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Introduction
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Power Stroke: Just before the end of the compression stroke, diesel fuel is
injected, vaporised by the heated charge. The mixture is ignited. The
burning of the mixture raises the pressure inside the cylinder very rapidly
and forces the piston to move away from the cylinder head.
Comparison between the spark-ignition and compression-ignition
engines
Thermal efficiency: Petrol engines can have thermal efficiency ranging
between 20% and 30%. Diesel engines have improved efficiencies,
between 30% and 40%.
Noise: Diesel engines are noisier. The combustion process is quieter in
the petrol engine and it runs smoother than the diesel engine.
Cost: Due to their heavy construction and injection equipment, diesel
engines are more expensive than petrol engines.
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the exhaust valves and the exhaust valves close. The piston continue to
move upward compressing the charge of air and raising the temperature
and the pressure to about 30 to 40 bars. Before the piston reaches the
TDC fuel is injected into the charge.
The heated charge vaporises the fuel and ignites it. The rapidly burning
mixture raises the pressure and temperature very rapidly inside the
cylinder and forces the piston to move away from the cylinder head in the
power stroke.
ii)
Compression-ring action:
The piston ring is designed to expand radially outward when fitted in its
groove so the ring will tend to spring outwards to apply pressure on the
cylinder wall.
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On the pistons upward stroke, the lower face of the ring will be held
firmly against the lower groove so that the upper face of the ring will
scrape a proportion of the oil. The excess oil will accumulate in the
clearance space of the groove until it overflows through the drillings to
the sump.
On the piston downward movement the ring will snap over to the top of
the ring groove. The sharp edge of the working face of the ring will
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scrape the oil down the cylinder wall. The surplus oil accumulates in the
space of the groove and overflows through the drillings.
Piston and piston-ring working clearances
1. Piston-ring side clearance:
Is the gap between the ring and land side faces. With insufficient
clearance, the expansion of the lands will wedge the rings in their grooves
and could destroy the oil film and cause overheating. A lose fit will cause
the ring to flutter. This hammers the ring against the groove faces,
producing rapid groove wear. Ring side clearance can be checked by
removing the ring from the piston and rolling it around the outside of the
piston in its groove, suitable size of feeler gauge can be slipped between
the ring and the groove to check the clearance.
Typical minimum ring-side clearances for pistons between 6 and 12 cm in
diameters are as follows:
Compression ring: Petrol 0.05 mm, Diesel 0.06 mm
Oil control ring: Petrol 0.04 mm, Diesel 0.04 mm
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Crankshaft Construction
Main Journals: are the parallel cylindrical portions, which are supported
by the plain bearings.
Counterbalance Weights: are attached or integrated with the crankshaft.
Their function is to counteract the centrifugal force created by each
individual crankpin and its webs.
Crank-webs: The cranked arms of the shaft, which provide the throws of
the crankshaft are known as crank-webs. Their purpose is to support the
big-end crankpin.
The flywheel: The flywheel serves three main purposes:
i)
ii)
To provide a carrier wheel for the ring gear when the engine to
be started.
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iii)
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pulley-wheel of the camshaft has twice the teeth of the crankshaft pulleywheel.
Setting belt tension
Adjustment of the belt can be carried out by loosening the jockey idler
locknut and pushing it against the smooth face of the belt with a moderate
thumb pressure at the midpoint between the crankshaft and camshaft
pulleys.
Poppet-valve operating mechanism
A poppet valve resembles a cylindrical stem with an enlarged mushroom
disk at one end. The stem of the valve is situated in a guide hole. When
the valve stem is moved in and out, the valve disk head will open and
close.
Camshaft with push-rod and rockers
That valve-mechanism is made up from the following components:
a) a camshaft
b) a cam follower
c) a push rod
d) a rocker arm
e) a rocker shaft
f) a return spring
g) a poppet-valve
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Cooling Systems
Engine heat distribution and the necessity for a cooling system
The energy released from the combustion of fuel in the cylinder is
dissipated in roughly three ways:
35-45% heat energy doing useful work on the piston.
30-40% heat expelled with the exhaust gases
22-28% heat carried away by heat transference
The importance of the cooling systems
If the cooling was not effective, the heat-flow rate through the metal will
be low and the temperature of the inner surfaces will rise to a point where
the heat destroys the lubricating properties of the oil film on the cylinder
walls. Simultaneously, thermal stresses will be established, which may
distort the cylinders.
Methods of Heat Transfer
1) By conduction through solids or stagnant fluids
K
Q cond A T1 T2
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Q
conv Ah (T1 T2 )
ii)
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header tank distributes the collected hot liquid evenly among the vertical
tubes. The bottom tank collects the cooled liquid coolant from each tube
and passes it to the engines coolant passages surrounding the cylinders.
Flexible hosing: The flexible hoses are necessary to absorb the relative
movement between the radiator, which is bolted to the body and the
suspended engine, which tends to vibrate while operating.
Coolant Jackets: are passages for the coolant water around the
combustion chamber walls, the inlet and exhaust ports and their valve
seats, and the spark-plug or injector holes.
Fan: to provide a continuous air stream over the tubes and fins to
dissipate the heat being circulated by the coolant.
Limitations of the thermo-syphon cooling system
a) Under heavy load condition, the rate of the coolant circulating
cannot match (much less) the rate of heat transfer from the cylinder
walls to the coolant.
b) Without coolant-circulation control, the engine tends to be
overcooled and very rarely reaches the optimum operating
temperature.
Forced-convection pump circulation
A centrifugal pump is incorporated to speed up the rate of coolant
circulating and heat removal. With the forced circulation of coolant, the
coolant is uniformly distributed among all cylinders. This helps to
prevent overheating of individual cylinders. Increasing the coolant flow
rate enables the radiator to work more efficiently so it is reduced in size.
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d) The pitch between cylinder centres has to be greater than in liquidcooled engines to permit the fins to extend between cylinders
e)
Liquid Cooling
Advantages
a) Liquid-cooled engines provide greater temperature-uniformity
around the cylinders compared with air-cooled engines.
b) The combined power consumption of the coolant pump and the fan
in liquid-cooled units is far less than that of the sir-cooled engine
fan.
c) The liquid-cooled engine cylinders are situated closer together,
providing a very rigid and compact unit compared with the aircooled engine.
d) Mechanical noise from the engine is damped by both the coolant
and the jackets.
Disadvantages
a) Liquid-coolant joints are subject to leakage
b) Precautions must be taken to prevent coolant freezing
c) Liquid-cooled units take longer to warm up
d) The coolant passages tend to scale, and the hoses and radiator tubes
deteriorate with time.
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Continuous oil feed to the big-end bearings from the oil grooves is
provided by diagonal drillings in the crankshaft.
Cylinder and Piston Lubrication
One of the common methods for cylinder and piston lubrication is
connecting-rod big-end radial-hole oil spray. In this method, through a
small radial drilling in each connecting rod, a spray of oil is directed to
the thrust side of the cylinder bore once every revolution.
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a) A fuel tank, which stores the petrol and has a fuel-gauge sensor
unit incorporated to indicate the amount of petrol in the tank.
b) A feed pump, which transfers the petrol from the tank to the
carburettor.
c) A feed filter, which prevents any contaminating particles from
passing into the carburettor.
d) An air-silencer and filter unit, which quietens the fast-moving air
intake and prevents dirt from entering the engine.
e) A carburettor, which merges air and petrol together so that they
mixed in the correct proportions and the petrol is finely atomised.
f) An induction manifold, which collects the prepared air-fuel
mixture and distributes it to the various inlet ports in the cylinder
head.
g) Supply and return pipelines.
Carburetion
Air and petrol mixture strengths: According to chemical combination
requirements, the air-fuel ratio, which gives complete combustion is 15.
Rich mixtures, which contain more than the optimum amount of petrol,
produce more power than optimum. The maximum power of the engine
can be obtained when the mixture is about 15-20% rich (air-fuel ratio
between 12 and 13). Prolonged running with very rich mixture will result
in forming a black powder on the cylinder walls and on the spark-plugs.
Weak mixture, which contain less than the optimum amount of petrol
produce less power than optimum, but fuel economy is much better than
for other conditions. For minimum fuel consumption, the mixture can be
15 to 20% weak (air fuel ratio is 17 to 18). Burning is generally slow and
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This system uses one fuel jet and suspension tube situated in the center of
the capacity well. Under no-load conditions, the fuel level in the well will
be the same as in the float chamber. With initial throttle opening, the fuel
in the well will be consumed; thus, providing an enriched mixture. As the
level of fuel in the well drops, it exposes the uppermost of the suspension
tube holes. This allows more air to enter the well and mix with the fuel,
thus preventing any tendency towards undue richness. As the petrol level
in the well drops further it allow more air bleed correcting the
composition of the mixture.
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spark-plug electrodes are badly eroded, the air gap is large and the engine
is cold.
Ignition-system equipment
Battery: This is usually a 6 or 12-volt battery. It stores chemical energy,
which can be converted into electrical energy to supply the flow of
current through the ignition system when required.
Ignition switch: This switch is connected in series in the coil primarywinding circuit. It enables the driver to switch on or off the electrical
supply of the battery as required to operate the ignition system.
Ignition coil: It is an electrical step-up transformer, which converts the
relatively low battery voltage to a high-intensity voltage.
If the ignition switch is closed and the contact-breaker points are together,
current will flow from the battery through the primary winding and the
earth-return path back to the battery so that a magnetic field is produced,
which interlinks both the primary and secondary winding. When the
rotating distributor cam opens the contact points, the primary current falls
very rapidly to zero and the magnetic field also decays rapidly. Selfinduction acts so as to oppose these changes and a very large back e.m.f.
is induced in the primary winding. By transformer step-up action, an even
larger e.m.f. (200 times larger) is thus induced in the secondary winding
and is fed to the spark-plug gap to produce a spark.
Capacitor: The capacitor is connected in parallel with the contact-breaker
points, the surge current in the primary winding when the contacts open
finds an easier path through the capacitor so that the primary-current flow
stops instantly and the back e.m.f. that is induced in the primary winding
will be much greater. When the contacts close again, the charge stored in
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the capacitor charges into the primary winding and so helps to accelerate
the build-up of a new magnetic field in the primary winding.
Spark-plug: It periodically provides a spark of sufficient heat intensity to
ignite the charge mixture.
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Supercharging[edit]
One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more
power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air
compression device known as a supercharger, which can be powered by the engine
crankshaft.
Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine
relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but
there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to
engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the
output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high
pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential
volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.
Turbocharging[edit]
A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means
of a turbine. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that
compresses the intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the
small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in
a naturally aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the engine
speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spool
up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the
intake manifold.
Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust
pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known
as turbo lag. The increased engine power is not immediately available due to the need to
sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the
turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes
increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power
operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the
exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the mechanical parts of the engine.
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conversely, an engine with a bore diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an
undersquare engine.
Valve train[edit]
The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of
the crankshaft. It has a series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve
during the appropriate part of an intake or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and
cam is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines use
one or more camshafts above a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in
which each cam directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs
the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which case each cam contacts a push rod, which
contacts arocker arm that opens a valve. The overhead cam design typically allows
higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam and valve.
Valve clearance[edit]
Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that
ensures that the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment,
excessive clearance causes noise from the valve train. A too small valve clearance can
result in the valves not closing properly, this results in a loss of performance and possibly
overheating of exhaust valves. Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000
miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.
Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for
valve train component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.
Energy balance[edit]
Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30% of the energy generated by
combustion is converted into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine,
while the remainder being losses due to waste heat, friction and engine accessories.
[6]
There are a number of ways to recover some of the energy lost to waste heat. The use
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Reductions in efficiency may be counteracted with an engine control unit using lean burn
techniques.[8]
In the United States, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy mandates that vehicles must
achieve an average of 34.9 miles per gallon (mpg) compared to the current standard of
25 mpg. As automakers look to meet these standards by 2016, new ways of engineering
the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) have to be considered. Some potential
solutions to increase fuel efficiency to meet new mandates include firing after the piston
is farthest from the crankshaft, known as topdead centre, and applying the Miller cycle.
Together, this redesign could significantly reduce fuel consumption and NOxemissions.
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