Experimental and the Numerical Investigation of the compressor

cascade at highly negative incidence

At the far off design conditions such as wind milling or sub idle, the prediction of the separated
flows because of the high negative incidence is difficult to be measured moreover even more
difficult numerically because of the les reliability of the modelling of the separated internal flows.
Objective: Experimental investigation of the 3D linear compressor cascade at high negative
incidence to determine the total pressure loss and the outlet flow angle and the calibration of the
solver using the result as the inputs. Analysis of the flow field generated in the locked rotor wind
milling conditions is expected through the experimental studies.
Cascade Geometry: A linear cascade analysis of the 9 blade configuration is carried out to
capture 3D blade geometry. An important thing to note in the locked rotor conditions is that there is
no difference between the incidence angle and the inlet blade metal angle because inlet velocity
triangle consists of the axial velocity alone as supported by the span wise distributions of the inlet
metal angle and the incidence angle. Annular cascade is not utilised because the actual blade
performance calculations is not the objective but for the validation-calibration of the numerical
model. Moreover, linear cascade is easier and relatively less complex as compared to the former.
Experimental approach: A suction type tunnel is used accompanied with the boundary layer
suction equipment so that the boundary layer mass flow is returned back to the fan face. A 3 hole
and finally 5 hole probe for higher fidelity as the unsteady flow field capturing was not of prime
importance. The measurement position was chosen to be 2 chords downstream of the blades to
capture the large separation eddied expected within the wake. Reynolds number effect on the flow
was tested using the measurements at three different inlet Mach numbers. The 3 hole probe
analysis indicates that the most significant uncertainty band is observed for the static pressure
flow field as compared to the total pressure due to the fact that the unsteadiness of the flow affects
the static pressure as compared to the total pressure loss which on the contrary is unaffected by
the time dependant phenomenon. The 5 hole probe data acquired data indicates that the
pressure indications lie within the similar error band as predicted by the 3 hole probe.
Numerical Investigations: A good unstructured mesh was developed for the geometry and the
structured mesh was used for the boundary layer capturing. A total pressure at the inlet and the
velocity at the outlet were used. Total pressure at the inlet is constant for all the simulations and
the mass flow rate at the outlet varies as the function of the inlet Mach number. Wake profiles at
various positions downstream were analysed, and the suitable turbulence model i.e. Shear Stress
transport model was chosen. As a result of the high negative incidence, highly unsteady
effects dominate the flow field; numbers of unsteady simulations were carried out. The
conclusion is that there is no difference between the steady and the unsteady results as
the unsteadiness is highly periodic.
Conclusion: All the pressure profiles are in good agreement with the experimental ones except for
the highest deviation at the highest inlet Mach number simulations. Increased pressure loss at the
hub and the tip can be observed because of the tip leakage effects. A uniform pressure loss
distribution is observed in the 10-70 % of the blade span, so indicates that there is a less
interaction of this region with the flow layers at the hub and the tip regions. Biggest deviation
exists at the hub regions where the boundary layer thickness is not well predicted by the solver
because of the less complex mesh. Regarding the flow exit angle, the predictions are within 8 %
deviation. Difference in the deviation angle is partially because of the decrease in the outlet
velocity due to the increased passage area due to large deflection angles. Numerical results
indicate that the blade outlet angle and the total pressure loss coefficient are
independent of the inlet conditions like the Mach number. The numerical solver slightly
underestimates the pressure loss near the bottom wall and the experimental results
over estimates the values.

Generalization of the Turbojet and the turbine propeller engine

performance in the wind milling conditions

Altitude wind test tunnel is employed to determine the wind milling speed, drag, pressure change
across the engine and the airflow for the axial and centrifugal types of the engines. Turbojet
engines were tested for several speeds at each altitude in the range and for the turbine propeller
engines, data were obtained for several blade angles at each airspeed and the altitude. Variations
of the Non dimensional wind milling parameters are plotted for the range of the altitudes.
Results and Discussions: Internal drag, airflow and the total pressure drop was generalized to a
single curve for both the types of the compressors but the speed is considered different for each of
them. Corrected total pressure drop was plotted as a function of the true speed. If the pressure
change across each of the engines is just the same, then the drag, which now only depends on the
inlet area can be generalized by the inlet areas. A large scatter in the drag data is because of the
difficulty of measuring the mass flow and the velocities from the total and the static temperatures
whose difference is very small. In the normal design case, the tip Mach number is taken to be 1 i.e.
sonic. So, under the same assumption that the under the wind milling conditions, the engines
windmill at the same tip speed and so the corrected speed was divided by the rated speed.
Regarding the component characteristics, there are variations in the pressure change in same
component for different engines, but there are the compensating effects, when all the components
are considered together. Pressure changes across the turbine will depend on the pressure change
across the compressor in the wind milling. The differences in the pressure loss across the
combustor are of secondary importance as compared to the overall pressure loss across
the entire engine. In this study, the compressor pressure ratios are in the range of 3.45-5.2.
In Turbine propeller engine, the main source of drag is the propeller itself in the wind milling
conditions. In these types of engine, it was observed that at the given percentage of the engine
speed, pressure changes across the two engines were identical. A complete generalization of
the corrected airflow parameter as a function of the corrected engine speed parameter
is obtained, where the axial turbojet performance data is superimposed onto the
turbine propeller engine and both are in good agreement with each other.

Wind milling characteristics of centrifugal turbojet engines

This non-dimensional method incorporates the loss correlations to estimate the performance of the
major components. If the basic engine geometry, Mach number and the ambient conditions
are available then this method can predict the transient and the steady state wind milling
performance.
Three methods are available for the wind milling analysis of the turbojet engines.
1.
2.
3.

Generate correlations from the inflight wind milling experimental data. Accurate, but
expensive and cannot be generalized.
Use performance maps for each engine component, which covers the low speed range and
system performance analysis can be performed.
Use available cascade data to estimate the turbine and compressor loss parameters.

The last one is chosen because it requires the use of existing literatures as compared to the former
that requires expensive testing.
Method: A set of non-dimensional parameters are introduced viz. non-dimensional impeller tip
speed, mass flow. The enthalpy changes across the rotor are expressed through the work
coefficient. Slip factor is introduced to calculate the actual blade loading coefficient because of the
flow deviation at the exit. Excess torque is defined as the difference between the turbine and the
compressor torque. Actual excess torque is also reduced because of the aerodynamic losses which
must be predicted. Non dimensional time to indicate the rotor acceleration is used to model the
transient case.
The calculation consists of two inner loops. Inner one check for the continuity
conditions among the different engine components whereas the outer loop calculates
the excessive torque and updates the engine speed until the steady state is reached.
Ideal Prediction: In this case, the slip factor and the impeller efficiency is equal to 1. Mass flow
rate and the excessive torque is also the largest. In the transient wind milling phase, compressor
goes through the turbine mode, frictional duct mode and the compressor mode as the
rotational speed increases. At the lowest rotational speed, compressor doesnt impart
energy to the flow but absorbs energy from the flow. The total pressure at the
compressor exit is lower than at the inlet and also the total pressure at the nozzle inlet
is also reduced, consequently mass flow is reduced. As the engine power is increased,
the compressors work is reduced to zero and at this stage the compressor behaves like
a frictional duct and the mass flow rate reduces to minimum value. At higher rotating
speeds, compressor loading becomes positive and it starts behaving as the compressor,
consequently the mass flow rate increases.
Sensitivity Analysis:
a) Impeller loss correlations:
Impeller loss is predicted using the loss models from the available literature. The loss models are
categorized as the ones that create the lowest entropy state, medium and the largest entropy state

viz. Set 1, 2 and 3 respectively. From the plots, we can observe that the compressor absorbing
capacity increases with the rotational speed. Increased entropy creation at the same ram pressure
produces a decrease in the pressure ratio and the mass flow rate. Blade loading coefficient at
the compressor inlet is sensitive to the slip factor and the mass flow rate whereas at
the turbine inlet, it is more sensitive to the mass flow rate than the slip factor. In all the
loss sets, the efficiency varies. At higher impeller efficiency, lesser entropy is created
and so increased mass flow. Increased mass flow increases the blade loading on the
turbine and decreases the compressor blade loading and steady state speed is
increased.
b) Slip Factor
In this case, the efficiency is kept constant and the slip factor is varied. It is observed that the as
the slip factor increases, the reverse happen as compared to the former case. The blade loading
increases on the compressor and on the turbine, it decreases and consequently the steady state
wind milling speed decreases. But the transient performance is hardly affected. But it depends on
the excess blade loading and the flow rate.
Axial Vs Centrifugal Turbojet: Steady state wind milling speed of the latter is greater than the
former but the time taken to reach the steady state is just the reverse because the air flow through
the former is greater than the latter.

Compressor Blade Modelling under highly negative incidence

Relight performance parameters are Wind milling drag, core and the bypass airflows, shaft
rotational speeds etc. These must be known before hand, to decide upon the size of the vertical
tail, the wing, the pylon and the landing gear system. Windmill data is also important for the
certification of the engine for the extended engine out operations over water, which is more
specifically influenced by the wind milling performance under icing and the locked rotor conditions.
There are two major characteristics of the sub-idle modelling viz. complete aero thermal cycle
models (Typical transient engine performance model with the component characteristics to very
low speed regimes) and the second one is the component specific loss coefficient models. Lack of
the experimental data and the lower level of understanding of the phenomenon, more
focus is dedicated in the development of the analytical techniques to predict the wind
milling parameters. According to Kurkze, the discontinuities in the isentropic efficiency
can be avoided by the use of the specific torque maps. The most extreme boundary of
the compressor or the turbine in the sub-idle is the locked rotor condition, when the
ram pressure is not sufficient to cause the free shaft rotation; hence the rotors are
locked throughout the engine. Incompressible flow theory is applicable because the
Mach number is never greater than 0.3.
Main Idea: 2D Blade profiles are employed to the generation of the 3D blade by stacking them
radially using the blade element approach. The database consists of the 2D numerical simulations
of a compressor cascade at different solidities and the same incidence angles with the same
aerofoil profiles. A comparison of the of the initial 3D blade and the one derived out of the 2D cross
sections is conducted in terms of the overall blade loss. The comparison is based on the blade
aerodynamic coefficients and is to verify whether the 3D blade can be accurately described by the
radial stacking of the 2D profiles. To do so, the flow field patterns at specified span wise locations
obtained with the 3D annular cascade simulations are compared against the 2D simulations with
the exactly same features. The location chosen is 10%, 90% and the mid span position. The effect
of all the radial flows that may occur in the 3D blade channel has not been taken into
account in the 2D simulations.
As it is very difficult to capture the separated flows by the CFD solvers, the particular
solver was calibrated by the experimental data The flow comes axially towards the
blade and so the incidence angle is equal to the blade inlet angle which in case is -58
degree at the mid span and varies +/- 7% along the blade.
Two approaches are used for the calculations of the overall blade performance; the first
one depends on the calculations of the tangential force and the pressure coefficient
based on the observed flow exit angle and the static pressure drop respectively. In the
second approach, the total pressure loss coefficient is obtained for the CFD solver and
the flow exit angle is used for the calculation of the drag and finally the lift coefficient.

The flow exit angle is predicted with an error at the mid span by the 3D simulations, so
the error reflects itself in the tangential force coefficient and consequently on the
analytical evaluation of the total pressure loss coefficient. But, for the second
approach, the solver underestimates the values of the total pressure loss coefficient
and so the error appears in the drag and the lift coefficient.
Regression analysis shows that the 3D flow effects have no impact on the calculation of
the overall blade performance using the tangential force and the pressure coefficient.
This analysis shows that the best linear regression fit is obtained for the Blade
aerodynamic coefficients but not for the drag and the lift coefficients. 2D case cannot
be compared to the 3D because of the additional radial flows occurring, that increases
the overall loss. But, the 3D flow does not have a strong impact on the average loss. So,
2D profile data can used and no complicated 3D blade loss studies are required.