(om een) Introduction to Plastic Analysis 12.1 INTRODUCTION So far we have seen the analysis of structure by elastic theory in which stress strain relation is assumed to be linear. The design based on this theory assumes that the structure fails if the stress at any point reaches the yield stress. The service load is restricted to the value such that at the highly stressed point the stress is equal to the working stress. The working stress is defined as yield stress divided by factor of safety. In other words, the designer has a concept that the structure would fail ifthe design load is applied the factor of safety times. But this is not the correct concept. To verify this, first let us see the stress-strain curve for steel Limit of proportionality Upper yield point Lower yield point Ultimate stress point ireaking point — Stress = Strain Figure 12.1 ‘The stress-strain curve is linear between the origin and the elastic limit, which is very close to the yield point. After the upper yield point, there is a sudden drop in stress to lower yield point. The designer normally treats the lower yield point as the limit of proportionality. From this yield point to the ultimate stress point,398 + Structural Analysis - I the zone is called strain hardening zone. At ultimate stress point, neck formation starts and the load carrying capacity reduces. Finally, breaking takes place at stress (normal stress) which is less than the ultimate stress. Now consider stresses across the highly stressed section of the simply ‘ 1 supported beam as load increases (Refer Fig. 12.2(a)]. Within the elastic limit, the stress varies linearly across the section and the maximum stress is within the yield stress [Fig.12(b)]. After some more increase, the external fibres will reach the yield stress [Fig.12.2(c)]. Thus, these fibres have little capacity to resist load. Even if we neglect this additional capacity due to strain hardening, the section can still resist more load, because the interior fibres are still under stressed. As the load is further increased, outer fibres just expand or contract without resisting, load but inner fibres continue to resist the load till they also yield (Fig.12.2(d)). The resistance to load continues till the entire section yields. Thus, we find that the section can resist lot of load even after the outer fibres yields. After all fibres at a section yield, the section behaves like a hinge for further load, i.c., it rotates freely without resisting additional moment. Figure 12.2 (a) Figure 12.2 Now, let us consider the load carrying capacity of a fixed beam (Fig.12.3). As the bending moment is maximum at supports, first extreme fibres at supports yield. For further increase of load, entire section at supports yields. Even at this stage, the structure will not collapse, since a beam with two hinges at ends is a stable structure. For further load, it acts as a simply supported beam till all fibres at the mid-span section yield. Thus, the elastic theory under estimates the load carrying 4-%2*<338 NA capacity of the structure. For - ne indeterminate structures, this under estimation is still high. Hence the term factor of safety is not giving the correct idea about the load carrying capacity of the structures. . wa Figure 12.3Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 399 Hence, a new theory called plastic theory has been developed. This gives the correct idea about the load carrying capacity of the structure. It is based on the concept that a structure will carry load till the plastic hinges are formed at the sufficient points to cause collapse of the structure. However, to make the theory simple, strain hardening of the material is neglected, which means load carrying capacity of the structure is actually a little more than what plastic theory predicts 12.2 DEFINITIONS OF PLASTIC HINGE AND PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY Plastic Hinge It is section at which all the fibres yield, because for any further load rotation takes place at the section without resisting any additional moment. Plastic Moment Capacity Plastic moment capacity of a section may be defined as the moment which makes all the fibres at that section to yield, and thereby form a plastic hinge. 12.3 ASSUMPTIONS ‘The following assumptions are made in plastic theory : 1, The stress-strain relationship is idealised to two straight lines as shown in Fig.12.4, ic., strain hardening effect is neglected. 2 Plane section before bending, remains plane even after bending i.e., shear deformation is neglected. 3, The relationship between | compressive stress and compressive strain is the same as between tensile stress and : tensile strain, 4, Whenever a fully plastic ‘moment is attained at any cross — section, a plastic hinge forms / which can undergo rotation of Stain any magnitude, but the bending moment remains constantatthe Figure 12.4 Idealised strain stress curve fully plastic value. 5, Effect of axial load and shear on fully plastic moment capacity of the section is neglected. 6. The deflections in the structure are small enough for the equations of statical equilibrium to be same as those for the undeformed structures. StressSe a — 400 + Structural Analysis - iI 12.4 SHAPE FACTOR Within the elastic limit, bending moment ‘M’ has a relation with bending stress “Pas M =Z, where Z has been defined as the modulus of the section. Defining the moment causing extreme fibre to yield as yield moment M, , we can write M,=fZ | If plastic moment capacity of a section is M,, we define plastic modulus of section Z, as the ratio of plastic moment capacity to yield stress, i.e., * orM,=£, The term shape factor may be defined as the ratio of plastic moment capacity to the yield moment. Thus, shape factor ‘S’ is given by Note that shape factor is always greater than unity, since plastic moment capacity M, is more than yield moment and the shape factor is the property of the section. Shape factor for various sections is derived below (a) Rectangular Section Consider the rectangular section of width ‘b’ and depth ‘d” as shown in Fig. 12.5. ‘The stress diagram corresponding toyyield moment and plastic moment is alsc shown ia this figure. r | | f IN 1 We know thatIntroduction to Plastic Analysis. + Let A, be the area under compression and A, be the area under tension. Considering horizontal equilibrium of the forces, F. F, i LAA, or A A 1 = A,= Se where A is the total area, Thus, plastic neutral axis divides the area into two equal halves. Hence, in i rectangular section, it is at the mid-depth as shown in Fig. 12.5. Plastic moment capacity is the moment of resistance when the yield stress is f, atall fibres. - M, -Fy,+Fy; =f Avy, +£A, ©. Shape factor (b) Circular Section Consider the circular s ection of radius R. Let the diameter be denoted by D (Refer-Fig.12.6). | ‘We know, fora circular section | Figure 12.6 (a) and (b)402 + Structural Analysis ~ II ae ” 32 ‘The plastic neutral axis divides the given section into two halves. Hence, it passes through the diametral section as shown in Fig.12.6, AR C.G. of compressive area is at y, => above diametral section and C.G. of 4R tensile area is at ¥,7 Fz below the dimetral section. M, (Moment of resisting forces about plastic neutral axis) =FY,+Fy, A A A zit Tow TAG ty) xD Where A = Area of cross section = “7 — 1 ayy (8428) 2% 4 PG Ge ae px, 2 2R=0 3g > simce 2R = ala 2+ Shape factor s (c) Triangular Section Consider the typical triangular section of base width ‘b’ and depth ‘h’ as shown in Fig. 12. bh? h + For this I 5 Yona| al aE Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 403 =f @ b= hb wh Area under compression = given triangle. 2 lhb 1 hb ld ; qbh or b= & b > no v2 y, (Distance of centroid compression area from plastic neutral axis) hohe 3° v2 y, (Distance of centroid of tensile area from plastic neutral axis) h-h, b+2b- h—(h/y2)_ (b/V2)+2 3 * bine 3“ (b/y2)+bwa ee $04 + Structural Analysis - It <1 142v2 Bi2ee 1s a 1548h al M, =G A th AM, > 7 %t%) 1 bh BL 12 2 G2 = 0.09763 bh? f, +0.1548h) = 0.09763 Shape factor S = =2.343 (d) For Symmetric I - Section Consider the typical i-section shown in Fig.12.8 Similarly, for finding M,, consider solid rectangle of size B x D and a negative area of b x d. D D d d MWFyGtFi g -Fag Fag EDD BODE bd d bid 2.4 2erae 24A (BD? - bd?) Shape factor $ = u, 75 ‘(BD ba) (e) For Diamond Section Consider the typical diamond section shown in Fig,12.9106 + 12.5 Structural Analysis IL SHAPE FACTOR FOR GENERAL SECTIONS Shape factor for any section may be found by the following procedure: 1 4. From usual procedure, determine the moment of inertia of the given section about the centroidal axis. Then determine yield moment using the equation M of ¥en Locate plastic neutral axis, i.e., the axis which divides the area into two halves. Since the stress is equal throughout to yield stress, area multiplied by yield stress gives force in that area. Determine the moment of forces in each simple figures in tension and compression about plastic neutral axis separately. Then, M,= = f, Ay where *y’ is the distance of centroid of each simple figure from plastic neutral axis. Mp Then, shape factor S ie The above procedure is illustrated with the examples. Example 12.1 Calculate the shape factor of the I-section shown in Fig.12.10. If the value of the yield stress is 250 N/mm’, find the plastic moment capacity of the section. 250 = ‘ Rh Figure 12.10Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 407 Solution To find yield moment M, : Due to symmetry, eiastic neutral axis is at mid-depth. 1 1 1 = x 100x 10° + 100x 10(125—5+ — x 6 (250-20) D 10¢ (125 - SY 2 6 (250-20) + x10 10° + 100 x 10(125-5) =34900167 mmn* 1__,., 34900167 LHF 7250 95 = 69800333 N-mm To find plastic moment M,, Since axis at mid-depth is a symmetric axis, plastic neutral axis also lies here ‘ Dividing the given figure into four simple rectangles, two in compression zone and two in tension zone, we get M,= ZAf,y HEALY FAY FAS + ALY) M 125-10 =f, [100 x 10(125 ~5) + 6 (125 —10) x 2, since A, =79837500N-mm Mp _ 79837500 ; + Shape factor (8) =", = Sgoo333 = 1.144 Example 12.2 Determine the shape factor of the T-section shown in Fig. 12.11 + 120 + 1 eee RS i . t 10~ TT to Ft | f) (b) Figure 12.11 (a) and (b)408 + Structural Analysis - i! Solution To find the yield moment M, : Given figure is divided into two rectangles. Elastic neutral axis from top fibre y, 0105 +110%10(55 120%10+110x10 =33.70mm a ~ Ex 12010 +120 x 10 (33.70~5)? 1 + 7p x 10x 110! + 10x 110 (65 33.707 3185523.7mm* Yeux = !20—-33.70=86.3mm_ 31852537 M, =f aA mm 863 = 36909.08 f, N-mm To find plastic moment capacity M,: Assuming plastic neutral axis lies in the flange, its distance from the top fibre y, can be found as 1 7 (120% 10+ 110 x 10) 9,583mm (< 10mm) Hence, assumption is correct. Area under compression A, = 120 x 9.583mm? Area under tension: A, =120%(10-9.583)mm* =120%0.417 _ 0.417 nz A, =10 110= 100mm? Ys =oay7s tO =55.417mm M, =f, Day 7 +120 0.417 +1100%55.417] =f, [120% 9.583 xIntroduction to Plastic Analysis + 409 = 66479.17 £, Nom. _ Me _ 6647917 S = M, ~ 3690908 801 Example 12.3 Determine the shape factor of unequal I-section shown in Fig 12.12. = 250-4 0 ' 1 i i 7 200 i | i 50 ry = — 400 - i Figure 12.12 (a) Solution Elastic neutral axis from top fibre 250x 50x 25 + 50x 200(100 + 50) + 400 x 50x 275 ve 250 x 50450 200+: 7312500 _ 172.06 ~~ 42500 ae I -t x 250 x 50? +250 x 50(172.06~25)? +s x 50 x 200? + 200 x 50(172.06~ 150)? + 4 x 400 x 50* + 400 x $0(275— 172.06) =5.27236% 10'mm* = 172.06mm ZZZR? iA % ap ‘| My = by Vow = Ymmax i . oe a 527236x10 (LLZZZIT IIIA ¥ 172.06 = 3064259.7f, N-mm_ Figure 12.12 (b)OE A ESAT AME: A AE BS a 410+ Structural Analysis -i1 Plastic Moment M, : Let plastic neutral axis be at a distance y, from top fibre. Assuming it to fall in web A _ (250+2004-400)50 250 x50+50 (y,- 50) == £ ae - 42500 2 y,-50=175 or y,=22Smm Dividing the total area into four rectangles, two in compression zone and two in tension zone [as shown in Fig.12.12], Figure 12.12 (o) M,=£, DAy 225-50 250 50(225 ~ 25) + 50(225~ 50) 5 (250-225) +50(250-225) +50%400(275-225) = 4281250 f, N-mm | 397 | | | | 4281250 3064259.7 12.6 COLLAPSE LOAD A structure is said to have collapsed if the entire structure or part of the structure starts undergoing unlimited deformation. This happens when the number of static equilibrium equations available are more than the number of reaction components. The state at which this condition develops is said to be collapse ‘mechanism and the load carried at this state is called collapse load. The collapse load is also called as ultimate load carrying capacity of the structure. Determining the collapse load of a structure is called Plastic Analysis. Normally, structures { are permitted to carry only a fraction of collapse load, called working loads. The | relationship between collapse load and working load is: | Collapse load = Load factor x Working load.Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 411 ‘Thus Load Factor is a term similar to factor of safety in the elastic design. The load factor is the ratio of collapse load to working load whereas factor of safety is the ratio of yield stress to working stress. 12.7 BASIC THEOREMS FOR FINDING COLLAPSE LOADS ‘There are three basic theorems on which plastic analysis has been developed. They are 1. Static Theorem, 2. Kinematic Theorem, 3. Uniqueness Theorem, Static Thecrem It states ‘for a given structure and loading, if there exists any distriburon of bending moment throughout the structure which is both safe and statically admissible with a set of loads W, the value of W must be less than or equal to the collapse load w'. Thus, Ws Ww, ‘The term ‘statically admissible’ means the bending moment diagram satisfies static equilibrium conditions; the term ‘safe’ means at no point bending moment is more than plastic moment capacity of the section. This theorem is called as Lower Bound Theorem, since the values of loads obtained are always less than or equal to collapse load. Kinematic Theorem This theorem states for a given structure cubject to a set of loads W, the value of W found to correspond to any assumed mechanism must be either greater or equal to the collapse load W.’. Thus, wew, Since, for any assumed mechanism, the value of W obtained is greater than or equal to collapse load, this is also called as Upper Bound Theorem. Uniqueness Theorem ‘The static and kinematic theorems can be combined to form a theorem which gives unique value for collapse load. This theorem is called uniqueness theorem. From static theorem, it is known that for any value of W > W,, it is impossible to find any distribution of bending moment which will be both safe and statically admissible. From the kinematic theorem, it is known that it is impossible to find any mechanism for which the corresponding load is less than W,. Combining these, the following theorem is framed to get unique valve of the load which will be equal to W.. “If for a given structure and loading at least one safe and statically admissible bending moment distribution can be found and in this distribution the bending ‘moment is equal to the fully plastic moment at enough cross-sections to cause412 + Structural Analysis ~ I failure of the structure due to unlimited rotations at plastic hinges (forming mechanism), the corresponding load will be equal to the collapse load W..” 12.8 METHODS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS Based on uniqueness theorem, there are two methods of plastic analysis : 1. Statical Method 2. Kinematic Method In both these methods the assumptions listed in art 12.3 are made. The important assumption to be noted is “once plastic hinge is formed, rotation takes place freely without any change in the moment acting (M, ) in the section’. This may be represented by moment curvature relation shown in Fig.12.13 Figure 12.13 12.9 STATICAL METHOD This method is suitable for the analysis of structure for which the shape of the bending moment diagram is easily known. The method consists in drawing statically admissible bending moment diagram and equating bending moment at sufficient points to plastic moment, so that collapse mechanism forms. While doing this, care should be taken to see that bending moment will not exceed plastic moment capacity of the section at any point. The procedure is illustrated with the beam problems. Problems on frames are not taken up by this method since it is not easy to draw bending moment diagrams for them. Example 12,4 Determine the collapse load W, in the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 12.14 (a). Figure 12.14 (a)ee Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 413 Solution Bending moment diagram for this beam is as showa in Fig.12.14(b). Since simply supported beam is 2 determinate structure, formation of one hinge in the beam creates collapse mechanism. Since the moment is maximum under the load, the hinge will form at that place. “|2 Figure 12.14 (b) WE ou aM, 0 With this, the bending rhoment is both statically permissible and safe and hinge formation takes place at sufficient number of points to develop collapse mechanism. Hence W corresponding to eqn.(i) is a collapse load. 4M. wc “ L Example 12.5 Determine the collapse load in case of propped cantilever loaded as shown in Fig.12.15(a). ie., Figure 12.15 (a) Solution Fig. 12.15(b) shows bending moment diagram for a propped cantilever beam, Such a beam will form collapse mechanism, if hinge is formed at fixed end and another hinge in the portion AB. Since positive bending moment is maximum under the load, naturally inner hinge will develop at this point. Atcollapse condition, bending moment at A and under the load will be equal to M, as shown in Fig.12.15(b). Figure 12.15 (b)414. + Structural Analysis ~ 11 Now, Example 12.6 Determine the collapse load in case of a fixed beam shown in Fig.12.16(a) Figure 12.16 (a) Solution ‘At collapse, the end points of fixed beam should develop plastic hinges and there should be another hinge in the portion AB. Bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 12.16(b) is both statically admissible and safe and at the same time gives rise to plastic hinges at sufficient places. Hence, it corresponds to ccllapse condition. Figure 12.16 (b) From the figure, itis clear that or W,=2M, = Note the particular case : ifa= the w,- Be en W, = Example 12.7 A propped cantilever of span L is subjected to uniformly distributed load w per unit length. Determine the collapse load, if the plastic moment capacity of the beam is M,,Introduction to Plastic Analysis + 415 : wiunit length OLED ILA NAL = L Figure 12.17 (a) Solution Fig.12.17(a) shows the propped cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load and Fig.12.17(b) shows statically admissible bending moment diagrain. Wext 2 Figure 12.17 (b) For the formation of collapse mechanism, plastic hinge has to develop at fixed end and at any point in the portion AB. Since bending moment at any point should not exceed plastic moment M,, the interior hinge will be at the point of maximum bending moment. At any section distance x, from propped end, W,L ci 82 ForM, tobe maximum aM, dx . “ @ Since hinge will be for eM WL aa x ie, My >-W > MT py MOM x ¥, 14S] === (Lx-x9 or »,( x) Se (lx-®) Substituting the value of M, from (i), we get ) Me ae) 7 (ix-x) (L-2x)(L +x) = (Lx-x?) w, L+x FLd20 |416 + Structural Analysis - IL L?-Ix~2x? =1x-x or x+2Lx-L? =0 +4 a-L ye Lv2 1 =L (¥2-1), since the other value has no meaning =04141. Substituting this value of x in equn.(i), we get 2 =w, Ea-2x0404) .0858 WL? - =e W,= 11.655 Thus, in propped cantilever subject to udi, hinge occurs at 0.414L from propped M, end and its collapse load is 11.655 73°. Example 12.8 Show that in a propped cantilever subject to a moving concentrated load, the worst position is at 0.414L from propped end and its load carrying capacity is W,- 5.828 —= L Solution In the example 12.5, it has been proved that L+b W, = "MM, sincea+b=L «ab Me L+b L+b (Lb-b') For W, tobe minimum aw, ee or ing O=M, ey ee 7 Renee db (L-b)°b* ie, Lb-b?~(L+b)(L-2b)=0 ie, Lb—b?-L?+ Lb +2b?=0 or b+ 2Lb-L?=0