498

LAND FORMS RESULTING FORM VULCANISM

REFERENCES CITED
Billings, M.P (1945). Mechanics of igneous instrusion in New Hampshire, Am, J. Sci.
243-A. pp, 40-68.
Chapman, R. W. (1935). Percy ring-dike complex, Am. J. Sci, 230, pp. 401-451
Clough, C. T. H. B. Mauf, and E. B. Bailey (1900). The cauldronsubsides of Glen Coe
and the associated igneous phenomena, Quart, J, Geol Sec. London, 65, pp. 611-678
Cotton, C, A. (1944). Vulcanoes as Landscape Forms, Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.
Wellington, 416 pp.
Daly. R. A. (1914). Igneous Rocks and their Origin, pp. 133-134 McGraw-Hill Book
Co,. New York.
Daly. R A. (1953). Igneus Rocks and the Depens of the Earth, pp. 141-147 and 159172, McGraw-Hill Book Co,. New York.
Diller, J. S. and H. B. Patton (1902). The geology and petrography or Crater Lake
National Park. U, S. Geol, Survey, Profess, Paper 3. PP. 46-50
Fanner, C N. (1920). The Katmai region, Alaska. and the great eruption of 1912. J.
Geol, 28, pp. 569-606
Freeman. O. W. (1958). The Snake River Canyon. Gerg. Rev. 28, pp. 597-608
Jaggar. T A. (1947). origin and development of craters. Geol, Sec, Am. Mcm. 21.
PP 357-407.
Kingsley. Louise (1951). Cauldron-subsidence of dhe Ossipee Mountaina, Am. J.
Sci, 222, pp. 139-168.
Lacroix. A. (1908). La montagne Peke apres ses rupions. Acad, Sei Paru, PP 74-93
Modell, David(1936). Ring dike complex of the Belknap Mountains, New
Hampshire, Bull, Geol, soc. Am, 47, pp 1885-1952.
Nichols, R L. (1946). McCarty basalt flow. Valencia County. New Mexico. Bull,
Geol. Sec, Am. 57. pp. 1049-1086.
Putnam, W. C. (1938). The Mono Craters, Califonia. Geog. Rev. 28. Pp. 68-82.
Scrivenor J. B. (1929). The mudstreams (Lahars) of Gunung Keloet in Java. Geol,
Mag, 66, pp. 433-434.
Smith. R. L. R. A. Bailey, and C. S. Ross (1961). Structural evolution of the Valles
caldera. New Mexico, and its bearing upon the emplacem ent or ring dikes. U, S,
Geol, Survey, Profess, Paper 224-D. PP 145-149

Stearns. H. T(1924), Craters of the Moon National Monument, Geog. Rev. 14, PP
363- 372.
Stearns. H. T. (I936). Origin of the large springs and their ako ves along the snake
River in southern Idaho, J. Geol. 44, PP 429-450.
Stearns, H. T. (1942), Ongin of Haleakala Crater, island of Maui. Hawaii. Bul, Geol,
Soc, Am. 53. pp. I-14
Stearns. H. T. (1963). Geology of the Crates of the Moon National Monument Idaho,
Craters of the Moon National History Assoc. Arco, 34 pp.
Stearns. H. T. and W. O. Clark(1930). Geology and water resources of the Kau
district, Hawaii. U, S, Geol, Supply, water supply paper, 616, pp.138-140
Von Engeln, O. D. (1932). The Ubehebe craters and explo sion breccias in Death
Valley J. Geol, 40, pp. 726-734.
Waters, A. C (1961). Stratigraphic and lithologic variations in the Columbia River
basalt. Am. J. Sci. 259, pp. 583-611.
Williams. Howel (1932a). Geology of the Lassen Volcanic National Park. Californa,
Univ, Calif, Publs, Bull, Dept, Geol, Sci, 21. Pp. 190-385.

499
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
William, Howel (1932b) The History and Characteristics of volcanic domes,. Univ,
Calif, Publs. Bull. Dept. Geol, Sci. 21. pp. 51-146.
Williams, Howel (193)6. Pliocene volcanoes of Navajo- Hopi country, Bull, geol, Soc,
Am, 47, pp. 111-172.
Williams, Howel (1941). Calderas and their origin. Univ, Calif, Publs, Bull, Dept,
Geol, Sci, 25, pp. 255-346.
Williams. Howel (1942). The geology of Crater Lake National Park. Oregon. with a
reconnaissance of the Cascade Range southwest to Mount Shasta, Camegie Int.
wash, Publ, 540, pp. 162.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Atwood. W. W. Jr. (1935). The glacial history of an extinct volcano, Crater Lake
National Park, J. Geol. 43. PP 142-168

Baker, C L. (1923). The lava field of the Parana Basin, South America, J. Geol. 31.
PP. 66-79.
Boyd, F. R(1961). Welded tuffs and flows in the Rhyolite Plateau of Yellowstone
Park. Wyoming. Bull. Geol. Sec. Am, 71, pp. 387-426.
Bullard. F. M. (1962). Volcanoes, in History, in Theory, In Eruption, Univ. Texas
Press, 441 PP.
Coleman. Alice(1952). Selenomorphology, J. Geol. 60. pp. 451-460.
Hack. J. T. (1942). Sedimentation and volcanism in the Hopi Buttes. Arizona. Bull,
Geol, Am. 53. PP. 335-372.
Johnson. D. W. (1909). Volcanic necks of the Mount Taylor region, New Mexico, J,
Geol. 18. pp. 303-324.
Nichols, RL(1938). Grooved lavas. J. Geol. 46. pp. 601-614.
Nichols. RL(1946). Pressure-ridges and collapse depressions on the McCartys
basalt flow. New Mexico. Trans, Am. Geophys. Union, 29. PP. 432-433.
Rittman. A. (1962). Volcanoes and Their Activity. Inte rtcience Publishers, New York,
305 pp. Translated by A. Vincent.
Shoemaker. E. M. (1953). Collapse origin of the diatremes of the Navajo-Hopi
reservation. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 64. P. 1514(abs.)
Smith, W. D., and C. R. Swarulow(1936). Mount Mazama: explosion versus
collapse. Bull. Geol. Sec. An, 47. pp. 1809-1830. Williams.
Stearns, H. T. (1966). Gelology of the State of Hawaii, Pacific Books, Palo Alto, 266p
Williams, Howel (1941). Volanology. Geol. soc. Am. Anniv. Vol. pp. 365-390.

500

Pseudovolcanic Features

Certain topographic features resemble volcanic forms so much that, lacking a

better name. we have designated them as pseudovolcanic. Bomb and mine
Craters. Craters formed by bomb and mine blasts

Fig. 20.1 Bomb crates between Harborn and Dillenburg, Germany (U.S. Air Force
photo.)

501
PSEUDOVOLCANIC FEATURES

Have several of the characteristics of volcanic explosion crates, including the

encircling rim of ejected material.
Meteorite craters. A meteorite crates is produced by the impact and
accompanying explosion of an object of extraterrestrial origin and is thus one of the
most unusual land forms. For many years there was considerable skepticism as to
the existence of meteorite craters but this can no longer be questioned. The most
famous meteorite crater is meteor crater in Arizona; its meteoritic origin is now
rather generally accepted. particularly since the finding or de mineral coesite in the
rimrock of the crater. Coesite is a mineral produced by the polymorphic of
transformation quartz by shocks such as meteoritic impacts would produce. Meteor
Crater is a rimmed basin about 4000 feet wide and 570 feet deep. Its rim rises 130
to 160 feet above the surrounding desert. Permian sandstones and limestones form

the crater rim and dip outward radially at angles varying between 10 and 80
degrees. Fossiliferous lacustrine deposits of possible late Wisconsinan age lie at the
bottom of the crater.
Numerous meteorite craters are now authenticated and the number of craters now
regarded as the products of meteoritic impact is near 50 (Short. 1966). This
number will probably increase with time. Although meteoritic iron has been found
only around six of the craters. there are numerous other features which point to
probable impact origin of the craters. Among the more diagnostic features are: a
circular form with upraised or overturned rims. the presence of pressure ejecta
(throw out) around the crater .crushed and brecciated material in the rim or basin
of the crater, shock vitrification as evidenced by fused silica glass not interpretable
as fulgurites, shock phenomena such as shatter cones and polymorphic forms of
silica such as coesite and sushovite.
A great deal of significance has been attached in recent years to features resulting
from shock metamorphism which involve physical and chemical mineralogical
changes in the rock subjected to great dynamic loads generated by intense shock
waves produced by explosions or high velocity impacts of falling objects. Two
different ideas exist as to the origin of structures which display features that may be
attributed to shock. True impact structures such as meteorite craters possess
certain similarities to other structures believed to be products of slower-acting
volcanic or tectonic processes. In this latter class are the forms described by
Bucher (1936) as cryptovolcanic structures. At the present time. consider able
difference of opinion exists as to what the diagnostic criteria are for distinguishing
the so-called cryptovolcanic structures from ancient impact craters or astroblemes
(scar wounds) as the have been called by Dietz (1961)
The rather rare, but unusually interesting, type of domal uplift

502
Fig 20.2 Meteor Crater, near Winslow, Arizona (Photo by John S. Shelton)
thermed a cryptovolcanic structure by Bucher was believed by him to have been
produced by the sudden release of volcanic gases associated with c concealed
explosive volcanism at depth. This type of structure was first recognized in the
Steinheim Basin of southern Germany (Brancas and Fraas, 1905). Several
presumed similar structures have been described in the United States(Bucher,
1936), among which are Hicks Dome in Hardin County. Illinois, Jeptha Knob in
Shelby County. Kentucky , Kentland Dome in Newton County. Indiana, Wells Creek
Dome in Houston and Stewart Country, Tennessee, and the Crooked Creek structure
in Crawford County. Missouri.

These structures have several things in common. among which are: a roughly
circular outline: a central dome-shaped uplift displaying intense structural
derangement: sometimes a surrounding ring syncline: complex high-angle normal
faulting with minor folding; sheared, shattered and brecciated rock in the central
uplift. which may display shatter cones: and diameters of less than 6 miles. At the
center of the Kentland Dome, in Indiana. there is upward stratigraphic
displacement of strata of at least 1500 feet (Shrock and Malott, 1933). Where the
rocks in the uplift are resistant the central part of the dome I sussualy topography.

503
PSEUDOVOLCANIC FEATURES
Call as well as structural high, as at Jeptha Knob, but if the rocks here are weak, as
in the Wells Creek Dome, there are ring-like depresions around the domes on belts
of weak rock.
Although it is generally agreed that the so-called cryptovolcanic structures are of
explosive origin, there are related to deep-seated volcanism, there is lack of
general volcanism. Boon and Albritton(1936) favored the viewpoint that they
where produced by meteoritic impact and Dietz (1950, 1963) has supported this
origin. They were skeptical as to their volcanic origin because of the lack of
volcanic rocks. Hydrothermal alteration, contact metamorphism, and mineralization
around the structures. In view of their questionable origin. Dietz(1959) suggested
th they be designated as cryptoexplosion structure, at least until their origin is
clarified. He personally considered some of them to be astroblemes. or structures
which represent intense circular deformation resulting from impact of a meteorite or
comet-head. Although he still argued for the volcanic origin of the structures,
Bucher(1963) found the term cryptoexplosion structure useful.
Snyder and Gerdeman(1965) have described eight structures in central United
States which are aligned in an east-west direction(see Fig 20.3) which they
considered closely associated in origin with a basement zone of weakness related to
faulting and which provided an avenue along which magma might rise. They
thought that these structures were no contemporaneous in origin but that they had
developed over a considerable span of geologic time ranging from late Cambrian to
as late a s Permian time.
The Carolina"Bays." The term bay has long bee applied to elliptical shaped shallow
depressions which are particularly numerous in the coastal plain of the Carolinas but
extend from Florida to New Jersey. They were given little attention until Melton and
Schriever(1935) su gested that they are scars produced by impact of a shower of
meteorites. Since then there has been much argument about their origin. Their
striking shapes and arrangements were poorly discernible until the days of aerial
photography

Prouty(1952) has given a detailed of the bays. Some of the significant facts about
them, according to him, are. :
1. The bays are restricted to an area between southern New Jersey and
northeastern Florida. but are most notably developed in the two Carolinas.
2. They are very irregular in distribution and size
3. There is no discernible relationship between the location of the bays and
specific geologic formation

506
4. Bay groups are less numerous and smaller toward the northwest and
southeast extremities of arena in which they are found but are as variable in
distribution and size in these areas as in the Carolinas
5. No bays are found outside the sand-covered coastal plain or its erosional
remnants.
6. it was estimated that there are perhaps a half million of them.
7. Most typically they are elongated in a northwest-southeast direction
8. Sand rims are characteristic and are best d eveloped on the east or southeast
sides and are larger around the larger bays.
9. Many bays have multiple rims.
10.The deepest part of a bay is generally found toward its southeast end and
west of its axial line.
11.Nary bays are partially filled with alluvial or eolian materials.
12.Practicaly every bay that has been surveyed has a well-defined magnetic
high associated with it.
13.Metallic iron, fragments of basement rock, or fused sand have not been
found in association with any of the bays.
14.All the bays are on terraces of Pleistocene age.
15.A few bays are known to have lake-bottom springs

Numerous hypotheses have been proposed to explain the bays. The meteoritic
origin, as proposed by Melton and Schriever, has been supported by Prouty(1935,
1952) and McCarthy (1937). who maintained that they were the result of shock
waves associated with cones of compressed air ahead of the meteorites rather
than that they were caused by direct impact. Cooke(1934. 1943) has contended
that the bays are basins of extinct lakes or lagoons that existed on the coastal plain
before its complete emergence from beneath the sea. He attributed their elliptical
shapes to eddy currents produced by wind and considered their sandy rims to be
beach ridges and bars of extinct lakes and lagoons. Johnson hypothe (1942)
proposed what he called the "artesian-lacustrine-eolian hypothesis of origin. He
believed the bays were initiated by artesian springs rising through the coastal plain
sediments. These springs enlarged their outlets by solution and formed basins

which became sites of small lakes around which beach ridges were built to form the
present rims. Many of the rims increased in size and height through the growth of
dune ridges.
Price(1958) has suggested that the bays belong in the class of oriented lakes and
that they are relict features descended from swale ponds in fields of longitudinal
dunes that developed in the area during drier glacial times. Black and
Barksdale(1949) have described numerous orientated lakes on the Artic coastal
plain, but the lack the sandy rims associated whit the Carolina bays and seem to lie
in thaw sinks in permafors areas.