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BiologyReviewChapter132015
Chapter1
science:systematicstudyofthenaturalworld
scientificmethod:observation,hypothesis,procedure,data,results,conclusion
errorbars:showtherangeofdataorthestandarddeviation
standarddeviation:spreadofdataaroundthemeanmeasureshowwidelyspreadthevaluesinasetof
dataare.
Gaussiancurve:normaldistributionmostvaluesareclosetothemeanandonlyafewvalueswillbe

farfromit

ttest:comparestwosetsofdataandindicatedtheprobabilitythatthetwosetsareessentiallythesame
Chapter2CellTheory
1665RobertHookediscoveredandnamedstructurescells
celltheory:1.alllivingorganismarecomposedofcells,andtheproductofcells
2.cellsarethesmallestunitsoflife
3.cellsonlycomefrompreexistingcells
functionsoflife:metabolism
response
growth
reproduction
homeostasis
nutrition
measurements:micrometer(m)1106ofametre
nanometer(nm)1109ofametre
eukaryoticcell:10100106ofametre
prokaryoticcell:15106ofametre
magnifiedsize=realsizexmagnification
volume:proportionaltotherateacellproducesheat/wasteandconsumesresources
volumeincreasemorerapidlythanthesurfacearea
surfacearea:proportionaltotheuptakeofresourcesandremovalofheat/wastegoesviathecell
membrane
todealwiththeincreaseofvolume:needtoincreasethesurfaceareabyprotruding
extensionorbyflatteningthecell

emergentproperties:organismcanachievemoreifitworktogetherwithotherorganismthanwhateach
cellcouldachieveindividuallyAKAteamwork
euchromatin:lightgreyrepresentsgenesthatareused
heterochromatin:darkgreyrepresentsgenesthatareNOTused
stemcells:unspecialisedcellstotipotenttogethertheycanbepluripotent
pluripotent:notfixedastodevelopmentalpotentialitiescapableof
differentiatingintooneofmanycelltypes
totipotent:capableofdevelopingintoacompleteorganismordifferentiating
intoanyofitscellsortissues
differentfromnormalcells
1. areundifferentiatednotspecialisedintoacertaintypeofcell,asaresultall(ormost)oftheir
genescanstillbeexpressed
2. selfsustaining
ProkaryoticCells
cellwall:madeofproteinsugar(plantsaremadeofcellulose)givescellshape,protectfromexternal
damage,preventburstingifcelltakesupalotofwater,anchorspiliandflagella
plasmamembrane:controlswhichmaterialsenterandleaveselectivelypermeable
cytoplasm:fluidthatcontainenzymesthatcontrolmetabolicreactionsincell
pili:thinproteintubes,foundoutsideofplasmamembrane
attachmentpili(fimbriae)
conjugationpili(sexpili):longerthanfimbriae,playroleinbacterialconjugation,buildbridge
betweencytoplasmsoftwobacterialcellsandallowplasmidtobetransferredfromonebacterialcellto
another
flagella:longthreadlike,madeofprotein,attachedtocellsurface,allowbacteriatomoveinfluid
environment
ribosome:consistsofRNAandproteinskeyroleinproteinsynthesis(translation)prokaryotic
ribosomesare70S,eukaryoticribosomesare80S
nucleoidregion:containsDNA
binaryfission:startswithDNAreplicationseparationoftwocircularstrandsofDNAtoeithersideof
cellcytokinesisdividescellsintotwocellgrowstofullsize
EukaryoticCells
similartoprokaryoticcellsinorganelles
roughendoplasmicreticulum:membranewithribosomesattached.RERmakesproteinsthatare
exportedviaexocytosisinordertobeusedoutsideofthecellsiteofproteinsynthesis
lysosome:containshydrolyticenzymes(lysozymescanbreakdownsubstancesincell)fuesewith
anddigestoldcellorganellesandmaterialtakeninviaendocytosiscanburstandcauseautolysisofa
cell
golgi:extensivenetworkincellintercellulartransportprocessandpackageofprotein
mitochondrion:linkreactionandthekrebscycletakeplaceinmatrixelectrontransportchainfoundon
cristaeofinnermembraneinvolvedinreleaseofenergyfromorganicmolecules
nucleus:largestcellorganellecontainsDNAcontrolsactivityofellbytranscribingcertaingenesand
notothers

features

similarities

differences

differences

prokaryotes

eukaryotes

geneticmaterials

DNA

nakedDNA

associatedwithproteins

circular

linear

foundincytoplasm

encloseinnuclearenvelope

proteinsynthesis

ribosomes

70S

80S

respiration

nomitochondriabutusesplasma
membraneandmesosomes

mitochondria

ultrastructure

internalmembranes

nointernalmembrane

compartmentalisecellintoareas
withdifferentfunctions

CellMembrane
names:fluidmosaicmodel,phospholipid,bilayer,plasmamembrane,
phospholipidmolecule:phosphateheadpolarandhydrophilicand2fattyacidtailsnonpolarand
hydrophobic
membranejob:keepcellcontentseparatefromtheoutsidesothatthecellcanhaveahigherorlower
concentration,semipermeable
proteins:integralproteins:foundbetweenphospholipidmoleculeshalfoutsidemembranehalfinside
peripheralprotein:foundoutsideofmembraneinteractwiththephosphateheadsmaynotbe
permanentlyassociatedwiththemembrane
proteinsthathascarbohydrategroupattachedtothemcalled:glycoproteins
containcholesterolbetweenfattyacidtailsreducesfluidityandpermeability
functions:
1. hormonebindingsites:hormonestransportedbybloodwillonlyactoncellsthathavethe
appropriateproteinreceptorontheoutsideoftheirmembrane
2. immobilisedenzymes:enzymesarrangesintosystemsinordertomakeiteasierforasequence
ofreactionstooccur
3. celladhesive:integralproteinscanstickoutandbindtospecificproteinmoleculesinadjacent
cellsortheycanbindtoanextracellularmatrix
4. celltocellcommunication:directcontactbetweenmembraneproteinsofadjacentcellsoria
signalslikehormonesorneurotransmitters
5. channelsforpassivetransport:allowsmallproteinstoentercellwithoutenergybeingused
6. pumpsforactivetransport:pumpinnervecell,usingATPtotransport

diffusion:movementofgasorliquidparticlesfromaregionofhighconcentrationtoaregionoflow
concentrationpassivetransport
osmosis:waterdiffusionpassivetransport
activetransport:requiresATP,moveparticlesagainstconcentrationgradient(lowtohigh)

passivetransport:requiresnoATP,moveparticlesdownconcentrationgradient(hightolow)
transportproteins:AKAcarrierproteinsmoveparticlesin/outmembrane
endocytosis:processcelltakesupasubstancebysurroundingitwiththemembraneneedATP,takes
upsubstancebecauseitistoopolarand/ortoolarge
pinocytosis:celldrinking
phagocytosis:celleating
exocytosis:reverseofendocytosismaterialsbeingremovedfromcells
CellDivision
cellstage:1.mitosis:processofnucleardivision
2.cytokinesis:physicaldivisionofcell
3.stageG1:cellgrowthandincreaseinorganelles
4.stageS:synthesisofDNA,replicationofDNA
5.stageG2:preparationformitosis,mitochondriaandchloroplastincreasethemost.
stageG1,SG2areinterphase,averyactiveperiodinlifeofacell,DNAtranscription
andtranslationandreplicationoccur
tumourrepressorgenes:produceproteinsinhibitscelldivision
protooncogenes:genesproduceproteinsstimulategrowthandcelldivision
toremovetumours:1.surgicalremoval
2.radiation
3.chemo
mitosis:1.prophase:chromosomesvisiblecentriolesmovetooppositepolesspindleformsnucleolus
invisiblenuclearmembranedisappearchromosomeshave2identicalsisterchromatidsheldtogether
bycentromere
2.metaphase:chromosomesmovetoequatorspindleattachtocentromeres
3.anaphase:centromeresseparatechromatidsseparateandmovetooppositepolesnowcall
chromosomes
4.telophase:spindlesdisappearcentriolesreplicatenuclearmembraneappearnucleolus
visiblechromosomesarechromatids
zygote:fertilizedegg
Chapter3ChemicalElementsandWater
elements:puresubstancesthatcannotbebrokendownanyfurther,theirparticlesareatom
molecules:atomcombinechemically
compound:substanceoftwoormoreelements
livingthinconsistofcompoundscontainingcarbon
elementsinlivingorganisms:O(65%)C(19%)H(10%)N(3%)

element

role:prokaryotes

plants

animals

sulfur

usechemicalreactionwithsulfuras
sourceofenergy

produceaminoacids
proteincontainsulfur

sameasplants

phosphorus

areofphosphategroupinATPand

same

same

DNA
calcium

maintainingcellstructureandmovement componentofcellwalls
andcellmembrane

strongbonesrelease
neurotransmitterintosynapsewhen
nervemessagearebeingtransmitted

iron

anaerobicbacteriausechemicalreaction
withironassourceofenergy

formationofchlorophyll

foundinredbloodcell,helpoxygen
transport

sodium

helpflagellum

insomeplantsithelpbind creatingactionpotentialinneurons
CO2forphotosynthesis
andaidglucosetransportacross
membrane

propertiesofwater:latentheatofvaporizationtakesinalotofenergytogofromliquidtogas
goodsolvent
cohesiveandadhesive
Carbohydrates,LipidandProteins
carbohydrates:containC,H,O
monosaccharidesaresimplesugarthencomesdisaccharidesandpolysaccharides
condensationreaction:produceswateroppositeishydrolysis
glucose+glucose maltose+water(right=condensation)
monosaccharides:
disaccharides
polysaccharides
1. glucose
1.maltose
starch
2. fructose
2.sucrose
glycogen
3. galactose
3.lactose
cellulose
sourceofenergy,produceATP
lipids:fatscondensationreactionbetweenglyceroland3fattyacids
unsaturatedoneormoredoublebondsbetweencarbonmolecules
saturatednodouble
glycerol+3fattyacid triglyceride+3water(right=condensation)
functions:storeenergy,thermalinsulationmakesupcellmembrane
proteins:polypeptidesarelongchainsofaminoacid
4differentgroupsattachedtocentralCatom1.aminegroupNH2
2.(carboxylic)acidgroupCOOH
3.simpleH
4.Rgrouphasdifferentaminoacids
aminoacid1+aminoacid2 dipeptide+water(right=condensation)

DNAstructure
DNA(deoxyribonucleicacid):storeinnucleus
RNA(ribonucleicacid):storeincytoplasm
buildingblocksarenucleotides
form:pentosesugar,phosphate,organicbase
sugar:RNAriboseDNAdeoxyribose
phosphate:H3PO4
organicbase:AKAnitrogenousbaseadenine,cytosine,thymine,guanine,uracil
AgoeswithT,CgoeswithG
AandGarepurinesbigringsC,T,andUarepyrimidines
sugarandphosphatearebackboneofDNA,RNAandorganicbaseistheladder
DNamoleculescoil10nucleotidescompleteoneturnofthehelix
DNAreplication
helicase:unzipDNA
polymerase:fromoldstrandwithnewstrands(semiconservation)
TranscriptionandTranslation
RNA: ribosomalRNA(rRNA)majorcomponentofribosomes
transferRNA(tRNA)carriesaminoacidstomRNA
messengerRNA(mRNA)asequenceofnucleotidesthatdeterminestheprimarysequenceof
polypeptide
transcription:RNAproducefromDNAtemplate
translation:assemblyofapolypeptideinasequencebytheorderofnucleotidesinmRNA
codons:3nucleotidesthattellswhichaminoacidtotake

introns:noncodingsectionsofanRNAtranscript,ortheDNAencodingit,thataresplicedoutbefore
theRNAmoleculeistranslatedintoaprotein
exons:anynucleotidesequenceencodedbyagenethatremainspresentwithinthefinalmatureRNA
productofthatgeneafterintronshavebeenremovedbyRNAsplicing
Enzymes
enzyme:proteinmoleculethatacceleratesaspecificchemicalreaction
theyarecatalystsitspeedsupareactionwithoutchangingitinanyotherway,helpreach
equilibriumfaster
lockandkeymodel
factorsaffectenzymeactivity:
1. temperatureoptimumtemp.37Cdenaturedabove60C
2. pHdependsonenzyme,(pepsinatpH2,trypsinatpH8)
3. concentrationofsubstratereactionwillgofasterifthesubstrateismore
concentrated
denaturation:structuralchangeinaproteinresultsinalossofitsbiologicalproperties(hightempand
extremepHcandenatureit)
cellrespiration

cellrespiration:controlreleaseofenergyfromorganiccompoundsincelltoformATPcantakeplace
inpresence/absenceofoxygen
glycolysis:breakdownofonemoleculeglucoseintotwomoleculeofpyruvatewithasmallnetyieldof
ATPtakeplaceincytoplasmandDOESNOTrequireoxygen

Photosynthesis
lightenergyconvertedtochemicalenergy
CO2+H2O+sunlight+chlorophyll=C6H12O6
sunlightandwavelengths

plantsaregreenbecausegreeniscausedbythepresenceofthepigmentchlorophyll,foundin
chloroplastanditreflectsoffthegreencolorandabsorbsalloftheothercolors
lightdependentstage:lightenergyisusedtosplitwatermolecules(photolysis)intohydrogenionsand
oxygenandelectrons,alsoproducesATP
lightindependentstage:H+andATPinlightdependentstageareusedtofixCO2tomakeorganic
molecules
ATP(adenosinetriphosphate)