PAPER

NUMBER

SOCIETY OF PETROLEUMENGINEERS OF AIME

6200 North Central Expressway
Dallas, Texas 75206

SPE

3504

THIS IS A PREPRINT --- SUBJECT TO CORRECTION

Effects

of

Drilling
Fluids
Productivity

on

Gas

well

By
Norbert E. Methven, Member AIME, Oil Base, Inc.
@
American

Institute of Mining,

Copyright 1971
Metallurgical, and Petroleum

Engineers,

inc.

This mQer was DreDared for the &th Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers
of AIME, t: ~e held ;n fiewOrleans, La., Oct. 3-6, 1971. Permissionto copy is restrictedto an
abstractof not more than 300 words. Illustrationsmay not be copied. The abstract should contain
conspicuousacknowledgmentof where and by whom the paper is presented. Publicationelsewhereafter
publicationin the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUMTECHNOLOGYor the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUMENGINEERSJOURNAL is
usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriatejournalprovided agreementto give
proper credit is made.
Discussionof this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussionshould be sent to the
Society of Petroleum Engineersoffice. Such discussionmay be presented at the above meeting and,
with the paper, may be consideredfor publicationin one of the two SPE magazines.

ABSTRACT
This paper defines a method ofincreas.-._ --ing gas recovery and reserves by ~i~~unlzing natural gas well deliverabilities.This
method involvesprevention of formation damage while drilling,completing, and working
over gas wells.
Included is the definitionofthe formationdamage mechanisms attributabletodrilling, completing, and working-over operations.
Formation damage, the principledeterrentto
maximum productivityand recovery, involves
thephysicochemical relationshipsof fluidsystems with the formation. These relationships
are herein defined and then specifically
extended toincludethe
effects on gas reservoirs.
Of particular importance is a treatiseon
the
effects on the relative
permeability
to gas
from hydrocarbon
invasion. This treatise includes a means to evaluate the vaporizationequilibrium
constants of the invading comh..
plex hydrocarbons.
--
lllese
prmcipks
~la ve
then been used to develop an oil base fluid
system that precludes
formation damage and
References

and illustrations

at end of paper.

that has a filtrate that will be vaporized

producedgas
topreclude
anyreductioninrelative permeability
to gas.

by

Also presented are computed data, laboratory data, and field data from wells drilled
and completed
with various
fluid systems.
These data include core data, return permeability data, back-pressure
tests, well productility histories,
andpressure
buildup surveys. These data show substantially increased
initial and ultimate income from gas wells
when non-damaged
completions
are effected.
INTRODUCTION
The current and forecasted
naturai gas
shortages
increase
the importance of maximizingthe initial productivity and ultimate recovery from gas wells.
A frequent impedimentto maximum wellproductivityandhydrocarbon recovery
isformationdamage
thatmay
occurduringthe
drilling or completion operaThtanwincinal
damage mechA..- F. ...-.=-. f~~rn.at~on
anisms are attributable to the physiochemical reactions of the drilling and completion

+innc
.....

EFFECTS

OF DRILLING

MUDS

Y GAS WELL PRODUCTIVITY

fluids with the formation.

These damage mechanisms can be defined by delineating available
fluid systems and investigating
their effects
on the formation and on the flow of formation
fluids from reservoirs.
Damage preventative
methods can then be devised from the knowledge of fluid systems and their physiochemical reaction with formations.

D.

Capillary
Blocking

E.

Migration of Clays from Fluid

Formulations

F.

Reduction of Relative
ability to Gas by Oil

DRILLING FLUIDS

A.

In order to define the physiochemical

reactions of drilling fluids with the formation,
it is in order to summarize the principal ingredients of drilling fluids that are available
for use in drilling and completing.
The principal fluid systems may be defined as follows:
water
Invert

Base

clay

Emul. ion

Oil Base

(clay

Asphalt

Water

Water)

+ Oil.

+ (water.)

(1 I

+ Chemicals

+ cuttings

+ Wetght

0,1

+ Chenw.ls

+ cuttings

+ Wetght

(2)

Oil

+ Chemicals

+ Cuttings

+ Weight

(3)

These expressions
for the basic fluid systems
are generalized
expansions of the simplified
three-part
system. 1 That is, (a) the colloidal or reactive
portion, (b) the liquid phase,
and (c) the inert fraction.
The function of the parts of drillin fluids
has been well defined in the literature F-4 and
therefore will not be repeated here. However,
the physical and chemical effects of these ingredients on the drilled formations
must be
developed
in order to assess the formation
damage mechanisms
caused by the various
fluid systems.
FORMATION

DAMAGE

Avoidable formation damage mechanisms

are those related to fluids used during drill2.--.-2
-processes.
mg dJ3U wfi@~~iii~
These da.nmge
mechanisms
are physiochemical
and capillary changes caused by the reaction of the drilling fluids as they invade and/or react with the
formation.
Drilling
(and completion)
fluids may
cause at least six different damage mechanisms:
~.

~we~}@

ap~d U.rr+7.9+inn
.LJ .
s....

=..

of

In Situ Clays
B.

Dispersion

of In Situ Clays

C.

Non - Gauge
Wellbores

or

Unstable

Phenomena

SPE 3504
or Water

Perme-

Swelling and Hydration of III Situ

All
clays absorb water molecules
on
*
the surfaces and edges of individual particles.
In addition, montmorillonites,
mixed- layer
clays,
and certain
illites
can hold large
Thus, when
amounts of inter-layer
water.
aqueous fluids are used in drilling or comple clay swelling
can occur.
tion operations,
These swollen clays plug flow channels and
impair well productivity.
B.
Dispersion of In Situ Clays.
Claysize particles
are bonded by electrostatic
forces and are in equilibrium in a virgin reservoir.
However,
when water or brine invades the formation,
the cation concentration
of the clays may be altered, causing a change
in electrostatic
forces and subsequent dispersion of the clay-size
particles.
When dispersed,
these particles will then cause well
productivity impairment.
Gray and Rex5 show
that clay migration can cause severe perme ability reduction,
even in clean sandstones.
They point out that this type of damage can
drop an otherwise permeable sandstone to less
than l% of its original permeability.
c.
Non-Gauge Wellbores.
Wellbores
are frequently
out of gauge in shaley or silty
zones because of the reaction of aqueous fluid
These reon the clays within the formation.
actions are similar to those in paragraph A
above and have been defined in References
4,
6, and 7. The two swelling mechanisms
of
shaies (occurs in productive zorms also) are
G ~S SUZ-f~Ce
hydrareferred to in l?afsmmee
A.. ---tion and osmotic swelling.
The net effect of
even minor swelling potentials at the wellbore
is an increase
in shale volume.
Since the
shale is otherwise confined, it will relieve itself by collapse or spalling into the hole, resulting in unstable and non-gauge
wellbores.
Shales can also be dehydrated by an osmotic
or diffusion process; however, such dehydration means a reduction in mass.
This reduction in mass is then reflected as an alteration
and destruction of the bulk strength of the shale
bed. Subsequently, spalling will occur,
again

N. E. METHVEN

PE 3504

Such
resulting in co apse of the wellbore.
swelling or shrinking can be partially inhib with asited by, say, coating the wellbore
phalt. 46
However,
it cannot be completely
eliminated in ~ater base mud systems.
Non-gauge wellbores
probably account
for the majority of the primary
cement job
failures
and s ~bsequent squeeze
job costs.
Also, it is likl?ly that errant cement from
inh=
n=IIQne
nrndtln+ivs
interval
~~rn.at,~n-a
WU=Q-JVU

e--

y.

w--u..

..-.

reservoir.
Such an increase will cause a reduction in relative permeability
to gas.
This
is of particular significance
in a dry gas reservoir (two phases:
gas and water),
where
the relative permeability
to gas could be reduced to about 30?70,even after removal by the
flow process of the mobile portion of the invaded third phase.
These principles will be
further
developed in a later section of this
paper.

--

age.
DISCUSSION
D.
Capillary
Phenomena
or Water
A capillary
phenomena,
referred
Blocking.
to as water blocking, is caused by water saturation changes within the reservoir.
For example, when aqueous fluids from mud filtrate
or completion fluids are introduced into a hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoir,
the water saturation necessarily
increases.
This increased
water saturation causes a reduction in relative
permeability
to gas (or oil).
This reduction
or it can
in permeability
may be partial,
amount to total plugging when a water globule
plugs a pore channel between
sand grains.
Water blocking is often not reversible,
or at
best, requires
long periods of time, sometimes years, especially
in gas wells, for even
1 -- -...
1 l ----+Le
..ea
. . ..n.-.-....4:.
pcu LLaL 1 cllluvaL
lL UL1l LIJC L C=ci
VU* I .
E. Migration of Clays from Fluid ForClays are often included in varimulations.
ous fluid systems to provide rheology and fluid
10Ss properties.
The clays are usually bentonite (montmorillonite)
and are in a colloidalsize range (i. e. , approximately
0.01 to 2 microns).
These clay colloids may be carried
into the formation with the filtrate from the
fluid system.
These particles
can then be
flocculated
and permanently
deposited in the
formation when the chemical properties
of the
filtrate are altered by mixing with the connate
water. Subsequently, the flocculated clay particles will impede the flow of reservoir fluids
and aggravate any pore plugging by swollen
clays previously described.
Laboratory tests
indicate that such migration can occur through
24-inch long cores. g
F.
Reduction of Relative Permeability
to Gas bv Oil. A Dotential damage mechanism
is the reduction in relative permeability to gas
by oil invasion. This is a condition somewhat
similar to Mechanism
D above, in that it involves an increase in liquid saturation in the
-.

DAMAGE FROM WATER

BASE MUD

Four of the above damage mechanisms

(A, B, C, and D) are attributable to the presence of water in the drilling or completion
fluid system and in the filtrate.
In order to
minimize the effects of this filtrate,
numer ous efforts have been undertaken; i. e. , using
brine or salt water systems, using chemicals
to inhibit or retard the water attack on clays
and using low fluid loss systems.
Unfortunately, these methods can sometimes reduce
but cannot eliminate the effects of the water
filtrate.
For example,
salt systems must
match the salinity, ions, and effects of stress
.-a:cc . . . . ..-. .&...1- +Laa..-l
.-laha
.#. h;a..a
A 7.9
Uulel-cll(.lal=
- I,llcclc &all =!Cluullk
UC aU.L4AGV=u.
Another example is the use of low fluid
loss systems to reduce the effects of invasion.
The assumption in this case is that the fluid
loss values, based on API fluid loss tests, are
indicative of the amount of invasion that would
be experienced
while drilling a well.
Unfortunately, API fluid loss tests are conducted
under static conditions across a piece of filter paper and are not representative
of the
downhole dynamic conditions and of the formation. Generally, the dynamic fluid loss can
be effectively
reduced when the API fluid loss
is in the range of 20cc/ 30 min. or greater.
However,
when the API fluid loss is reduced
below about 10CCS, the dynamic fluid loss rate
is only slightly reduced.
These principles
have been outlined in Reference 10. In essence,
this reference
indicates that you can reduce
the dynamic fluid loss in the upper ranges and
therefore,
you can run a better mud to reduce
mud cake, reduce sloughing,
and get better
logs. However, reductions below about 10CCS
for reducing formation
damage may not help
much.

One other reason that water filtrate reductions dont help much is that the invasion
of water is seldom less than two feet, even
with low water loss water base mud systems.
If the invasion or formation
damage is anywhere near two feet or over, then the resultant
reduction in productivity
will be substantial.
This can be appreciated by referring to Figure
1. This figure presents a family of curves
of the well productivity
versus depth of the
damage zone.
The family of curves are for
the return permeability y in percent as may be
determined
from formation
damage tests in
the laboratory.
For example,
if the return
permeability
is 1070 in the damage zone of two
feet, the well will produce about 35!Joof what
it would have had there been no damage, or,
if there had been damage to four feet, the well
would have produced about 32!L0of the virgin
it deem! t nmtter much
capability.
Hence,
whether the damage is two or four feet or beyond, as a substantial amount of well productivity and ultimate hydrocarbon
recovery would
be lost in each case.
DAMAGE FROM INVERT EMULSION MUDS
Invert emulsion muds * incorporate
the
principal low- cost products of water base mud
-- clay and water, the principle
formation
damage culprits -- in their formulation.
The
invert systems generally
have oil as the ex ternal phas e and must have water in the internal phase, as indicated in Formula (2).
The invert oil muds include clay** in
their formulation
to provide
rheology
and
fluid loss control at formation temperatures.
These muds also include substantial quantities
of water. These clays and the water can cause
the damage mechanisms
of A, B, C, D, and E
as defined in the previous
section.
This is
particularly
true because water is frequently

* Invert emulsion
muds are defined as oil
muds that require water in their formulation.
An oil base mud is defined as an oil
mud that does not require water or clay in
its formulation.
~*These clays are oil-wetted montmorillonite,
attapulgite,
and / or other clays and are
sometimes referred to as Synthetic Organo phillic Colloids.
The oil-wetting
agent is
often a quaternary amine - a cationic sur f actant.

present in the filtrate from invert emulsion

muds at the higher reservoir
temperatures
of
most present day gas well drilling.
This has
been observed in laboratory tests of field mud
samples (see Figure 2) and probably in the
performance
of wells.
Dependent upon the mixing oil and sur factant properties,
the invert muds can also
cause Mechanism F, Reduction of Relative pe~
meab ilitv to Gas by Oil.
OIL BASE MUD
was
An oil base mud, Black MagicR,
first developed in the early 1940s to preclude
formation damage.
This oil base mud system
is characterized
by Formula (3).
This ~y~tern uses oil as the external
asphalt rather than clay for
liquid phase,
theological
and fluid loss control, very little
water, and provides a minimal fluid loss.
In
,..
-a ~&=J~w
-1 ~.~An ..-.
mmti-n.v~d~ the formm way, water &lu
mation. In addition, the thin filter sheath provialed by this system is primarily a specially
manufactured
asphalt.
This asphalt is completely soluble in crude oill 1 or in aromatic
solvents such as Mix FixR or OB SolventR.
Hence,
formation
damage
Mechanisms
A
defined,
can be
through E, as previously
avoided.
In addition, this oil base mud system
has been further imporved
to eliminate the
effects of Mechanism
F.
This has been effected
through
manufactured
asphalts with
unique proprietary
properties
and through
selection of mixing oils that will not cause a
persistent
reduction in relative permeability
to gas.
The oil used in this mud system and the
resultant filtrate will be partially produced by
a flow process,
and the remainder
will be
vaporized within a few hours after a gas well
is placed on production.
The flow and vapori zation process
can best be analyzed by reviewing and developing the principles of relative permeability,
hydrocarbon
phase dia grams, and oil vaporization
characteristics.
OIL FILTRATE

IN GAS RESERVOIRS

The significance
of invasion of oil into
a gas reservoir
can best be developed by re -

N. E. METHVEN

;PE 3504

ferring
to the known relative
permeability
principles and the known gas reservoir
phase
diagrams.
Subsequently,
recently developed
vaporization- equilibrium constants for com plex hydrocarbons
and their adaptation for oil
filtrates will be presented.
Relative

Permeability

to Gas

The relative permeability

curves shown
in Figure 3 represent
the classical
physical
principle
that shows the permeability
to gas
in a porous media decreases
as the liquid saturation increases.
This principle
partially
accounts for the damage mechanisms
listed
above as D.
This reduction in relative permeability also holds for increases
in oil saturation, Mechanism F.
For purposes of Sirlplifiication,
we can
use Figure 3 to analyze the effect of oil invasion.
This can be done by considering
that
the invading oil is additive to the existing
liquid saturation.
Hence, as oil invades, the
total liquid saturation increases
from the interstitial
water content (3870 on the abscissa
for the example) and the permeability
to gas
decreases
from point A toward B in Figure 3.
This reduction in permeability
to gas can be
significant
during certain production phases
of retrograde
reservoirs
and in dry gas res ervoirs.
These cases can best be described
through the use of phase diagrams. 12
Gas Reservoir

Phase Dia~rams

Gas reservoirs
can be categorized
as
three general types through the use of a schematic phase diagram as shown in Figure 4.
Reservoir
A initially occurs below the
dew point, which means that there will be free
oil, or condensate,
throughout the reservoir,
even under static conditions.
Also, when gas
is produced,
the pressure will be reduced (at
least around the wellbore) and the oil (condensate) saturation will be increased.
Hence, invasion of a compatible oil filtrate would often
not be an increase in immovable oil and would
not reduce the relative permeability
to gas.
Reservoir
B depicts a retrograde
condensat e reservoir.
A retrograde
reservoir
occurs above the dew point, which means there
will be only two phases, gas and water, in the
reservoir
under virgin conditions.
When the

wellbore pressure is reduced below the dew

point, then the liquid saturation will increase
around the wellbore and the reservoir
performs in a manner similar to Resefvoir
A,
wherein invasion of a compatible
oil is not
detrimental.
if Reservoir
B is
However,
produced above or near the dew point, the
effect of oil filtrate invasion on relative permeability to gas must be considered.
When
Reservoir
B is above the dew point, it is
similar to Reservoir
C - a dry gas reservoir and can be analyzed accordingly.
Reservoir C has a tem~erature that ex ceeds the cricondentherm
and will exhibit
only two phases - gas and water - when produced isothermally.
Reservoir
B above the
dew point will also exhibit only two phases.
Therefore,
we must consider the effects of
~il invasiQn On the relative permeability
to
gas.
In this case, when oil filtrate is introduced into the formation,
it would be a third
and extraneous
phase.
Under these condi tions, the relative permeability
to gas would
be decreased
as indicated by point B in Figure 3. This reduction in relative permeability to gas would prevail until the oil was removed.
Some of the invaded oil is mobile
and will be removed by the flow process as
indicated from point C to D on the Kro curve
in Figure 5. If only the mobile oil was removed, the relative permeability
to gas would
be substantiality reduced as indicated by point
E on Figure 5. However, if the immobile oil
has certain vaporization properties,
it will be
removed by producing gas from the reservoir.
Vaporization of Oil Base Filtrate
By Gas Production
As previously
mentioned,
the oil filtrate from an oil base fluid system may be
vaporized by producing gas from a reservoir.
Removal by vaporization
can be analyzed by
determining
the reservoir
parameters
and
the vaporiz at ion properties of the oil filtrate.
Heretofore,
the vaporization properties
of oil
filtrate have been difficult to determine because the oil filtrate is a complex hydrocarbon.
Fortunately,
Cook, et al, of the U.S.
Bureau of Mines have recently
developedl 3
a simplified method for determining the vaporization-equilibrium
constants for complex hydrocarbon.
For example,

Figure 6 presents

the dis -

tribution percentage of the oil fraction numbers of an oil base filtrate.

This distribution
percentage
was determined
from the micro+-41
Lllc llJ.
=
distiiiation anaiysis of the fiit~at.~.ml--trate had been accumulated at the end of a previously gas -saturated core under temperature,
pressure,
and dynamic-static
mudding condi tions described in the Laboratory Results section of this paper.
The vaporization- equilibrium
constants
for the oil fractions can then be obtained from
Figure 7. Then6e, we can use the computer
program of Reference
13, or we can calculate
the rat e of vaporiz at ion of the invaded filtrate
as a function of the gas produced.
For our example, the results are presented in Figure 8.
We can then relate the rate of vaporization
from Figure 8 to the effect on the relative permeability to gas - from point D toward point
A - in Figure 5.
The effect on well productivity as a function of time can be approximated
by entering
Figure 9 with the data from Figures 5 and 8.
The actual well performance
for two cases of
the example has been calculated
and shown in
Figure 10. It can be seen from Figure 10 that
the small amount of invasion normally experi enced from the oil base mud system would be
essentially removed, and the well productivity
would be in excess of 95% of its virgin capability, within one hour.

to liquids that would be expected to be produced from the reservoir

(i. e. , oil or gas).
Tb.iS
i~tt~~
pOi!lt* testing with oil or gas,
is an exceedingly
important
condition if the
operators objective is to drill for and produce
gas (and/or oil). Unfortunately, many laboratory formation
damage tests reported
in the
literature
have used various water or brine
solutions to determine the permeability
before
and after subjecting the core to mud in the laboratory. While brine is sometimes
less damaging than, say, fresh water, it is sometimes
more damaging.
In summation,
use of such
aqueous fluids for damage studies will give
erroneous results as they will cause damage
in themselves
and will mask the damage that
hydrocarbons
will see.
Perhaps this re states the basic physical
truth that aqueous
fluids are cliff erent than hydrocarbons.

It is difficult,
if not usually impossible,
to define the amount of productivity
impairment that is attributable to the particular damage Mechanisms A through F.
However,
for
a particular reservoir
rock, the effects of A,
B, D, and E can be isolated from C and F in
the laboratory by saturating the cores with oil,
subjecting the cores to various mud systems,
and then determining
the return permeability
to gas.
Also, Mechanism C can be evaluated
from sorption isotherms. 9
Oil or Condensate

Should there be an abnormal invasion of

a compatible
oil, then, as an example, the
30 invasion curve of Figure 10 shows that
over 907oof the well productivity would be recovered within 15 hours.
These return permeability values will continue to improve with
continued production.
For example, for the
nominal invasion case, the well productivity
or completion efficiency will exceed 997owithin 5 hours.
These productivity values will be
even more favorable
(i. e. , less time for vaporization of the oiI) for higher reservoir
temperatures,
pressures,
and production
rates.

We have conducted
formation
damage
tests by flowing oil through undamaged or restored cores to determine the initial permeability.
Subsequently,
mud is circulated past
the face of the core at differential and confining pressure and temperature conditions simi ----- .----.-A
:- - A
LC1lVCU
.1.
Ur.+lli
. ..r.g
iar to what w-OiiiC.ibe CApCI
well.
These tests have included the use of
water base, invert emulsion,
and oil base
muds. An example of the results of such tests
are shown in Figure 11 and aiso in Tabie L
For various formations,
the results would be
t-nrr~.qnnndin~lv
--.
. -- r-----.-=

LABORATORY

Flow

-U

different,

RESULTS

Formation damage and well impairment

tests have been conducted in the Oil Base, Inc.
laboratories
on core samples from numerous
reservoirs.
These tests have been conducted
under reservoir
pressure
and temperature
conditions to dynamic mudding conditions and

In the Table I example, the return permeabilityfor

the water base is in the order of
30 to 4@70, while the invert emulsion is in the
order of 50 to 60Y0, and the oil base return
permeability
is on the order of 90 to 9470.
These date give an indication of the effects of
formation damage Mechanisms A, B, D, and E.

N. E. it

PE 3504

Using Figure 1, these return permeabilities

indicate completion
efficiencies
as follows:
Mud
Type

Completion
Efficiency-7

Water Base
Invert Emulsion
Oil Base

<50
80
>95

Gas Flow
Laboratory
tests have also been conducted by flowing gas through a core in a manFigner similar to the preceding
section.
ure 12 indicates
the return
permeabilities
that have been experienced
after mudding off
Figure
with water base and oil base muds.
12a presents data after mudding off with oil
base mud. These data indicate return permeabilities to gas after subjection to water muds
of Oto 6070. The oil base return permeabilities
were 40 to 9070 (and still increasing)
at comparable differential
pressures.
These data
give an indication of the effects of formation
damage Mechanisms A, B, D, E, and F.
FIELD RESULTS
Field data have been obtained from wells
drilled with various mud systems subsequent
to conducting the laboratory formation damage
tests discussed above.
The field data include
core analysis, production performance,
pres sure buildup analyses,
and back - pressure
tests. Data have been collected from oil wells
which are likened to gas-condensate
reservoirs and from gas wells for comparative purposes.
n+l u.
n- Uau
P.. ._Pn
Anc!l+a IXTS1l
WA.
Lu.nu-a.-ti... ...-!Q
Production and pressure data from water
base-drilled,
invert emulsion- drilled, and oil
base-drilled
wells corroborate
the laboratory
formation damage tests.
An example is from
the Cotton Valley formation
as reported
in
Table II which is an extension of Table I.
Based on the laboratory f ormation damage studies,
completion
efficiencies
of 5070
were predicted
after use of water base mud,
approximately 8070after use of an invert emulsion mud, and over 95% was predicted
after
use of the oil base mud. The actual field data
indicate that the water base-drilled
wells indi -

7TH VF!N

cated normalized
completion
efficiencies
of
44- 69Y0, while the invert-drilled
and -completed well gave 7470 efficiency,
and the oil
base- completed well gave approximately
1009o
completion efficiency.
The mechanisms
of well impairment experienced in this field are attributed primarily
to the effects of water filtrate.
In the case of
the water base mud, the filtrate is surely water, and an analysis of the formation indicates
the presence of swelling and dispersible
clays
in situ.
It also appears that there is some
permeability
loss due to water blocking.
In the case of the invert-drilled
well,
the invert emulsion had water in its filtrate as
tabulated in Table III, wherein the properties
of the mud were obtained from a field sample.
Note that the filtrate had 5070 water.
This is
perhaps contrary to the advertised
claims of
the invert emulsion muds; however,
it has
been noted many times in the past that field invert emulsion muds often have water in their
filtrate.
This is particularly
true when the
invert emulsions
are operated at the higher
reservoir temperatures.
Laboratory~repared
samples of inverts may not have water in their
filtrate; however,
when this mud is hot rolled
-- which is a method for simulating the temperatures to which the mud would be subjected
downhole -- and then test ed, the invert muds,
as shown in Figure 2, will have water in their
filtrate and may have high fluid loss characteristics.
Gas Wells

sent

Numerous articles in the literature predata on gas reservoirs

that have beefi

AmillaA
in+m with
u. ...=.

...

v.

. .

watcsr
. .

-.-.

hats
--u-

mild.
.

-----

~~qiu~p-~~y,

the production
performance
and pressure
buildup surveys indicate a substantial amount
of formation damage.
Examples are given in
References
14 and 15.
Figures 13, 14, and 15 present comparative well performance
data on wells that were
drilled with water base mud and oil base mud.
These examples are in the Frio formation in
Texas.
The four-point production tests indicate that the oil base completions have greater
deliverabilities
and absolute open-flow potentials, even in those cases where less sand was
encountered.

EFFECTS

OF DRILLING MUD~ 3N GAS WELL

Detailed data have also been obtained on

Wilcox formation
wells drilled with an invert
emulsion and with oil base mud. These data
are summarized
in Table IV. Here again, the
invert emulsion-drilled
well had a normalized
completion
efficiency
of only 88%, while the
oil base drilled well had a normalized completion efficiency
of 10wo. As noted in this table,
the invert-drilled
well is in a zone that had a
higher capacity in millidarcy-feet
as indicated
by the core analysis and the pressure
buildup
surveys than did the oil base-drilled
well. Yet
the oil base- drilled and -completed well had a
substantially
greater
deliverability
initially
and after three years of performance
as shown
in Figure 16.
Other field examples include well productivity before and after killing wells for
workover
operations.
Oftentimes,
well pro ductivity is reduced
after use of damaging
fluid systems.
Use of an oil base system for
working over has proven non-damaging
as reported in References
15 and 16.

PRODUCTIVITY

k = permeability
ka = permeability
kb = permeability
krg = permeability
k=
k~~l = permeability
h = thickness

SPE 350

- md
after damage - md
virgin or before damage-md
to gas
to oil

of pay - ft.

Sw = water saturation
CONCLUSIONS
Data preserlt,ed irl this
computed laboratory and field
ing and completing in oil and
These data compare the effects
invert emulsion,
and oil base
Conclusions that can be drawn
s ults include the following:

reqmrt ~lmie~,d~e
results of drillgas reservoirs.
of water base,
mud systems.
from these re -

1.

The field data corroborate

the laboratory
formation damage test data. These data indicate that the water base and invert emulsion
..2- :lRkp=ir
.....11
--n A,,~+<..;
+.. 1....,-.-e -w *nma
WCLL p UUULLIV
LL.y Uy UIL= u.
. ..uA =
muus
of the formation damage mechanisms.

Water base and invert emulsion

fluids may damage gas - or oilbearing formations through one
or more of six damage mechanisms.
Such formation damage
is indicated by theoretical
analysis, laboratory tests, and field
studies.

2.

The data also support the theoretical

and
computational
data on formation
damage and,
in particular,
oil invasion into a gas reservoir.
The theoretical
and laboratory
data indicate
that the oil base mud system will be non-damaging.

Theoretical,
laboratory,
and
field data indicate that an oil
base fluid system can eliminate
. . .
GA-6+
1
fnwmn+inn
.T. i.n.HT.l
Z ~
AU.
.... .. . ..
=. Least
damage in gas zones as well as
gas - condensate or oil zones.

3.

Prevention of formation damage

is achieved by precluding water
filtrate, minimizing particle invasion, and (in gas reservoirs)
by use of oil that does not effect
a permanent reduction in rela -

SUMMARY

OF RESULTS

The non- damaging concept of the oil base

mud system is also supported by comparative
well performance
data.
It is recognized
that
the well performance
data maybe used only as
a hypothesis as there are no other known practical methods to preclude formation
damage
where liquid mud systems are used. Nonetheless, the preponderance
of the data indicate
that the oil base-drilled
and -completed well
will have the maximum natural well produc tivity.

+iva
. ..-

4.

nsrmeahilitv
y. ..--W.

-...J

~0

g~se

The potential reduction in relative permeability

to gas,
as
caused by oil invasion,
can be
negated by selection of compati ble oils when formulating an oil
base mud.

NOMENCLATURE
qa = productivity with damage
tv w~~h~[u~
d~.m~ge
qb . nrodllc+
=. W-..-- . i. w
. ..J

a. A compatible oil filtrate has

vaporization-equilibrium
constants in a range dependent

PE 3504

N. E. h ;THVEN
uponthe reservoir pressures
and temperatures.
b. Most dry gas reservoirs will
occur at higher temperatures
and pressures
and, in these
cases, oil filtrates that have
distillation
temperatures
of
600F or below will be readily
vaporized by the produced gas
and thereby will not signifi cantly reduce
the relative
permeability
to gas.

6.

7.

ii.

9.

10.
5.

A method is herein presented

for
analyzing oils to determine
their
vaporiz at ion ratios and the effect of
these oils on the performance
of a
gas well.
Included are the principles of the relative permeability
to
gas, the effects of radial flow, the
effects of the amount of the invasion, and the effects of gas production from the reservoir
on the vaporization of any invading oils.

11.

12.

13.

REFERENCES
1.

~,

3.

4.
5.

Principles
of Drilling
Fluid Control,
Petroleum Extension Service,
1969.
P.ogers, W. J, , Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 1963.
Black Magic Handbook, Published by oil
Base, Inc. , Houston, Texas,
196 .
The Word is Oil Base, Published by Oil
Base, Inc. , Houston, Texas, 1967.
Gray, D. H. and Rex, R. W.,
Formation
Damage in Sandstones Caused by Clay
Dispersion
and Migration,
Fourteenth
National Conference
on Clays and Clay
Minerals.

14.

15.

16.

Darley, H. C.H. , Physical and Chemical

Factors
Affecting
Borehole
Stability,
SPE Paper 2400.
Chenevert,
M. Shale Control With Balanced - Activity
Oil - Continuous
Muds.
Presented
at the 44th
SPE Paper 2559,
Annual Fall Meeting of SPE, Denver,
Colorado,
September 28 -october
1, 1969.
Roliins, M. B., Seal@
Ssnds with Waterborne
Bentonite,
Proceedings
of the
ASCE, December,
1967.
Chenevert,
Martin E. , Shale Hydration
Mechanics:!,
SPE Paper 2401, 1969.
Krueger,
R. F.,
Evaluation
of Drilling
Fluid Filter Loss Additives Under Dvan.
mic Conditions,
Journal of Petroleum
Technology,
January, 1963.
Farris, S. W., Black, E. P., and Clelland,
J. B.,
Aromatic
Structures
in Asphalt
Fractions,
ASC. 1966.
Kate, D. L., et al,
Handbook of Natural
Gas Engineering,
McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, New York. 1959.
Cook, Alton B. , Walker, C. J. , Spencer
G. B., Realistic K Values of C7 +Hydro carbons for Calculating Oil Vaporization
During Gas Cycling at High Pressures,
Journal of Petroleum
Technology,
July,
1969.
Graham,
J. R., and Boyd, W. E. , An
Analysis of Changing Backpressure
Test
Curves From Some Gulf Coast Area Gas
..-. ., 11
1 ~1
..r ~~LLoLCULU
m.~- 1---- I=anhmnlnmx,
w eils
s j~ii~~~l
L GL.AL.U+5J,
December,
1967.
Agadzhanow, R. S., Effect of Clay-Based
Drilling
Fluid and Well Completion
on
Productivity
of Gas Wells, Nauch. -Tekh.
S.B. Ser. , Gazovoe Delo, USSR.
Watkins, T. E., Tucker, J. W., and White,
Completion Fluid Pro E. H., Effective
grams - Texas Gulf Coast and Mid- Continent Regions,
Petroleum
Engineer,
April, 1967.

TABLE

TABLE

II

COTTON VALLEY FORMATION

JONES COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI
FORMATION

Water
Base
Sample

Depth - Feet

Permeability

to Oil - md

Return Permeability
Completion

*Black

Eff.

MagicR

Calc.

COTTON VALLEY
JOINES COUNTY,

DAMAGE TESTS ON CORES

- ~,
- YO

MUD TYPE
Invert
Emulsion

WELL

FORMATION
MISSISSIPPI

PERFORMANCE

REVIEW

Oi~
Base+

14, 020

14,060

14,060

2.1

12.6

1.1

30-40

50-60

90-94

<50

80

>95

Permeability
to Oil - md
Return Permeabi].ity
- %
Completion Eff. caic. - %
Well Number
Kh - md ft.
Kavg.
- md
Skin Effect
Completion Eff.
Completion

* Black Magic13

MUD TYPE
Invert
Emulsion

Oi
Bas

2.1
30-.40
<50

12.6
50-60
80

1.
90>9

4-1
85
3.2
-1.6
127

75
2
-3.
1

74

3-1
282
9.7
-1.6
119

Eff. Normalized

=ter
Base

~.

69

6-1
537
12.8
3.5
75
44

TABLE

INVERT

EMULSION

IV

MUD PROPERTIES

WELL

Density - ppg
Retort - ~.
Water
Oil
Solids
Hot Rol]
Farm Properties @ 151t1F
Va - cps
Vp - Cps
YP - lb/100 ft2
Gels - lo~-lol - 16/100 ftz
HP-HT Fluid Loss
@ 300F, 500 psi - 30
Oil - cc corr.
Water - cc corr.
Total - cc corr.

PERFORMANCE
AND
PRESSURE BUILDUP ANALYSIS

11.6
21
63
16

WILCOX

Before

After

26
23
6
3-5

26
24
4
2-3

2.0
T
2. o+

2.8
2.8
5.6

FORMATION,

HARR [S COUNTY,

TEXAS

1-1

3-1

Invert

C)il Base*

kh - Cores-red ft.
h - Cores - ft.
h - Perfs - ft.

88
36
31

47.2
41
45

kh - Buildup - md ft.
Completion Eff. -70
Completion Eff. Normalized

22.3
76
88

20.8
88
100

MMCF/ D - Initial
Pwf -psi

2.007
7175

3.915
3762

MMCF/ D - Recent
Tubing Pressure - psi

2.3
1425

3.65
1425

WELL
DRILLING

FLUI:D

YO

Comparative Quality of Completion:

By F]1ow El!f.
By Present Production
Adjusted for Buildup kh

*Black MagicR

11670
12670
17070

>0

100 %

100
90

5070

80
70

30%

60
50
40
3C

I
I
I

2C
10

I
0
0

12

lb

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

DEPTH

OF

INCHES

DAMAGE,

Fig. 1 - Effect of wellbore damage on productivity.

~L!trzIte
Wilcox
After

Static

Invert

!.Yorn

Formation,

HarrM

L.

Texas

15. 8#/gal.
3500F
500 psi
No Control
after
16 mm
~~.o
cc

- ,Lcrzlte
,.-..,,.,,,
F,ltrate
Filtrate
Filtrate

Mud

Aging@ 350F-4ooPSI-N2
Imposed 16 Hrs.

Mud Weight
Temperature
Pressure
Time
Run
P

Oil

County,

IL.=

Water
Content
Emulsion
Content
Water
Percent

Fig.

1.5 cc
0.8 CC
4.87,

-L
48

52

1-

\
i
>
lx

vIRGIN
GAS

.

PERMEABILITY

50

w
c1.
:

\A

J\;
w
I

30

40

bkg :
~\

:
a
~

tl

I
20

I
I
10

I
o o

20

30

TOTAL

LIQUID

SATURATION,

I)0

90

lo VO

Fig. : _ Relati,,eper~eability gas and oil xitk.interstitial water.

RESERVOIR
qzINITIAL
A

PRESSURES

<;

/4

!
I

I
~ASSUMED
IsOTHERMAL
I

I
I

TEMPERATURE~

Fig. b - Phase diagram showing liquid-gas volume distribution.

EXPANSION

m
In

u
o
E
CL

\
PERMEABILITY

-AF T:R ViP8R;Z

nr

._

~
L
z,

AT 10N- j~A

J
i
SWJ \\:

n
o

10

AFTER
-----l
SS

20

30

TOTAL

I
c//

6
v
\

I
-_

40

50

gas

%(I 1-

60

70

SATURATION,

LIQUID

P,ela:i:epermeability

Fig,:-

kro~

CY

I
I
I
I
PERMEABILITY
.
FLOW
~ROC;

G
z>
LIJ

80

90

)0

/o Vo

and oil wit?.interstitial water.

FILTRATE

J/
f

(\

>OB

SOLVENT

20

40

Fig.

-..
+, - uIl

.
Irac

Lion

distribution

100

80

60

DISTRIBUTION

PERCENTAGE

Bbck

Magic

filtrate

.. .
.Hu

nm
UU

.-1

. ..-+

.V4. =L1..

o-kl

/
1

//
.//.

+x
II

m-

FRACTION

10-5

15

II

/-

,.-3
/
/
~//,

10-4

$
<
N

//
/-,

$, ,;
/b$.
/
%

10-5

7.

I
1000

18

3000

19

5000

3000

5000

PRESSURE,

psio

20

3000

5000

Fig. 7 - (Kx C<+) values for hept~~es plus fractions

/

15

through

20.

175 F-2000

CUMULATIVE
PER

BARREL

GAS
OF

psi

PRODUCTION

FILTRATE

MCF/STB

Fig. 8 - Vaporization of Black Magic oil filtrate as function ~f

gas production.

100 /9

100

s
o
g

50%
IMPROVEMENT
;

WITH

VAPORIZATION

70

=
:

60

s~
Z

50

40

3o1-

G
g
n

20

10

>

30

1
I

I
I

t!

10Y.

30 1.

J2

16

20
DEPTH

Fig.

24
OF

28

DAMAGE,

32

36

40

INCHES

9 . Effect of wellbore damage on productivity.

44

48

52

OIL

INVASION
OIL

INVASION

q = 1,000

MC F/DAY

($ = 300/0

h = 20

PAY

S.w = 38.8
rw

O/.

= 3

T = 175
pf

= 2600

psi

~1

GAS

Fig.

10

- Well

15

10

FLOW

PERIOD-

20

25

HOURS

vs gas fiow for Klacki,iagicoil filtrate.

productivity

50 psi

100

CORE
KOil

psi

B -14,020
12.6

INVERT

md

100 psi

EMULSION

MUD

Ic
CORE

7
I

KOil
CLAY
25

psi

I/

I
10

I
20

30

I
40
TIME,

C -14,060
2.1 md
WATER

MUD

50

60

70

80

90

HGURS

Fig. 11 - Return permeability result: of Cotton Valley cores after exposure to various muds for
24 hours at 240 F and 900-1400 psi differential pressure.

I
100

50

v
-8.5

Ppo

gas

BLACK

= 20.7 md

8,8 pw

)y
8

MAGIC

WATER

k~a~ = 4.4

BASE

md

50

Wwl

100

200

400

300

500

TIME-MINUTES
UN LABLED
~~g. u

NUMBERS

= DIFF

PRESS.

-psi

. ~et,wz uermeakilityto ~as \:ilcoxformation,Texas.

100

80

Ap=

10

30

20

7psi

30

40

TIME -HOJRS
@
*

9.2

PP9

BLACK

MAGIC

~ic. 12.A- Rci,urr.~ermeabilit,yto gas after subjectionto oil base mud*,

}Iat,nlein,

v!.

Germany.

100

16
No.

3-2

WATER

FEET OF PERFS.

BASE

10

No, 2-2

BLACK

MAGIC

o
L
.

m:
N
~.

1.0

-/

COMPARATIVE AOFPS
3.5

2.1

o.1

GAS

I I 11 I
100

10

1.0

0.1

I I I

I II

BLACK MAGIC

PRODUCTION -MMCF/D

Fig. 13 - Well productivity

y comparisons,
Frio sand,MatagordaCounty,Tex.

loo~

FEET

OF

NO. 3-2

PERFS.
9

WATER
BLACK MAGIC

NO. 2-2

COMPARATIVE
12.0

4.2
1
0.1

1 I

]11

BLACK MAGIC

IT-II(1

I II
10

1.0

GAS

AOF Ps

PRODUCTION

-MMCF/D

Fig. 14 . Well productivitycomparisons,

Frio sand,MatagordaCounty,Tex.

100

FEET OF

NO.

NO.

3-2

WATER

wATER

PERFS

BASE >

BASE

2-2 BLACK MAGIC

NO.

1- /
01.
-.
0.1

COMPARATIVE AOFPS
B.9 11.o 16.3
I

I I I Ill

BLACK MAGIC
I

I I I II

1,0
GAS

?ig,. IJ . :;ell

I I I

I 00

10
PRODUCTION -MMCFID

productivitycmpris~ns,

Frio sand, Matagorda COuntY, Tex.

BLACK

MAGIC

10
a
g

w..

1
~.

I .0

Ft
t
t

o,~

10

1.0

01

wELL

PRODUCTIVITY

-M

10

MCF/D

Fig. 16 - Well productivitycomparisons,Wilcox formation,Harris County, Tex,