3 Convention of palm leaf manuscripts writing

The natural life span of a palm leaf is around 400 years therefore it was a
customary practice that whenever a palm leaf decays, its contents were
transferred on to fresh new leaves. If preserved well its life can extend to more
the 500 years. Ancient literature and scholarly works were passed on to the newer
generation by copying the older manuscripts. John Samuel says, Lifespan of a
palm leaf manuscript is about 300-350 years. The present manuscripts are mere
copies of the earlier manuscripts which are also replications. Manuscripts have
been copied from generations to generations by a set of people. Each time a
manuscript gets old or decays it is transferred on to a new leaves, these new ones
are then preserved, the older manuscripts are either burnt in ghee or thrown into
the river4. Palm leaf manuscript writing is a skilled activity which requires
patience, practice and training. A common man cannot easily take to writing on
palm leaves. In olden days, writing on palm leaves was practiced as a profession
by some; they were called as Lipikaras copyist (Kamat, 2000). There are
references of families who belong to the generation of palm leaf manuscript
writing (Kumar, Athavankar, & Sreekumar, 2009, p. 4).
2.4 Writing system
Writing on palm leaf manuscripts differ with respect regions. Northern India has
one method of writing while in Southern India people adapt a different technique;
the same is also practiced in Southeast Asian countries. In general, there are two
major techniques used for writing on palm leaf manuscripts (Agrawal, 1984, p.
31).

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

2.4.1 Writing with ink

In this method, a brush or a reed pen dipped in pot of ink was used to write on
palm leaf manuscripts. The writing was done in the usual manner as with pen on
paper (Figure 4). Since palm leaf is less absorbent than paper, the ink remains on
the surface. This method was mostly prevalent in North India.

Figure 4: 13th century kalpasutra palm leaf manuscript written using reed pen and ink.
(Image source: Paintings of South-east Asia, Butterworths & Co Ltd.)

2.4.2 Writing by incision with a pointed metal stylus

This method is predominant in Southern India and Tamil palm leaf manuscripts
are normally written using this method. In this method, the stylus is held in the
right hand, at a fixed place on the leaf. The leaf is held in the left hand and is
moved backward and forward to make the incision. Both hands are actively
involved in the writing process and their coordination is important to scribe letters
(Figure 5). In right hand, the stylus is held upright between the ring finger and last
finger. The left hand, apart from holding the leaves, also controls and directs the
stylus using the thumb nail. Scribers who write on palm leaf usually grow their left
thumb nail through which a hole is bored to hold the stylus. Alternately, some
people make a groove in the nail to hold the stylus. To write, the stylus is placed
over the grove of left thumb nail and incisions are made letter by letter. As the
writing progresses the leaf is moved leftwards using the left hand.
After incision, the letters may not be visible to read. Therefore, lamp-black or coal
powder mixed with oil is applied on the leaves so that the letters become
noticeable and read easily. The excess mixture is then wiped off with a cloth.
Sometimes, fresh green leaves of a particular tree are rubbed on the palm leaves
so that the green juice of leaves gets deposited in the engravings rendering it
visible (Figure 6). Since correction or overwriting was difficult, great attention was
required to make each leaf error free. The palm leaf manuscripts also had
illustrations, either incised or painted with a brush. The illustrations are incised
with the stylus in the same manner as writing.

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

Figure 5: Method of writing on a palm leaf manuscript where the leaves are incised with a
pointed metal stylus. (Image source: Photographed by the author with permission from
pulavar Chockalingam, Tanjore)

Figure 6: A completed Tamil palm leaf manuscript. (Image source: French Institute,
Pondicherry)

3.0 Discussion
As mentioned above the writing system in Northern India is completely different
from the Southern India especially the Tamil manuscripts. Consequently the
characteristics of calligraphy are different. Though the medium is same, the
writing tool and the method of writing rendered divergent visual characteristics.
The forms rendered by the tools has what established the script form that is
today. The writing system is also distinctive in comparison to the East Asian,
Western and Islamic calligraphy.
3.1 Influence of the palm leaf medium
The traditional medium and distinctive writing system has played an important
role in the evolution of the script. T. N. Subramanian opines that there were three
main reasons behind the transformation of letterforms they were medium used
for writing, writing system and design sensitivity (Subramanian, 2004, p. 5). A
good example is the present Malayalam5 script one of the reasons for its
roundedness is attributed to the palm leaf medium used for writing during olden
days. Scribers adapted circular forms in order to prevent the leaves from damage
(Sambandham, Accukkalai Varalaru, 1998, p. 130) (Frutiger, 1989, p. 96).

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

3.2 Inkless writing

The important factor to be observed in the Tamil manuscripts is the process of
writing without ink. Writing without the clear visibility of letters suggests that the
scribes motive is to only deliver the content. Such conditions are likely to suggest
that the scribe is concentrated on the content than the aesthetics of writing. This
is evident from the calligraphy on the large numbers of manuscripts that exists in
the repositories. The process of writing system implies that there is no
consideration for black and white. Firstly, the text is written without ink (incised)
and is visible only through the depression of the groves, it is more tactile. The ink
is smeared only at the latter stage when the entire leaf is completely written
(Figure 7). Therefore, the scriber has no concerns for the black while he is writing.
All he is concerned is the content and how quick he can complete his work, for
him calligraphy has less importance than the content. The traditional practice of
writing without ink may not have evoked the aesthetic understanding towards the
letterforms or for a balanced composition. This as a result would have deprived
the scribe from developing an artistic calligraphy.

Figure 7: Image on left shows a manuscript immediately after incision where the letters are
hardly visible. On right is a manuscript where the text is made visible by smearing a paste
of charcoal powder mixed with oil. (Image source: Government Oriental Manuscript Library,
Chennai)

3.3 The pen tool

Pen is one of the important instruments that brought changes to scripts. The use
of reed pen with cut nib in Northern India created modulated stroke thickness
giving a visual character to the script. The width variations in the nib created
different stroke thicknesses, giving rise to different calligraphic forms. Therefore,
the pen gave an opportunity for the scribe to generate various forms of
calligraphic stroke and compositions. In process, it would have made him
conscious about the use of ink on the surface making him balance between the
black and white spaces. The reed has been the traditional pen for Islamic
calligraphy and is used with the nib cut at an oblique slant (McWilliams & David j.,
2007, p. 13). The angular cut of the pen makes an interesting variation in the
stroke thickness resulting in a beautiful calligraphy. Similarly, in western
calligraphy reed pens were used earlier then replaced by the quills and later to
metal nib pens. The modulated stroke thickness of the script is because of the
pen tools. The stroke variations and the writing system facilitated the scribe to
develop appealing calligraphy. In Chinese or Japanese calligraphy, brush has been
the traditional tool for writing. The skilled use of brush created organic letter
forms with distinct and articulated strokes. The calligrapher determines the
composition and its aesthetic appearance.

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

In comparison with the other writing traditions, Tamil palm leaf manuscripts are
written with a pointed metal stylus, where only mono linear stroke thickness was
possible (Figure 8). The Dravidian scripts developed the mono-linear form
because of the method of inscribing using a pointed stylus (Vargas 2007:13). The
use of such pen tool provides less possibility of creating calligraphic variations like
in other calligraphic traditions. The lack of thick and thin modulation of the stroke
thickness comparatively subdues the contrast between the palm leaf medium and
the writing. This supports the idea that with thin mono linear strokes the scribe is
less likely to think of balancing the black and white. Technically, the scribe has
lesser chance of creating a balanced composition or calligraphy. However, there
are manuscripts with beautiful and innovative illustrations done using the stylus
but not calligraphy. The modulated stroke seen in the present Tamil script is an
influence of letterpress medium.

Figure 8: Pointed metal stylus used for writing on palm leaf manuscripts. (Image source:
Pulavar Chocalingam, Tanjore)

3.4 Importance of content

The Tamil state is well known for its culture and tradition; its rich heritage of Iyal
(literature), Isai (music) and Nadagam (dance) continues to flourish even today. It
is also known for its art and architecture ironically there is no such development
or interest in calligraphy. Perhaps the literary content was more powerful than the
written characters; letters were mere representations of the ideas and scholarly
content. Therefore for a scribe the conveying the right and scholarly content was
more important than the beauty of the letters. Most of the palm leaf manuscripts
that are preserved in the libraries, institutions and museums are rudimentary and
do not exhibit any calligraphy or aesthetic composition. There are very few
manuscripts seen beautifully handwritten and decorated. In contrast, the North
Indian palm leaf manuscripts excel in calligraphy and composition. Similarly,
when mediums gradually changed from manuscripts to letterpress printing the
typography that followed had a similar impact it had no concern for the black
and white. The Typography that exists today is an influence of the Western
typography that came with the printing.

4.0 Tamil Typography

4.1 Letterpress printing and early typefaces
The establishment of letterpress printing in India slowly displaced the handwritten
palm leaf manuscripts. However, the Tamil typeface used in the early printed
book was an imitation of palm leaf manuscript writing (Sambandham, Accum
Patippum, 1997, p. 310) (Figure 9). For the early printers, palm leaf manuscripts
were the only portable reference available to cast types for letterpress printing. In
the middle of nineteenth century the locals learned the art of punch cutting and
type design from the guidance of an American printer P R Hunt who ran the
American mission press. Murdochs in his Classified catalogue of Tamil printed
books writes that Mr. P R Hunt gave Tamil letters a more regular slope, more

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

even spacing, better alignment and also introduced a new and beautiful serif
which greatly added to the appearance of Tamil Type (Murdoch, 1865, p. lvii). The
quality of Tamil typefaces rose to international standards under his guidance.
Even the renowned Linotype foundry found Tamil types were designed to its best
and could not be further improved (Sambandham, Accum Patippum, 1997, p.
338). This certifies the standards at which Tamil printing and type design was
carried out. Typefaces of the nineteenth century had a subtle ornamentation and
elegance. The norm set during this period was so influential that it is still being
followed. It could be discerned that Tamil fonts attained its present form from the
early nineteenth century.

Figure 9: A part of a page reproduced from the book Doctrina Christam printed at Cochin
in 1578. (Image source: Accum Patippum, Manivasagar Publications)

4.2 Typography
Similar to the early typefaces the initial typographic characteristics were also an
imitation of the manuscripts. Only in the latter stages of printing the influence of
western typography is seen. They are inclusion of word space, special characters,
paragraphs, style sheet, Arabic numerals, book format and other typographic
norms. The present typographic layout is universal, similar to any other script in
the world it. However, the nature of typography is reminiscent of traditional
practice.
4.2.1 Art and Color
India is a nation of colorful culture, first thing one notices about this country
would be its colorfulness. This culture is observed throughout the country from
north to south and east to west. A culture dominant of color has less inclination
towards black and white. This is also true with its typography where colors are
extensively used by the designers. The limitations of the early letterpress printing
were the only reasons to have resulted in black and white compositions. Once the
technology became available to print multiple colors the designers began to
explore the entire gamut of colors, especially with the digital printing.
Most often the typography that is seen at present is a reflection of the colorful
culture not the balance of black and white. The designs seen in various popular
print mediums such as posters, newspaper, magazines and books portray the
same. The use of multicolored text in different typefaces is a common design

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

practice they form an integral part of the aesthetic composition (Figure 10). The
choice of colorfulness and multiple typefaces makes the design vibrant and
versatile. Though it needs to be scientifically validated at large people are fond of
such designs. Perhaps it is because of the colorful art and dance tradition of the
southern state. The typography today can be seen as an amalgamation of art
culture and the western typography. This is apparent from the signboard
paintings, art lettering and shop fascias that exhibit an artistic typography with
cultural connotation. The predominant use of colors in typography signifies that
the designers have less inclination towards the impact of black and white. It is to
be noted that the majority of these designers come from an art background.

Figure 10: A cover design of a popular Tamil magazine showing the use of multi-colors and
multiple typefaces.

4.2.2 Desktop Publishers

In Tamil Nadu, the wide range of design activities from publication design to
movie titling is often designed by the DTP operators and artists. Their creativity in
the field of art has had a direct influence on Tamil typography. In most cases they
attempt to emulate the sense of artistic beauty into the design. There are hardly
any examples observed or documented to reflect the idea of balance in
typographic design especially in terms of black and white. Perhaps, the desktop
publishers are less familiar with the typographic concepts or knowledge of the
west and other parts of the world. However, their experience and artistic
knowledge has created numerous interesting and innovative layouts that are a
manifestation of an indigenous culture. Their body of work is what makes the
Tamil typography today and that requires an in-depth research and analysis. Such
explorations will help determine the characteristics of Indian typography
especially in Tamil.

10

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

5.0 Conclusion
In Tamil, palm leaf manuscripts have be a traditional medium of written
communication that continued till the late nineteenth century. It has played a
crucial role in the evolution of the script through the medium itself and from the
unique writing system. Looking at the process of the writing it is evident that the
early scribers and calligraphers had no concern for the black and white or
balancing the page. Since, the traditional mediums are different for different
regions the approach to calligraphy and composition are also different. Unlike in
Far East (excluding some of the Southeast Asian countries), Middle East or
European countries the calligraphy is completely different in palm leaf
manuscripts. This is mainly because of the indigenous medium and unique writing
system.
In Tamil, the functional aspect of the book (manuscript) that is the content was
important than the aesthetics. The limitations of the medium have added peculiar
characteristics to the script in the process evolution. Similarly the writing system
has influenced the transformation of the script. The introduction of letterpress
printing saw the decline of the handwritten manuscripts. However, the early
letterpress typefaces were an imitation of the palm leaf manuscripts. This made
sure the characteristics of manuscripts continued to the printing era. Gradually
over a period of time the western typography began to be influence the native
script. Again even in printing, there was not much of consideration for the balance
of black and white; it was more about the functionality, the content. The
contemporary Tamil typography is seen as an amalgamation of art culture and the
western typography.

6.0 Endnotes
1

Tamil Cankam was a congregation or assembly of Tamil scholars, poets who

displayed and shared their knowledge during the ancient times.

Tolkappiyam is an epic work on grammar and poetics of the Cankam

literature describes Tamil language of the classical period.

The term Grantha in Sanskrit means a book or bundle of palm leaves, the
script used for writing books was called Grantha script. The script is used for
Sanskrit language.

Interview with Dr. John Samuel, Director and Editor of Encyclopedia of Tamil
Literature, Institute of Asian Studies, Chennai on 31st August 2008.

Malayalam is a script used for writing Malayalam language, an official

language of Kerala, a southern state in India.

7.0 References
Agrawal, O. P. (1984). Conservation of Manuscripts and Paintings of South-east
Asia. London: Butterworths & Co Ltd.
Encyclopedia of Tamil Literature. (1990). Chennai: Indian Institute of Asian
Studies.
Frutiger, A. (1989). Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning. London:
Studio Editions.
Guy, J. (1982). Palm-leaf and Paper, Illustrated Manuscripts of Indian and
Southeast Asia. Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria.

11

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography

Between black and white ATypI Hong Kong 2012

Joshi, R. K. (1983). Calligraphy Study of Manuscripts. Caltis (pp. 5-8). Pune:

Institute of Typographic Research.
Kamat, J. (2000 26-May). Leaf-books and the Art of Writing. Retrieved 2012
27-June from Kamat's Potpourri: http://www.kamat.com
Kesavan, B. S. (1985). History of Printing and Publishing in India (Vol. 1). New
Delhi: National Book Trust.
Kesavan, B. S. (1985). The Book in India. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
Kumar, D. U., Athavankar, U. A., & Sreekumar, G. V. (2009). Traditional writing
system in Southern India - Palm leaf manuscripts. (R. Poovaiah, Ed.) Design
Thoughts, 2-7.
Mahadevan, I. (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy From the Earliest times to the
Sixth. Chennai: Cre-A Publications.
McWilliams, M., & David j., R. (2007). Traces of the Calligrapher, Islamic
Calligraphy in Practice, c. 1600-1900. Houston: The Museum of Fine Arts.
Meggs, P. B., & Purvis, A. W. (2005). Meggs' History of Graphic Design. John Wiley
& Sons.
Murdoch, J. (1865). Classified catalogue of Tamil printed books. Madras: The
Christian vernacular education society.
Naik, B. S. (1971). Typography of Devanagari. Mumbai: Directorate of Languages.
Nesbitt, A. (1957). The History and Technique of Lettering. New York: Dover
Publications Inc.
Ove, K. N. (1958). Some Notes on Procedures used in the Royal Library,
Copenhagen for the Preservation of Palm-Leaf Manuscripts. Studies in
Conservation, 135-140.
Patnaik, D. P. (1989). Palm leaf Etchings of Orissa. New Delhi: Abhinav
Publications.
Rajan, K. (2006). Kalvettiyal. Tanjore: Mano Publications.
Salomon, R. (1998). Indian Epigraphy. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers.
Sambandham, M. S. (1997). Accum Patippum. Chennai: Manivasagar Publications.
Sambandham, M. S. (1998). Accukkalai Varalaru. Chennai: Kamaraj Publications.
Subramanian, N. (2004). Pandaya Tamil Elzhuttukkal. Chennai: International
Institute of Tamil Studies.
Tamilnadan. (1995). Tamil moliyin mutal accu puttakam. Salem: Salem district
writers.
Varadarajan, M. (2001). Tamil Ilakkiya Varalaru History of Tamil Literature.
Chennai: Sahitya Academy.
Visalakhy, P. (2003). The Grantha Script. Thiruvananthapuram: Dravidian
Languages Association.

12

Dharmalingam Black and White in Indian Typography